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{{Multiple issues|
{{Short description|Dissolved armed wing of the Awami League (1972–1975)}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{cleanup rewrite|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox military unit
{{cleanup|reason=Remove double entry and sources with dubious POV content|date=June 2022}}
| unit_name = National  Guard <br /> জাতীয় রক্ষী বাহিনী
| image = Emblem of the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.svg
| image_size = 200px
| caption = [[Seal (emblem)|Seal]] of Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini
| dates = 1 February 1972 – 9 October 1975
| country = Bangladesh
| allegiance = [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh]], [[Bangladesh Awami League]]<ref name="Emajuddin2004" />
| branch =
| type = [[Infantry]]<br>[[President Guard Regiment|Presidential guard]]<br>[[Death squad]]
| role = [[Counter-insurgency]]<br>[[Counter-terrorism]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Alam |first=Aksadul |year=2012 |chapter=History |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=History |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref><br>[[Anti-communism]]
| size = 16,000 <small>(1975)</small><ref name="Emajuddin2004" />
| command_structure =
| garrison = Sher-E-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka
| garrison_label = Headquarters
| nickname = ''Rakkhi'', ''JRB''
| patron = [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]
| motto =
| colors = Dark Brown, Light French Beige<br />{{Color box|#5C4033}} {{Color box|#C8AD7E}}
| colors_label =
| march =
| equipment =  
| equipment_label =
| battles = {{tree list}}
*[[1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency]]
*[[1974 Ramna massacre]]
*[[Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]
{{tree list/end}}
| mascot = [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|Index finger of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]
| anniversaries =
| decorations =
| disbanded = 9 October 1975
| flying_hours =
| website =
| notable_commanders = Brigadier General [[A. N. M. Nuruzzaman]]
| identification_symbol = [[File:Insignia of the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.svg|170px]]
| identification_symbol_label = [[Embroidered patch|JRB Insignia]]
}}
}}


{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
The '''Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini''' ({{langx|bn|জাতীয় রক্ষী বাহিনী|lit=National Guard}})<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> was a Bangladeshi paramilitary force formed in 1972 by the [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] government. Initially formed to curb [[1972-1975 Bangladesh insurgency|an insurgency]] and maintain law and order, the force became involved in numerous [[Human rights abuse|charges of human rights abuses]], including political killings,<ref name="Human Rights Watch">{{cite web |date=2009-03-18 |title=Ignoring Executions and Torture : Impunity for Bangladesh's Security Forces |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/bangladesh0509webwcover.pdf |access-date=2013-08-16 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref name="amardeshonline" /><ref name=":3" /> shooting by [[death squads]],<ref name=":5" /> and rape.<ref name=":3" /> It was seen as the armed wing of the ruling [[Awami League]]<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> and it swore an oath of loyalty to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.<ref name="Pike2010" />
{{Infobox military unit
 
|unit_name        = National Defense Force  <br /> জাতীয় রক্ষী বাহিনী
The Rakkhi Bahini has been condemned by many academics and journalists, including [[Ghulam Murshid]] who compared it with the [[Gestapo]],<ref name="Ghulam">{{cite book |last=Murshid |first=Ghulam |author-link=Ghulam Murshid |date=2010 |script-title=bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধ ও তারপর একটি নির্দলীয় ইতিহাস |title=Muktiyuddha o tārapara: ekaṭi nirdalīẏa itihāsa |location=Dhaka |publisher=Prothoma Prakashani |page=199 |isbn=978-984-8765-37-1}}</ref> and [[Anthony Mascarenhas]] who said that it was a "gang of hoodlums little different from the [[Nazi Party|Nazi]] [[Sturmabteilung|Brown shirts]]."<ref name="Mascarenhas1986p37">{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |date=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |location=London |page=37 |isbn=978-0-340-39420-5}}</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] states that the institutionalized violence committed by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, established the culture of impunity with which [[military of Bangladesh|security forces in independent Bangladesh]] continue to abuse human rights.<ref name="Human Rights Watch" /> Pro Awami League commentators dismiss the charges as "myths".<ref name=":0">{{cite news |last1=Ahsan |first1=Syed Badrul |author-link=Syed Badrul Ahsan |date=13 January 2014 |title=Myth, reality and Rakkhi Bahini |newspaper=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/myth-reality-and-rakkhi-bahini-6669 |access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Anwar-ul-Alam" />
|image            =
 
|caption          =
== History ==
|dates            = 1 February 1972 to 15 August 1975
===Background===
|country          = Bangladesh
After the end of the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]], there was a violent [[1972-1975 Bangladesh insurgency|insurgency]] led by [[Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal]] to replace the elected revolutionary government of the newly independent country with a "[[Scientific socialism|scientific socialist]]" system of government inspired by [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] through the uses of private militias formed by left-wing army commanders who fought in the war, such as Colonel [[Abu Taher]].<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /><ref>{{cite news |title=JS sees debate over role of Gono Bahini |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/js-sees-debate-over-role-of-gono-bahini-31691 |work=The Daily Star |date=4 July 2014}}</ref>
|allegiance      = [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh]], [[Bangladesh Awami League]]<ref name="Emajuddin2004" />
 
|branch          =
During the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Liberation War of Bangladesh]], numerous civilians joined the war after being trained by the [[Indian Army|Indian forces]]. [[Tajuddin Ahmad]] felt these people should come under national service as they had arms and training. Tajuddin Ahmad asked [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] to form a para-military force for them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.bracu.ac.bd:9292/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=11781|title=Ayesha Abed Library|work=bracu.ac.b|access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref>
|type            =
 
|role            = [[Counter-insurgency]], [[counter-terrorism]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Alam |first=Aksadul |year=2012 |chapter=History |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=History |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> [[anti-communism]]
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman primarily rejected the proposal but soon realized the necessity of an elite force, because many police officers died in the Bangladesh Liberation War. Whenever rebels attacked them in their office, they were outnumbered.<ref name="Ghulam"/> Raw materials, machinery and goods of factories were being smuggled through the [[Bangladesh–India border|border]] to [[India]] which also became a headache for the newly formed government.<ref name=Ghulam />
|size            = 16000 in 1975<ref name="Emajuddin2004" />
|command_structure =
|garrison        = Sher-E-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka
|garrison_label  = Headquarters
|nickname        = ''Rakkhi'', ''JRB''
|patron          = [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]
|motto            =
|colors          =
|colors_label    =
|march            =
|equipment        =
|equipment_label  =
|anniversaries    =  
|decorations      =
|disbanded        = August 1975
|flying_hours    =
|website          =
}}


The '''Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini''' ({{lang-bn|জাতীয় রক্ষী বাহিনী|lit=National Defense Force}})<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> was a Bangladeshi para-military force formed in 1972 by the [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] government.
''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' remarked after independence that "Many of the more radical young guerrillas who fought with the [[Mukti Bahini]]  may not be content with the moderate course charted by the middle-aged politicians of the Awami League. Moreover, the present Dacca government is a very remote power in country villages where the local cadres of the Mukti Bahini are highly visible."<ref name="time">{{cite magazine |title=BANGLADESH: Mujib's Road from Prison to Power |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877626,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308005342/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877626,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2008 |date=17 January 1972 |magazine=Time}}</ref> The article also quoted one of its commanders, Ali Ashraf Chowdhury: "We will never lay down our arms until our social ideals have been realized".<ref name="time" /> he said. The article continues, "So far the [[Mujib Bahini]] has done a commendable job of protecting the [[Biharis]], the non-Bengali Moslems who earned Bengali wrath by siding with the [[Pakistan Army|Pakistani army]]. But the government is anxious to disarm the Mujib Bahini, and has plans to organize it into a constabulary that would carry out both police and militia duties."<ref name="time" />


Initially formed to curb [[1972-1975 Bangladesh insurgency|the insurgency]] and maintain law and order the force became involved in numerous [[Human rights abuse|charges of human rights abuse]] including political killings,<ref name="Human Rights Watch" /><ref name="amardeshonline" /><ref name=":3" /> shooting by [[death squads]],<ref name=":5" /> and rape.<ref name=":3" /> It was seen as the armed wing of the ruling [[Awami League]]<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> and it swore an oath of loyalty to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.<ref name="Pike2010" />
Masudul Haque in his book, ''Bangladesher Swadhinota Juddho O CIA'' (''Liberation War of Bangladesh and [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]''), mentions Abdur Rajjak, a young leader and the chief of [[Bangladesh Awami Swechasebak League|Bangladesh Swecchasebok League]] (Bangladesh Volunteer's League) that Mujib told them not to surrender all the guns.


The Rakkhi Bahini has been condemned by many academics and journalists, including [[Ghulam Murshid]] who compared it with the [[Gestapo]],<ref name="Ghulam">{{cite book |last=Murshid |first=Ghulam |author-link=Ghulam Murshid |date=2010 |script-title=bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধ ও তারপর একটি নির্দলীয় ইতিহাস |title=Muktiyuddha o tārapara: ekaṭi nirdalīẏa itihāsa |location=Dhaka |publisher=Prothoma Prakashani |page=199 |isbn=978-984-8765-37-1}}</ref> and [[Anthony Mascarenhas]] who said that it was a "gang of hoodlums little different from the Nazi [[Brown shirts]]."<ref name="Mascarenhas1986p37">{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |date=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |location=London |page=37 |isbn=978-0-340-39420-5}}</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] states that the institutionalized violence committed by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, established the culture of impunity with which [[military of Bangladesh|security forces in independent Bangladesh]] continue to abuse human rights.<ref name="Human Rights Watch" /> Pro Awami League commentators dismiss the charges as "myths".<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Anwar-ul-Alam" />
Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was actively deployed just after the Indian Army left Bangladesh on 17 March. The force was trained and brought up by Major General Sujan Singh Uban from [[Research & Analysis Wing|Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW) as per the request of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Moidul Hassan, confirmed this information in the book ''Muktijuddher Purbapor''.<ref name=Hassan>{{cite book |last=Hassan |first=Moidul |date=2011 |script-title=bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধের পূর্বাপর : কথোপকথন |trans-title=War Context: Conversation |publisher=Prathama Prakasana |url=https://www.rokomari.com/book/4548/muktijuddher-purbapor---kothopokothon?ref=r_s13|language=bn |isbn=978-9848765227}}</ref> Moidul Hassan wrote, {{blockquote|Analyzing the geo-political situation when United States started to recover their loss after the surrender of Pakistan Army on 16 December, Pakistan government had to release Sheikh Mujibur Rahman without any condition. Just after returning home Sheikh Mujibur Rahman realized to form a security force and he decided to form the Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini only with the loyal part of Maujib Bahini. Without any discussion in the cabinet, which members were concerned about the stages of liberation war he himself gave the responsibility of forming the force to Major General S. S. Uban who was a recruit of CIA in 60s and now working as the IG of RAW.<ref name=Hassan/>}}


== History ==
However, this is at least partially inaccurate as [[President of Pakistan|Pakistani President]] [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Bhutto]] did not release Sheikh Mujibur Rahman "without any condition". Indeed, at the direction of [[Indira Gandhi]], who was desperate to keep Sheikh Mujibur Rahman alive and to free him, some 90,000 Pakistani POWs (including thousands of women and children civilians) were housed in comfort and released without extradition or charges despite massive and manifest human rights violations against both Bengali Muslims and Hindus during the War of Liberation.<ref name=Hossain>{{cite book |last=Hossain |first=M. Shakhawat |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশ: রক্তাক্ত অধ্যায় ১৯৭৫-৮১-ব্রিগেডিয়ার জেনারেল এম. সাখাওয়াত হোসেন  |trans-title=Bangladesh: a bloody chapter in 1975-81 |publisher=Palaka pabalisarsa |language=bn }}</ref> In [[Savar]] camp there was three additional battalions who were called Recruit Battalion. These three battalions were directly supervised by Major Bala Reddy.<ref name=Hossain /> [[Anwar Ul Alam Shaheed|Anwar-ul-Alam]] admitted that there were many Junior Commissioned Officers of Indian Army in the training camp of Savar.<ref name=Anwar-ul-Alam>{{cite book |author=Anwar-ul-Alam |date=2013 |script-title=bn:রক্ষীবাহিনীর সত্য-মিথ্যা |trans-title=The captain of the truth |publisher=Prathama prakasana |language=bn |isbn=978-9849025399}}</ref>
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2022}}


=== Background ===
=== Formation ===
On 3 January 1972, naming prime minister [[Tajuddin Ahmad]] as the chairman, the Bangladesh government announced the names of the ten members of the Central Regulating Board of the National Militia.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} The members were:
# [[Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani|Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani]] (chairman, [[National Awami Party (Bhashani)]])
# [[Abul Hasnat Muhammad Qamaruzzaman]] (home minister, People's Republic of Bangladesh)
# [[Manoranjan Dhar]] (member of National Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Moni Singh]] (chairman, [[Communist Party of Bangladesh]])
# Professor [[Muzaffar Ahmed (NAP politician)|Muzaffar Ahmed]] (president, [[National Awami Party (Muzaffar)]])
# [[Gazi Golam Mostafa]] (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Rafiq Uddin Bhuiyan]] (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Tofael Ahmed]] (member of National Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Abdur Razzaq (politician, born 1942)|Abdur Razzaq]] (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Captain (retd.) Muhammad Shujat Ali]] (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League).
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, wanted to merge the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, with the [[Bangladesh Rifles]] but the Bangladesh Rifles personnel stiffly opposed the move in a commotion that resulted in a mutiny. This plan was then abandoned.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhaumik |first1=Subir |title=Bangladesh's first line of defence |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7909596.stm |access-date=16 June 2016 |publisher=BBC |date=25 February 2009}}</ref>


After the end of the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]], there was a violent [[1972-1975 Bangladesh insurgency|insurgency]] to replace the elected revolutionary government of the newly independent country with a [[Marxist]] communist system of government inspired by [[Soviet Union]] and [[Chinese Communist Party]] through the uses of private militias formed by left wing army commanders who fought in the war like Colonel [[Abu Taher]] and political activists many of whom were members of [[Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal]].<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /><ref>{{cite news |title=JS sees debate over role of Gono Bahini |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/js-sees-debate-over-role-of-gono-bahini-31691 |work=The Daily Star |date=4 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |date=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |location=London |page= |isbn=978-0-340-39420-5}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2021}}
The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Order (President's order No. 21) of 1972 provided for the establishment of the force and set out its responsibilities and powers. The presidential order, published on 7 March, was retroactive to 1 February.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Hamza |last2=Islam |first2=Kamrul |date=April 1974 |title=Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act |publisher=Khoshroz Kitab Mahal |pages=1–2 |oclc=499457300}}</ref>


During the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Liberation War of Bangladesh]], numerous civilians joined the war after being trained by the [[Indian Army|Indian forces]]. [[Tajuddin Ahmed]] felt these people should come under national service as they had arms and training. Tajuddin Ahmed asked [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] to form a para-military force for them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.bracu.ac.bd:9292/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=11781|title=Ayesha Abed Library|work=bracu.ac.b|access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref>
Political opponents of the Awami League allege that the Rakkhi Bahini was made to replace the [[Bangladesh Army|army]].<ref name=":7">{{cite news |date=18 December 2015 |title=Brazen politicization: Bureaucracy, police, army |work=Holiday |issue=1 |url=http://www.weeklyholiday.net/homepage/pages/UserHome.aspx?ID=4&date=12%2F18%2F2015 |access-date=3 December 2016 |archive-date=7 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207102906/http://www.weeklyholiday.net/homepage/pages/UserHome.aspx?ID=4&date=12%2F18%2F2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Rakkhi Bahini had automatic weapons, steel helmets, jeeps, trucks etc.<ref name="Mascarenhas" /> The Awami League government seemed to be more interested in the development of the militia than in the armed forces.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> It was planned that this militia would be increased annually so that by the end of 1980 its strength would be 20,000.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> On the other hand, Bangladesh Army was poorly equipped.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> In winter they had to guard the border in slippers.<ref name="Mascarenhas" />


Sheikh Mujibur Rahman primarily rejected the proposal but soon realized the necessity of an elite force, because many police officers died in the Bangladesh Liberation War. Whenever rebels attacked them in their office, they were outnumbered.<ref name="Ghulam">{{cite book |last=Murshid |first=Ghulam |author-link=Ghulam Murshid |date=2010 |script-title=bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধ ও তারপর একটি নির্দলীয় ইতিহাস |title=Muktiyuddha o tārapara: ekaṭi nirdalīẏa itihāsa |location=Dhaka |publisher=Prothoma Prakashani |page=199 |isbn=978-984-8765-37-1}}</ref> Raw materials, machinery and goods of factories were being smuggled through the border to India which also became a headache for the newly formed government.<ref name=Ghulam /> Considering this situation, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman decided to form this force.{{dubious|date=June 2022}}
The Rakkhi Bahini was distrusted by the [[military of Bangladesh|defence services in Bangladesh]] because of its pro-Indian orientation.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> This was so for several reasons. First, most of the members of the armed forces who fought during the War of Independence strongly believed that the Indian Army just walked in at the end of Bangladesh Liberation War thereby robbing the Bangladesh military of the "glory of liberating their motherland."<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> Second, many senior military officers believed that the [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh|government-in-exile at Mujibnagar]] signed a secret treaty with the Indian government, compromising the sovereignty of Bangladesh and that Sheikh Mujib became less interested in the development of the defence forces because of that treaty. Third, many senior army personnel felt that the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was planned and designed by the [[Indian Army]] for the safety of the [[Awami League|Awami League regime]]. The poorly equipped defence services were also bitter about the fact that the Indian Army took away all the sophisticated weapons left by the [[Pakistan Army]].<ref name="Emajuddin2004" />


''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' remarked after independence that "Many of the more radical young guerrillas who fought with the [[Mukti Bahini]] may not be content with the moderate course charted by the middle-aged politicians of the Awami League. Moreover, the present Dacca government is a very remote power in country villages where the local cadres of the Mukti Bahini are highly visible."<ref name="time">{{cite magazine |title=BANGLADESH: Mujib's Road from Prison to Power |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877626,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308005342/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877626,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2008 |date=17 January 1972 |magazine=TIME}}</ref> The article also quoted one of its commanders, Ali Ashraf Chowdhury: "We will never lay down our arms until our social ideals have been realized".<ref name="time" /> he said. The article continues, "So far the Mujib Bahini has done a commendable job of protecting the [[Biharis]], the non-Bengali Moslems who earned Bengali wrath by siding with the [[Pakistan Army|Pakistani army]]. But the government is anxious to disarm the [[Mujib Bahini]], and has plans to organize it into a constabulary that would carry out both police and militia duties."<ref name="time" />
Mascarenhas also records the statement of Major General [[Muhammed Abul Manzur|Abul Manzoor]], that numerous military personnel were killed by Rakkhi Bahini terming them as [[Razakars (Pakistan)|Razakars]] or collaborators.<ref name="Mascarenhas" /> Despite the indignation, from July 1973 to July 1974, the army conducted a number of combined military operations with the Rakkhi Bahini and the police such as checking for smuggling at the border, handling 'extremists', and maintaining law and order.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" />


Masudul Haque in his book ''Bangladesher Swadhinota Juddho O CIA''<ref name=Haque>{{cite book |last=Haque |first=Masudul |date=1990 |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশের স্বাধীনতা যুদ্ধে 'র' এবং সিআইএ |trans-title=Bangladesh Liberation War and the CIA |publisher=Jatiya sahitya prakasa|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/18277473|language=bn}}</ref> (''Liberation War of Bangladesh and CIA''), mentions Abdur Rajjak, a young leader and the chief of Bangladesh Swecchasebok League (Bangladesh Volunteer's League) that Mujib told them not to surrender all the guns.<ref name=Haque/>
The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (Amendment) Act of 1974 added two new articles, 8A and 16A, to the act, effective retroactively to 1 February 1972. Article 8A granted officers of the Rakkhi Bahini the power to arrest without warrant any person they reasonably suspect of having committed a cognizable offence under any law. This is similar to the power of police officers. The article further states that anyone arrested by the Rakkhi Bahini shall be delivered forthwith to the nearest police station.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Hamza |title=Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act |last2=Islam |first2=Kamrul |date=April 1974 |publisher=Khoshroz Kitab Mahal |pages=2–4 |oclc=499457300}}</ref> It also gives officers the right of search and seizure in connection with any reasonable suspicion that an offence has been committed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Hamza |title=Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act |last2=Islam |first2=Kamrul |date=April 1974 |publisher=Khoshroz Kitab Mahal |pages=5–6 |oclc=499457300}}</ref>


=== Indian support ===
Article 3 of the act says,
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2022}}
Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was actively deployed just after the Indian Army left Bangladesh on 17 March. The force was trained and brought up by Major General Sujan Singh Uban from [[Research and Analysis Wing|Research and Analysis Wing (RAW)]] as per the request of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Moidul Hassan, confirmed this information in the book ''Muktijuddher Purbapor''.<ref name=Hassan>{{cite book |last=Hassan |first=Moidul |date=2011 |script-title=bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধের পূর্বাপর : কথোপকথন |trans-title=War Context: Conversation |publisher=Prathama Prakasana |url=https://www.rokomari.com/book/4548/muktijuddher-purbapor---kothopokothon?ref=r_s13|language=bn |isbn=978-9848765227}}</ref>


He said, {{quote|Analyzing the geo-political situation when United States started to recover their loss after the surrender of Pakistan Army on 16 December, Pakistan government had to release Sheikh Mujibur Rahman without any condition. Just after returning home Sheikh Mujibur Rahman realized to form a security force and he decided to form the Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini only with the loyal part of Maujib Bahini. Without any discussion in the cabinet, which members were concerned about the stages of liberation war he himself gave the responsibility of forming the force to Major General S. S. Uban who was a recruit of CIA in 60s and now working as the IG of RAW.<ref name=Hassan/>}}
{{blockquote|No suit, prosecution, or other legal proceedings shall be against any member of the Bahini for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of this order or rule made there under."<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Act No. XI of 1974 |url=https://legislativediv.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/legislativediv.portal.gov.bd/page/bf3cd905_628f_4cb8_8b76_c5adeb487c18/283.pdf |access-date=2023-06-16 |magazine=The Bangladesh Gazette, Extra |date=7 February 1974 |page=1629|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313203806/https://legislativediv.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/legislativediv.portal.gov.bd/page/bf3cd905_628f_4cb8_8b76_c5adeb487c18/283.pdf |archive-date=13 March 2023 }}</ref>}}


On the other hand, [[Brigadier General]] M. Shakhawat Hossain claimed that an Indian commander named Major Reddy was the all in all of the [[Savar Cantonment|Savar camp]]. The post and the activity of that Indian is still a mystery to all who knew it.<ref name=Hossain>{{cite book |last=Hossain |first=M. Shakhawat |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশ: রক্তাক্ত অধ্যায় ১৯৭৫-৮১-ব্রিগেডিয়ার জেনারেল এম. সাখাওয়াত হোসেন  |trans-title=Bangladesh: a bloody chapter in 1975-81 |publisher=Palaka pabalisarsa |language=bn }}</ref> In Savar camp there was three additional battalions who were called Recruit Battalion. These three battalions were directly supervised by Major Bala Reddy.<ref name=Hossain /> Anwar-ul-Alam admits that there were many Junior Commissioned Officers of Indian Army were in the training camp of Savar.<ref name=Anwar-ul-Alam>{{cite book |author=Anwar-ul-Alam |date=2013 |script-title=bn:রক্ষীবাহিনীর সত্য-মিথ্যা |trans-title=The captain of the truth |publisher=Prathama prakasana |language=bn |isbn=978-9849025399}}</ref>
===After the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman===
{{main|Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman}}


=== Formation ===
When Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was [[Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|killed]] on 15 August 1975 by members of the Bangladesh Army, the Rakkhi Bahini was very inactive.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" />
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2022}}
On 3 January 1972, naming prime minister [[Tajuddin Ahmed]] as the chairman, the Bangladesh government announced the names of the ten members of the Central Regulating Board of the National Militia.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} The members were:
# [[Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani|Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani]] (Chairman, ''Bhashani's'' National Awami Party)
# [[Abul Hasnat Muhammad Qamaruzzaman]] (Home Minister, People's Republic of Bangladesh)
# [[Manoranjan Dhar]] (Member of National Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Moni Singh]] (Chairman, Communist Party of Bangladesh)
# Professor [[Muzaffar Ahmed (politician)|Muzaffar Ahmed]] (President, ''Muzaffar's'' National Awami Party)
# [[Gazi Golam Mostafa]] (Member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Rafiq Uddin Bhuiyan]] (Member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Tofael Ahmed]] (Member of National Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Abdur Razzaq (politician)|Abdur Razzaq]] (Member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
# [[Captain (retd.) Muhammad Shujat Ali]] (Member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League).
The Central Regulating Board of the National Militia consisted of members who represented either Awami League or other political parties that supported the independence movement of Bangladesh.


On 6 January 1972, Prime Minister [[Tajuddin Ahmed]] held the first conference of the National Militia Board in the Bangladesh Secretariat. It was during this conference Tajuddin Ahmed officially announced that the war vets are to be recruited for the formation of the National Militia Force. Four days after the conference was held, President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman returned to Bangladesh. On 12 January, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman resigned as president and took office as Prime Minister. Few days later, the government of Bangladesh finally settled to form the National Militia Force and on 24 January, a press-note was issued to announce to the public that a militia force will be formed.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
After the coup, members of Rakkhi Bahini who were deployed all around the country escaped from their camps and houses in fear of mob-violence, as the people were very angry with them.<ref>{{cite news |date=2012-07-27 |script-title=bn:দেয়াল |language=bn |trans-title=Walls |newspaper=Prothom Alo |type=Review of Novel |url=http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/277120 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905211349/http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/277120 |archive-date=2012-09-05}}</ref>


Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, wanted to merge with the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, with the [[Bangladesh Rifles]] but the Bangladesh Rifles personnel stiffly opposed the move in a commotion that resulted in a mutiny. This plan was then abandoned.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bhaumik|first1=Subir|title=Bangladesh's first line of defence|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7909596.stm|access-date=16 June 2016|agency=BBC|publisher=BBC|date=25 February 2022}}</ref>
After the death of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the force was absorbed in Bangladesh Army after the "Jatiyo Rokkhi Bahini Absorption Act, 1975 came into effect.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (Absorption in the Army) Ordinance, 1975 |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/pdf_part.php?id=505 |access-date=21 June 2016 |website=Information System of the Laws of Bangladesh |publisher=Government of Bangladesh}}</ref> It was issued on 9 October 1975 and was in effect from 3 September 1975.<ref name=":0" />


The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Order (President’s order No. 21) of 1972 provided for the establishment of the force and set out its responsibilities and powers. The presidential order, published on 7 March, was retroactive to 1 February.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Hamza |last2=Islam |first2=Kamrul |date=April 1974 |title=Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act |publisher=Khoshroz Kitab Mahal |pages=1-2 |oclc=499457300}}</ref>
The director general of the force [[A. N. M. Nuruzzaman|Brigadier Nuruzzaman]] was appointed as an ambassador after the force was absorbed.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}


==Organization==
==Organization==
Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini had a complete table of organization which was circulated on 8 March 1972 by a gazette notification. The chief of the force was known as Director General. His five deputies were known as Deputy Director General. In reality, the Rakkhi Bahini was under the direct control of the prime minister's office and attached to the local [[Bangladesh Awami League|Awami League]] units.<ref name="Emajuddin2004">{{cite book |last=Ahamed |first=Emajuddin |author-link=Emajuddin Ahamed |year=2004 |chapter=The military and democracy in Bangladesh |chapter-url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p33231/pdf/ch0731.pdf |editor1-last=May |editor1-first=Ronald James |editor2-last=Selochan |editor2-first=Viberto |title=The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific |location=Sydney |publisher=Australian National University Press |pages=108–110 |isbn=978-1-920942-01-4}}</ref> In time, the government planned to place each unit under the command of a district governor.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> The Rakkhi Bahini also swore an oath of loyalty to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.<ref name="Pike2010">{{Cite book |last=Pike |first=Francis |year=2010 |title=Empires At War: A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II |publisher=I.B. Tauris |pages=569 |isbn=978-1-84885-079-8}}</ref>
Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini had a complete table of organization which was circulated on 8 March 1972 by a gazette notification. The chief of the force was known as director general. His five deputies were known as Deputy Director General. In reality, the Rakkhi Bahini was under the direct control of the prime minister's office and attached to the local [[Bangladesh Awami League|Awami League]] units.<ref name="Emajuddin2004">{{cite book |last=Ahamed |first=Emajuddin |author-link=Emajuddin Ahamed |year=2004 |chapter=The military and democracy in Bangladesh |chapter-url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p33231/pdf/ch0731.pdf |editor1-last=May |editor1-first=Ronald James |editor2-last=Selochan |editor2-first=Viberto |title=The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific |location=Sydney |publisher=Australian National University Press |pages=108–110 |isbn=978-1-920942-01-4}}</ref> In time, the government planned to place each unit under the command of a district governor.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> The Rakkhi Bahini also swore an oath of loyalty to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.<ref name="Pike2010">{{Cite book |last=Pike |first=Francis |year=2010 |title=Empires At War: A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II |publisher=I.B. Tauris |pages=569 |isbn=978-1-84885-079-8}}</ref>
 
===Personnel===
Brigadier [[A. N. M. Nuruzzaman]] was appointed as the Director General while Major [[Anwar Ul Alam Shahid]] (Deputy Director, Training), Lieutenant Colonel Abul Hasan Khan (Deputy Director, Administration), Lieutenant Colonel Sarwar (Deputy Director, Operations), Lieutenant Colonel Sabihuddin (Deputy Director, Signals), Lieutenant Colonel Azizul Islam (Deputy Director, Zonal Headquarters of Chittagong) and Lieutenant Colonel A M Khan (Deputy Director, Medical) were his six deputies.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} The bulk of the Rakkhi Bahini personnel were recruited from the [[Mujib Bahini]], a [[Militia|militia force]]  that was formed during the concluding part of Liberation War and was under direct Indian supervision.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mujib Bahini sowed rift between Bangabandhu, Tajuddin|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/mujib-bahini-sowed-rift-between-bangabandhu-tajuddin-40589|access-date=28 February 2015|agency=The Daily Star|date=7 September 2022}}</ref>


=== Equipment and training ===
Brigadier [[A. N. M. Nuruzzaman]] was appointed as the director general while Major [[Anwar Ul Alam Shahid]] (deputy director, Training), Lieutenant Colonel Abul Hasan Khan (deputy director, administration), Lieutenant Colonel Sarwar (deputy director, operations), Lieutenant Colonel [[Sabihuddin Ahmed (army officer)|Sabihuddin Ahmed]] (deputy director, signals), Lieutenant Colonel Azizul Islam (deputy director, Zonal Headquarters of Chittagong) and Lieutenant Colonel A M Khan (deputy director, medical) were his six deputies.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} The bulk of the Rakkhi Bahini personnel were recruited from the [[Mujib Bahini]], a [[Militia|militia force]]  that was formed during the concluding part of Liberation War and was under direct Indian supervision.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mujib Bahini sowed rift between Bangabandhu, Tajuddin|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/mujib-bahini-sowed-rift-between-bangabandhu-tajuddin-40589|access-date=28 February 2015|agency=The Daily Star|date=7 September 2014}}</ref>
Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini was well uniformed in olive green. Members of the force were given [[L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle]], [[Heavy machine gun]], [[submachine gun]], [[light machine gun]], [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]], steel helmets, leather boots etc.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} They were provided with jeeps and trucks imported from India.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}


The basic training of the force officers candidates were given in [[Indian Military Academy]], and at [[Savar Cantonment|Savar camp]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Ahmed|first=Humayun|date=2013|publisher=Anyaprakasa|isbn=978-9845021272|language=bn|script-title=bn:দেয়াল|trans-title=Walls|type=Fiction}}</ref> under the supervision of Indian military officer named Major Bala Reddy.<ref name="Hossain" /> Any other additional courses, special courses were also provided by Indian Army, at the [[Indian Military Academy]] of [[Dehradun]].<ref name="Mascarenhas" />
The basic training of the force officers candidates were given in [[Indian Military Academy]], and at [[Savar Cantonment|Savar camp]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Ahmed|first=Humayun|date=2013|publisher=Anyaprakasa|isbn=978-9845021272|language=bn|script-title=bn:দেয়াল|trans-title=Walls|type=Fiction}}</ref> under the supervision of Indian military officer named Major Bala Reddy.<ref name="Hossain" /> Any other additional courses, special courses were also provided by Indian Army, at the [[Indian Military Academy]] of [[Dehradun]].<ref name="Mascarenhas" />
Line 98: Line 108:
Some additional land and properties were also given to this force by the government. The zonal headquarters building in the [[Bhatiary]] of [[Chittagong]] and lands in Giltala of [[Khulna]], Bateshwar of [[Sylhet]], [[Bogra]] and in [[Mirpur Model Thana|Mirpur]] of [[Dhaka]].<ref name="Anwar-ul-Alam" />
Some additional land and properties were also given to this force by the government. The zonal headquarters building in the [[Bhatiary]] of [[Chittagong]] and lands in Giltala of [[Khulna]], Bateshwar of [[Sylhet]], [[Bogra]] and in [[Mirpur Model Thana|Mirpur]] of [[Dhaka]].<ref name="Anwar-ul-Alam" />


=== Deployment ===
During its first days as it was formed as an auxiliary of Police, it helped police to guard the office. When police failed to control the situation, they were deployed. At least 44 offices and residents of police were attacked and looted from June to December 1973. So the government deployed Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini within September of the year.<ref name="Anwar-ul-Alam" /> JASAD challenged the government's activities and started to gain huge popularity especially among the students and youths. And many other secret organizations emerged and gained popularity as the government was failing to solve almost every issue.<ref name=Mascarenhas>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |date=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |location=London |isbn=978-0-340-39420-5}}</ref>
During its first days as it was formed as an auxiliary of Police, it helped police to guard the office. When police failed to control the situation, they were deployed. At least 44 offices and residents of police were attacked and looted from June to December 1973. So the government deployed Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini within September of the year.<ref name="Anwar-ul-Alam" />
 
But within a very short time it became so unpopular due to its action, particularly against [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal]].
 
JASAD challenged the government's activities and started to gain huge popularity especially among the students and youths. And many other secret organizations emerged and gained popularity as the government was failing to solve almost every issue.<ref name=Mascarenhas>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |date=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |location=London |isbn=978-0-340-39420-5}}</ref>


== Human rights abuses ==
== Human rights abuses ==
The Rakkhi Bahini committed various [[human rights abuses]], including [[extrajudicial killing]],<ref name="Human Rights Watch" /><ref name="amardeshonline" /><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last1=Fair|first1=Christine C.|last2=Riaz|first2=Ali|title=Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1136926242|pages=30–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SpFaBwAAQBAJ&q=Rape+by+Rakkhi+Bahini&pg=PA30|access-date=19 June 2022}}</ref> [[Forced disappearance in Bangladesh|forced disappearances]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=57 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> [[death squads|shooting by death squads]],<ref name=":5">{{cite news |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Atif |date=18 February 2013 |title=Bangladesh: Baptism By Fire |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/atif-choudhury/bangladesh-no-justice-wit_b_4455782.html |newspaper=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=23 June 2022}}</ref> and [[rape]].<ref name=":3" /> [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal]] claims that over 60,000 of its members were killed.<ref name=Anwar-ul-Alam /> The most conservative estimates put the death toll at over 2000.<ref name=":3"/> [[Syed Badrul Ahsan]] dismisses these claims as "myths."<ref name=":0" />
The Rakkhi Bahini committed various [[human rights abuses]], including [[extrajudicial killing]],<ref name="Human Rights Watch" /><ref name="amardeshonline" /><ref name=":3">{{cite book |last1=Fair |first1=Christine C. |last2=Riaz |first2=Ali |title=Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1136926242 |pages=30–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SpFaBwAAQBAJ&q=Rape+by+Rakkhi+Bahini&pg=PA30 |access-date=19 June 2016}}</ref> [[Forced disappearance in Bangladesh|forced disappearances]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=57 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> [[death squads|shooting by death squads]],<ref name=":5">{{cite news |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Atif |date=18 February 2013 |title=Bangladesh: Baptism By Fire |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/atif-choudhury/bangladesh-no-justice-wit_b_4455782.html |newspaper=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=23 June 2016}}</ref> and [[rape]].<ref name=":3" /> [[Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal]] claims that over 60,000 of its members were killed.<ref name=Anwar-ul-Alam /> The most conservative estimates put the death toll at over 2000.<ref name=":3"/> [[Syed Badrul Ahsan]] dismisses these claims as "myths."<ref name=":0" />


[[Anthony Mascarenhas]] describes the activities of Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini in his book ''Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood,'' he writes:
[[Anthony Mascarenhas]] describes the activities of Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini in his book ''Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood,'' he writes:


<blockquote>The Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini, which roughly translated means National Security Force, was an elite para-military force whose members had to take oaths of personal loyalty to Mujib. Despite its high-sounding name, it was a sort of private army of bully boys not far removed from Nazi [[Brown shirts]].<ref name="Mascarenhas1986p37">{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |date=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |location=London |page=37 |isbn=978-0-340-39420-5}}</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>The Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini, which roughly translated means National Security Force, was an elite para-military force whose members had to take oaths of personal loyalty to Mujib. Despite its high-sounding name, it was a sort of private army of bully boys not far removed from Nazi [[Sturmabteilung|Brown shirts]].<ref name="Mascarenhas1986p37"/></blockquote>


Mascarenhas adds that by the end of 1973 the total of politically motivated murders in Bangladesh had crossed the 2000 mark. The victims included some members of Parliament and many of the murders were resulted of intra-party conflicts within [[Awami League]].<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>
Mascarenhas adds that by the end of 1973 the total of politically motivated murders in Bangladesh had crossed the 2000 mark. The victims included some members of Parliament and many of the murders were resulted of intra-party conflicts within [[Awami League]].<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>


Within three years, political killings by Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini reached about 30,000.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/> This included numerous [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal]] members.<ref name="Mascarenhas" />
Within three years, political killings by Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini reached about 30,000.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/> This included numerous [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal]] members.<ref name="Mascarenhas" />


Even the capital Dhaka was not immune to the violence. An unofficial curfew was introduced after midnight. Almost every rickshaw, taxi and private car was checked and searched by Rokkhi Bahini personnel.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>
Even the capital Dhaka was not immune to the violence. An unofficial curfew was introduced after midnight. Almost every rickshaw, taxi and private car was checked and searched by Rakkhi Bahini personnel.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>


===1974 famine===
===1974 famine===


When the famine started, millions of people came to the capital from villages in search of food. The government decided to drive the poor and have-nots out of the capital as it was embarrassed in front of international community with the famine. On 3 January Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini was deployed to 'Clean Dhaka' depriving the poor-beggars and the destitute from the city. In this operation about 0.2 million have-nots and slum dwellers were taken away from the capital and were forced either to return to their villages or to be moved to the three camps. The camps were hastily laid out several miles from the city. Condition of the camps was disastrous.
When the famine started, millions of people came to the capital from villages in search of food. The government decided to drive the poor and have-nots out of the capital as it was embarrassed in front of international community with the famine. On 3 January Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was deployed to 'Clean Dhaka' depriving the poor-beggars and the destitute from the city.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}} In this operation about 200,000 have-nots and slum dwellers were taken away from the capital and were forced either to return to their villages or to be moved to the three camps. The camps were hastily laid out several miles from the city. Condition of the camps was disastrous.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}}


Amongst the three camps, the camp of Demra was the most appalling one, in where Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini gathered about 50,000 people. Those people were ill-treated and sometimes they felt that death is a better solution.<ref name=Mascarenhas />
Amongst the three camps, the camp of Demra was the most appalling one, in where Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini gathered about 50,000 people. Those people were ill-treated and sometimes they felt that death is a better solution.<ref name=Mascarenhas />


=== Curbing of press freedom ===
[[Al Mahmud]] did not listen to the government and tried to publish the accurate news. When the government came to know that, they sent three trucks full of Police and Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini personnel to seize the office and press of 'Gonokontho' at night and arrested the Editor Al Mahmud along with seven workers of the press.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2022}}
On 7 September 1972, Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini personnel torched the head-office of newspaper 'Desh Bangla'. On 11 August the police sealed the office of 'Desh Bangla' in Chittagong for publishing news against Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini. They also arrested two journalists and eight workers of the press.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}


[[Al Mahmud]], then the editor of popular newspaper 'Gonokontho' was arrested for publishing the news of the attack on [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal]] activists while encircling the Home Minister's residence in Dhaka. At least twelve [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal]] activists were killed and about a hundred were wounded as Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini personnel opened fire on that political program. But the government claimed the number of death were only six.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
=== Crackdowns on JaSaD ===
 
====1974 Ramna massacre====
Al Mahmud did not listen to the government and tried to publish the accurate news. When the government came to know that, they sent three trucks full of Police and Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini personnel to seize<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1973DACCA01363_b.html |title=Cable: 1973DACCA01363_b |publisher=Wikileaks.org |access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref> the office and press of 'Gonokontho' at night and arrested the Editor Al Mahmud along with seven workers of the press. Many staff reporter of 'Gonokontho' were abducted for their job. The publication of the newspaper was clogged on 20 January 1974. The declaration of 'Gonokontho' was cancelled by the government on 27 January 1975.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
 
Government cancelled another popular weekly 'Holiday' on 13 May 1975 and its editor Enayetullah Khan, was detained for publishing news against the government and the Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
 
=== Political democide ===
 
==== 1974 Ramna massacre ====
{{main|1974 Ramna massacre}}
{{main|1974 Ramna massacre}}


Jasad, frequently tortured by JRB, decided to hold a rally on 17 March at [[Paltan]]. They also made a plan to surround the resident of Home Minister [[Muhammad Mansur Ali]] on the same day after the rally.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>
Jasad, frequently tortured by JRB, decided to hold a rally on 17 March at [[Paltan]]. They also made a plan to surround the residence of Home Minister [[Muhammad Mansur Ali]] on the same day after the rally.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>


On 17 March 1975, agitated Jasad supporters tried to set up a barricade in front of the resident of the Home Minister [[Muhammad Mansur Ali]] after the rally. But prepared JRB personnel started firing indiscriminately upon the crowd leaving several people dead on the spot.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>
On 17 March 1975, agitated Jasad supporters tried to set up a barricade in front of the residence of the Home Minister [[Muhammad Mansur Ali]] after the rally. But prepared Rakkhi Bahini personnel started firing indiscriminately upon the crowd leaving several people dead on the spot.<ref name="Mascarenhas"/>


However, the Home Minister was not in Dhaka that day and was spending leisure hours with his family.
A notable occurrence occurred on 17 March 1975. Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini set up fire on the headquarters of JASAD on 14 March 1975. JASAD decided to form a rally towards Home Minister Mansoor Ali's house and surround it as a counter to that incident on 17 March.<ref name="Mascarenhas" />


==== Other massacres of Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal members ====
The rally that started from Paltan was forwarding to the Home Minister's house but the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini opened brush-fire and at least 50 JASAD activists were killed on the spot.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2012/03/17/136542|script-title=bn:জাসদের মিছিলে রক্ষীবাহিনীর গুলিতে নিহত ৫০|work=Amar Desh |language=bn |access-date=2015-03-02|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012024/http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2012/03/17/136542|archive-date=19 April 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini committed massive abuses against [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal|Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal (JSD)]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}


A notable occurrence occurred on 17 March 1975. Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini set up fire the headquarters of JASAD on 14 March 1975. JASAD decided to form a rally towards Home Minister Mansoor Ali's house and surround it as a counter to that incident on 17 March.<ref name="Mascarenhas" />
During the regime of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman thousands of youths were killed due to the suspicion of having connection with JASAD by Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.<ref name="amardeshonline">{{cite news|url=http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2011/01/15/63217|date=16 January 2011|newspaper=Amar Desh|script-title=bn:রক্ষীবাহিনীর নৃশংসতা মধ্যযুগীয় বর্বরতাকেও হার মানিয়েছিল|language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117040756/http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2011/01/15/63217|archive-date=17 January 2011}}</ref>


The rally that started from Paltan was forwarding to the Home Minister's house but the Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini opened brush-fire and at least 50 JASAD activists were killed on the spot.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2012/03/17/136542|script-title=bn:জাসদের মিছিলে রক্ষীবাহিনীর গুলিতে নিহত ৫০|work=Amar Desh |language=bn |access-date=2015-03-02|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012024/http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2012/03/17/136542|archive-date=19 April 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
Among them a leader of [[Bangladesh Krishak League]] central committee and a teacher of Nawabganj High School Siddiqur Rahman Khan was killed on 10 October 1972. On 17 September 1973 JASAD Student's League leader Bablu, Robi, Ebadat Ali, Motaleb, Kalu and many other were killed in daylight by Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.<ref name="amardeshonline" />
 
During the regime of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman thousands of youths were killed due to the suspicion of having connection with JASAD by Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini.<ref name="amardeshonline">{{cite news|url=http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2011/01/15/63217|date=16 January 2011|newspaper=Amar Desh|script-title=bn:রক্ষীবাহিনীর নৃশংসতা মধ্যযুগীয় বর্বরতাকেও হার মানিয়েছিল|language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117040756/http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/details/2011/01/15/63217|archive-date=17 January 2022}}</ref>
 
Among them a leader of Bangladesh Krishok League central committee and a teacher of Nawabganj High School Siddiqur Rahman Khan was killed on 10 October 1972. On 17 September 1973 JASAD Student's League leader Bablu, Robi, Ebadat Ali, Motaleb, Kalu and many other were killed in daylight by Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini.<ref name="amardeshonline" />


Notable victims include: General Secretary of City College Students' Union Jahangir, student of Jahangir Nagar University Shah Borhan Uddin Rokon, student of BUET Nikhil Chandra Saha; Narshingdi JASAD leader Alauddin; JASAD leader from Gazipur Akram, Joinal, Shamsu, Badal, Anwar; Manikganj JASAD leader Shahadat Hossain Badal, Delwar Hossain Haraj, Abdul Awal Naju, Najim; activists from Jamalpur Giasuddin Master; JASAD activist Abdur Rashid, Hasu Miah; leader from Mymensingh Masuduzzaman, Abdul Jabbar; Madaripur JASAD activist Jahngir, Saddam, Ali Hosen, Mofijur; Faridpur's Kamaluzzaman, Abdul Hakim; Moniddin Ahmed, Salam Master, Rafique Uddin from Razshahi; Ata, Ranju, Manik Das Gupta, Tota, Colonel Rana, Khalil, Rajjak of Bagura; Natore's JASAD leader Nasiruddin; leader from Pabna Ashfaqur Rahman Kalu.<ref name="amardeshonline" />
Notable victims include: General Secretary of City College Students' Union Jahangir, student of Jahangir Nagar University Shah Borhan Uddin Rokon, student of BUET Nikhil Chandra Saha; Narshingdi JASAD leader Alauddin; JASAD leader from Gazipur Akram, Joinal, Shamsu, Badal, Anwar; Manikganj JASAD leader Shahadat Hossain Badal, Delwar Hossain Haraj, Abdul Awal Naju, Najim; activists from Jamalpur Giasuddin Master; JASAD activist Abdur Rashid, Hasu Miah; leader from Mymensingh Masuduzzaman, Abdul Jabbar; Madaripur JASAD activist Jahngir, Saddam, Ali Hosen, Mofijur; Faridpur's Kamaluzzaman, Abdul Hakim; Moniddin Ahmed, Salam Master, Rafique Uddin from Razshahi; Ata, Ranju, Manik Das Gupta, Tota, Colonel Rana, Khalil, Rajjak of Bagura; Natore's JASAD leader Nasiruddin; leader from Pabna Ashfaqur Rahman Kalu.<ref name="amardeshonline" />


==== Execution of Siraj Sikder ====
==== Execution of Siraj Sikder ====
[[Siraj Sikder]] was a freedom fighter.<ref name="prothom-alo">{{cite news |script-title=bn:বিপ্লবীদের ঝাপসা স্মৃতি |trans-title=Revolutionaries Fuzzy Memory |url=http://archive.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/120643 |newspaper=Prothom Alo |language=bn |date=2011-01-04}}</ref> He was educated in EPUET, now which is known as [[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology|BUET]].<ref>{{cite news |date=2012-07-31 |script-title=bn:বুয়েট বাঁচান |trans-title=Save Technology |url=http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/278117 |newspaper=Prothom Alo |language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804233607/http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/278117 |archive-date=2012-08-04 }}</ref> After the liberation war he started his mission to establish a socialist society. During the liberation war on 3 June he established the political party ''Purba Bangla Sharbahara Party''. On the first congress of the party he was elected as the party's president on 14 January 1972.<ref name="prothom-alo" /> He started working as the President of the party. In 1973, he was elected as the President of an alliance of eleven peoples' organization named as ''Purba Banglar Jatyo Mukti Front'' (National Liberation Front of East Bengal). But analyzing political situation of the country which was named as "One Party Democracy" by Guardian and the increasing torture over his party members forced him to choose the way of revolution.<ref name="prothom-alo" />
[[Siraj Sikder]] was a freedom fighter.<ref name="prothom-alo">{{cite news |script-title=bn:বিপ্লবীদের ঝাপসা স্মৃতি |trans-title=Revolutionaries Fuzzy Memory |url=http://archive.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/120643 |newspaper=Prothom Alo |language=bn |date=2011-01-04 |access-date=23 November 2016 |archive-date=5 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305023704/http://archive.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/120643 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He was educated in EPUET, now which is known as [[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology|BUET]].<ref>{{cite news |date=2012-07-31 |script-title=bn:বুয়েট বাঁচান |trans-title=Save Technology |url=http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/278117 |newspaper=Prothom Alo |language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804233607/http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/278117 |archive-date=2012-08-04 }}</ref> After the liberation war he started his mission to establish a socialist society. During the liberation war on 3 June he established the [[Proletarian Party of East Bengal]]. On the first congress of the party he was elected as the party's president on 14 January 1972.<ref name="prothom-alo" /> He started working as the President of the party. In 1973, he was elected as the President of an alliance of eleven peoples' organization named as ''Purba Banglar Jatyo Mukti Front'' (National Liberation Front of [[East Bengal]]). But analyzing political situation of the country which was named as "One Party Democracy" by Guardian and the increasing torture over his party members forced him to choose the way of revolution.<ref name="prothom-alo" />


On 28 December 1974, the government announced the first ever state of emergency in the history of Bangladesh to arrest all the terrorists and opposition leaders.<ref name="prothom-alo" /> From then Sikder was being treated as an outlaw by the law and enforcement forces. He went underground after the promulgation of emergency.<ref name=Mascarenhas />
On 28 December 1974, the government announced the first ever state of emergency in the [[History of Bangladesh (1971–present)|history of Bangladesh]] to arrest all the terrorists and opposition leaders.<ref name="prothom-alo" /> From then Sikder was being treated as an outlaw by the law and enforcement forces. He went underground after the promulgation of emergency.<ref name=Mascarenhas /> A Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini commander later denied that the murder of Sikder was committed by his force.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bd-pratidin.com/?view=details&archiev=yes&arch_date=07-11-2012&type=gold&data=International&pub_no=905&cat_id=1&menu_id=7&news_type_id=1&index=3. |script-title=bn:রক্ষীবাহিনীর অজানা অধ্যায় |work=Bangladesh Pratidin |language=bn |access-date=2015-03-02 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130407184105/http://www.bd-pratidin.com/?view=details&archiev=yes&arch_date=07-11-2012&type=gold&data=International&pub_no=905&cat_id=1&menu_id=7&news_type_id=1&index=3. |archive-date=2013-04-07}}</ref>


Sikder was arrested by the intelligence agents on 1 January 1975 from [[Halishahar]] of Chittagong and was brought to Dhaka by air.
===Other incidents===
[[Aruna Sen v. Government of Bangladesh|Aruna Sen]]<ref name="thedailystar">{{cite news |date=2007-01-06 |title=Comrade Aruna Sen passes away |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/2007/01/06/d70106061082.htm |newspaper=The Daily Star}}</ref> the wife of politician Shanti Sen, was detained by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, along with her relative Chanchal Sen.<ref name=":6">{{cite news|title=Justice Debesh Bhattacharya protected citizens' rights|url=http://newagebd.net/156659/justice-debesh-bhattacharya-protected-citizens-rights/|access-date=25 June 2016|agency=[[The New Age]]|issue=1|publisher=[[The New Age]]|date=11 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813014114/https://newagebd.net/156659/justice-debesh-bhattacharya-protected-citizens-rights/ |archive-date=13 August 2016}}</ref>  She was subjected to torture while in captivity.<ref name="Portraits">{{cite book|title=Portraits of repression and anarchy : eras of Mujib & Hasina : dark chapters in Bangladesh's history.|publisher=E-Forum|location=Dhaka, Bangladesh|page=27|oclc=53019306}}</ref> Aruna Sen published a statement regarding her captivity in the 17 March edition of Weekly Holiday and in the June edition of Monthly Sangskriti in 1974. After Aruna Sen was detained, a writ was filed at Supreme Court. The court asked Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini to present her in front of the court and prove her detention legal. They presented her but failed to support the legality of the detention.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawcommissionbangladesh.org/reports/43.pdf |title=The Law Commission |publisher=Lawcommissionbangladesh.org |access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref>


A Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini commander later denied that the murder of Sikder was committed by his force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bd-pratidin.com/?view=details&archiev=yes&arch_date=07-11-2012&type=gold&data=International&pub_no=905&cat_id=1&menu_id=7&news_type_id=1&index=3.|title=Bangladesh Pratidin - Highest Circulated Newspaper|work=বাংলাদেশ প্রতিদিন|access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref>
Shahjahan was an 18-year-old boy from what is now [[Naria Upazila]] of [[Faridpur District]]. He was arrested in [[Dhaka]] on 28 December 1973 and handed over to the Rakkhi Bahini at their request. He was not seen again after 2 January 1974, when his brother said he saw him in custody at Rakkhi Bahini headquarters. His brother petitioned the court for a writ of ''[[habeas corpus]]'', challenging the legality of Shahjahan's detention. The Rakkhi Bahini responded that Shahjahan had escaped on 29 December, so was not in detention and could not be brought to the court.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |pages=56–57 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> On cross examination, officers said the organization followed no regulations or procedure. They kept no records of their searches, seizures, arrests, or other activities. Former prime minister [[Moudud Ahmed]] believes that because Shahjahan allegedly belonged to the student wing of the [[Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal]],  an opposition political party, the Rakkhi Bahini killed him and secretly disposed of his body. Without evidence, however, the Rakkhi Bahini could not be held to account.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=59 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref>
 
===Forced disappearances and illegal detentions===
 
==== Detention of Aruna and Chanchal Sen ====
Aruna Sen<ref name="thedailystar">{{cite news |date=2007-01-06 |title=Comrade Aruna Sen passes away |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/2007/01/06/d70106061082.htm |newspaper=The Daily Star}}</ref> the wife of politician Shanti Sen, was detained by the Jatiya Rokkhi Bahini, along with her relative Chanchal Sen.<ref name=":6">{{cite news|title=Justice Debesh Bhattacharya protected citizens' rights|url=http://newagebd.net/156659/justice-debesh-bhattacharya-protected-citizens-rights/|access-date=25 June 2016|agency=[[The New Age]]|issue=1|publisher=[[The New Age]]|date=11 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813014114/https://newagebd.net/156659/justice-debesh-bhattacharya-protected-citizens-rights/ |archive-date=13 August 2022}}</ref>  She was subjected to torture while in captivity.<ref name=Portraits>{{cite book|title=Portraits of repression and anarchy : eras of Mujib & Hasina : dark chapters in Bangladesh's history.|publisher=E-Forum|location=Dhaka, Bangladesh|page=27|oclc=53019306}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Political Prisoners (Bangladesh-U.S. Dept. of State Telegram Correspondence)|url=https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1974DACCA02097_b.html|website=WikiLeaks|publisher=US Department of State|date=1974}}</ref> Aruna Sen published a statement regarding her captivity in the 17 March edition of Weekly Holiday and in the June edition of Monthly Sangskriti in 1974.
 
After Aruna Sen was detained, a writ was filed at Supreme Court. The court asked Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini to present her in front of the court and prove her detention legal. They presented her but failed to support the legality of the detention.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawcommissionbangladesh.org/reports/43.pdf |title=The Law Commission |publisher=Lawcommissionbangladesh.org |access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref>
 
==== Disappearance of Shahjahan ====
Shahjahan was an 18-year-old boy from what is now [[Naria Upazila]] of Faridpur District. He was arrested in [[Dhaka]] on 28 December 1973 and handed over to the Rakkhi Bahini at their request. He was not seen again after 2 January 1974, when his brother said he saw him in custody at Rakkhi Bahini headquarters. His brother petitioned the court for a writ of ''habeas corpus'', challenging the legality of Shahjahan's detention. The Rakkhi Bahini responded that Shahjahan had escaped on 29 December, so was not in detention and could not be brought to the court.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |pages=56-57 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> On cross examination, officers said the organization followed no regulations or procedure. They kept no records of their searches, seizures, arrests, or other activities. Former Prime Minister [[Moudud Ahmed]] believes that because Shahjahan allegedly belonged to the student wing of the [[Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal]],  an opposition political party, the Rakkhi Bahini killed him and secretly disposed of his body. Without evidence, however, the Rakkhi Bahini could not be held to account.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=59 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref>
 
The court held that the Rakkhi Bahini version of events was "a pure concoction" that "demonstrates complete disregard of the law of the country."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |pages=57-58 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> In May 1974, Justice [[Debesh Bhattacharya]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=58 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> condemned the organization in his verdict, stating:
{{Quote box|quote=The irregular and very unsatisfactory manner of the handling of the matter by the Rakkhi Bahini has created a situation that urgently calls for an effective action on the part of the authorities to clear the cloud and create a sense of assurance in the mind of the people.<ref name="Ahmed1984p59-60" />|source=|align=center |width=80%|fontsize=85%|quoted=1}}
 
The court urged the government to hold an enquiry into the whereabouts of Shahjahan, but none was ever undertaken.<ref name="Ahmed1984p59-60">{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |pages=59-60 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref>
 
== Controversy ==
 
=== Relations with the military ===
Political opponents of the Awami League allege that the Rakkhi Bahini was made to replace the [[Bangladesh Army|army]].<ref name=":7">{{cite news|title=Brazen politicization: Bureaucracy, police, army|url=http://www.weeklyholiday.net/homepage/pages/UserHome.aspx?ID=4&date=12/18/2015|access-date=3 December 2016|issue=1|work=Holiday|date=18 December 2022}}</ref> The Rakkhi Bahini had automatic weapons, steel helmets, jeeps, trucks etc.<ref name=Mascarenhas/> The Awami League government seemed to be more interested in the development of the militia than in the armed forces.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> It was planned that this militia would be increased annually so that by the end of 1980 its strength would be 20 000.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> On the other hand, Bangladesh Army was poorly equipped.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> In winter they had to guard the border in slippers.<ref name="Mascarenhas" />
 
The Rakkhi Bahini was distrusted by the [[military of Bangladesh|defence services in Bangladesh]] because of its pro-Indian orientation.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> This was so for several reasons. First, most of the members of the armed forces who fought during the War of Independence strongly believed that the Indian Army just walked in at the end of Bangladesh Liberation War thereby robbing the Bangladesh military of the "glory of liberating their motherland."<ref name="Emajuddin2004" /> Second, many senior military officers believed that the [[Mujibnagar government|government-in-exile at Mujibnagar]] signed a secret treaty with the Indian government, compromising the sovereignty of Bangladesh and that Sheikh Mujib became less interested in the development of the defence forces because of that treaty. Third, many senior army personnel felt that the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was planned and designed by the [[Indian Army]] for the safety of the [[Awami League|Awami League regime]]. The poorly-equipped defence services were also bitter about the fact that the Indian Army took away all the sophisticated weapons left by the [[Pakistan Army]].<ref name="Emajuddin2004" />
 
Mascarenhas also records the statement of Major General [[Abul Manzoor]], that numerous military personnel were killed by Rakkhi Bahini terming them as [[Razakar (East Pakistan)|Razakars]] or collaborators.<ref name="Mascarenhas" /> Despite the indignation, from July 1973 to July 1974, the army conducted a number of combined military operations with the Rakkhi Bahini and the police such as checking for smuggling at the border, handling 'extremists', and maintaining law and order.<ref name="Emajuddin2004" />
 
===Corruption===
 
====Expulsion of Ayesha Faiz from her home====
Ayesha Faiz<ref name="kalerkantho">{{cite news |date=2012-08-03 |script-title=bn:আমার ছেলেদের লেখক হতে আলাদা কোনো পরিবেশ লাগেনি |url=http://www.kalerkantho.com/index.php?view=details&type=gold&data=Antivirus&pub_no=963&cat_id=1&menu_id=152&news_type_id=1&index=4 |newspaper=Kaler Kantho |language=bn}}</ref> is the widow of [[Faizur Rahman (police officer)|Faizur Rahman]] and the mother of novelists [[Humayun Ahmed]] and [[Muhammad Zafar Iqbal]]. A house in Babar Road of Mohammadpur was allotted to her by the government for her husband.<ref name="amardeshonline_b">{{cite news |url=http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/weekly_news/2012/08/04/8386|script-title=bn:পড়বে না তাঁর পায়ের চিহ্ন|work=Amar Desh |language=bn |access-date=2015-03-02|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402145814/http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/weekly_news/2012/08/04/8386|archive-date=2 April 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> But just after three days she was kicked out of the house with her family by a Subedar Major of Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini.<ref name="kalerkantho" /> She detailed the incident in her biography ''Jibon Je Rokom'' (''Life as it is'').<ref name="amarboi">{{cite web|url=http://www.amarboi.com/2012/01/jibon-je-rokom-by-ayesha-faiz.html|script-title=bn:জীবন যে রকম - আয়েশা ফয়েজ |work=amarboi.com |language=bn}}</ref>
 
Ayesha Faiz left the home with her children. She later recalled: "Once I was made refugee by the Pakistan Army of occupation. The second time it was done by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini.
 
== Indemnity ==
The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (Amendment) Act of 1974 added two new articles, 8A and 16A, to the act, effective retroactively to 1 February 1972. Article 8A granted officers of the Rakkhi Bahini the power to arrest without warrant any person they reasonably suspect of having committed a cognizable offence under any law. This is similar to the power of police officers. The article further states that anyone arrested by the Rakkhi Bahini shall be delivered forthwith to the nearest police station.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Hamza |last2=Islam |first2=Kamrul |date=April 1974 |title=Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act |publisher=Khoshroz Kitab Mahal |pages=2-4 |oclc=499457300}}</ref> It also gives officers the right of search and seizure in connection with any reasonable suspicion that an offence has been committed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Hamza |last2=Islam |first2=Kamrul |date=April 1974 |title=Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act |publisher=Khoshroz Kitab Mahal |pages=5-6 |oclc=499457300}}</ref>
 
Article 3 of the act says,
{{quote|No suit, prosecution, or other legal proceedings shall be against any member of the Bahini for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of this order or rule made there under."<ref name="books.google_a">{{cite book |author1=Bangladesh |last2=Hossain |first2=Hamza |last3=Kamrul Islam |first3=A. T. M |date=1974 |title=Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGIKAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2022}} }}
 
According to these provisions anybody could be arrested by the Rakkhi Bahini at will mid they would remain immune from any judicial supervision in all their activities in which they would be pleased to indulge in "good faith".<ref name="books.google_a"/>{{page needed|date=April 2022}}
 
This indemnity refrained the Judiciary Division from taking any legal actions<ref name="Human Rights Watch">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/bangladesh0509webwcover.pdf|title=Ignoring Executions and Torture : Impunity for Bangladesh's Security Forces|date=2009-03-18|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=2013-08-16}}</ref> This indemnity amplified their desperate actions.
 
== Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and aftermath ==
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2022}}
 
=== Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman ===
{{main|Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman}}
When Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was [[Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|killed]] on 15 August 1975 by members of the Bangladesh Army, the Rakkhi Bahini was very inactive.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" />


After the coup, members of Rakkhi Bahini who were deployed all around the country escaped from their camps and houses in fear of mob-violence, as the people were very angry on them.<ref>{{cite news |date=2012-07-27 |script-title=bn:দেয়াল |trans-title=Walls |url=http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/277120 |newspaper=Prothom Alo |language=bn |type=Review of Novel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905211349/http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/news/277120 |archive-date=2012-09-05}}</ref>
The court held that the Rakkhi Bahini version of events was "a pure concoction" that "demonstrates complete disregard of the law of the country."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |pages=57–58 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> In May 1974, Justice [[Debesh Bhattacharya]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=58 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref> condemned the organization in his verdict, stating:
{{blockquote|The irregular and very unsatisfactory manner of the handling of the matter by the Rakkhi Bahini has created a situation that urgently calls for an effective action on the part of the authorities to clear the cloud and create a sense of assurance in the mind of the people.<ref name="Ahmed1984p59-60" />}}


=== Absorption in military forces ===
The court urged the government to hold an enquiry into the whereabouts of Shahjahan, but none was ever undertaken.<ref name="Ahmed1984p59-60">{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Moudud |author-link=Moudud Ahmed |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1983 |title=Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |pages=59–60 |isbn=3-515-04266-0}}</ref>
After the death of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the force was absorbed in Bangladesh Army after the "Jatiyo Rokkhi Bahini Absorption Act, 1975 came into effect.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (Absorption in the Army) Ordinance, 1975|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/pdf_part.php?id=505|website=Information System of the Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=Government of Bangladesh|access-date=21 June 2022}}</ref> It was issued on 9 October 1975 and was in effect from 3 September 1975.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |last1=Ahsan |first1=Syed Badrul |author-link=Syed Badrul Ahsan |date=13 January 2014 |title=Myth, reality and Rakkhi Bahini |newspaper=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/myth-reality-and-rakkhi-bahini-6669 |access-date=18 June 2022}}</ref>


The Director General of the force [[A. N. M. Nuruzzaman|Brigadier Nuruzzaman]] was appointed as an ambassador after the force was absorbed.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
Ayesha Faiz<ref name="kalerkantho">{{cite news |date=2012-08-03 |script-title=bn:আমার ছেলেদের লেখক হতে আলাদা কোনো পরিবেশ লাগেনি |language=bn |newspaper=Kaler Kantho |url=http://www.kalerkantho.com/index.php?view=details&type=gold&data=Antivirus&pub_no=963&cat_id=1&menu_id=152&news_type_id=1&index=4 |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-date=19 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419015124/http://www.kalerkantho.com/index.php?view=details&type=gold&data=Antivirus&pub_no=963&cat_id=1&menu_id=152&news_type_id=1&index=4 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is the widow of [[Faizur Rahman]] and the mother of novelists [[Humayun Ahmed]] and [[Muhammad Zafar Iqbal]]. A house in Babar Road of Mohammadpur was allotted to her by the government for her husband.<ref name="amardeshonline_b">{{cite news |script-title=bn:পড়বে না তাঁর পায়ের চিহ্ন |language=bn |work=Amar Desh |url=http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/weekly_news/2012/08/04/8386 |url-status=dead |access-date=2015-03-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402145814/http://www.amardeshonline.com/pages/weekly_news/2012/08/04/8386 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> But just after three days she was kicked out of the house with her family by a Subedar Major of Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.<ref name="kalerkantho" /> She detailed the incident in her biography ''Jibon Je Rokom'' (''Life as it is'').<ref name="amarboi">{{cite web |script-title=bn:জীবন যে রকম - আয়েশা ফয়েজ |url=http://www.amarboi.com/2012/01/jibon-je-rokom-by-ayesha-faiz.html |work=amarboi.com |language=bn}}</ref> Ayesha Faiz left the home with her children. She later recalled: "Once I was made refugee by the Pakistan Army of occupation. The second time it was done by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini.


==Legacy==
==Legacy==
The legacy of JRB remains complex and covered up in modern Bangladesh. Like [[Cultural Revolution|Cultural Revolution chaos]] in [[China]], JRB's atrocities are ignored in official Bangladeshi historiography and school curricula. Most of the young Bangladeshis are unknown to JRB's activities.
===Human rights abuse===
===Human rights abuse===
[[Human Rights Watch]] states that institutionalized violence committed by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, established the culture of impunity and widespread prevalence of abuses by security forces in independent Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ignoring Executions and Torture: Impunity for Bangladesh's Security Forces|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/05/18/ignoring-executions-and-torture/impunity-bangladeshs-security-forces|website=[[Human Rights Watch]]|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=18 June 2022}}</ref> Pro-Awami columnist<ref name=":2">{{cite web|last1=Ahsan|first1=Syed Badrul|title=The Awami League in our history|url=http://bangladeshchronicle.net/2015/11/the-awami-league-in-our-history/|website=The Bangladesh Chronicle|access-date=18 June 2022}}</ref> Syed Badrul Ahsan defends its actions, but acknowledges "it would have been more effective and effectual, more properly indoctrinated in the spirit of the 1971 war, history would have been different."<ref name=":0" />
[[Human Rights Watch]] states that institutionalized violence committed by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, established the culture of impunity and widespread prevalence of abuses by security forces in independent Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ignoring Executions and Torture: Impunity for Bangladesh's Security Forces|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/05/18/ignoring-executions-and-torture/impunity-bangladeshs-security-forces|journal=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=18 May 2009 |access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref> Pro-Awami columnist<ref name=":2">{{cite web|last1=Ahsan|first1=Syed Badrul|title=The Awami League in our history|url=http://bangladeshchronicle.net/2015/11/the-awami-league-in-our-history/|website=The Bangladesh Chronicle|access-date=18 June 2016|archive-date=1 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501141613/http://bangladeshchronicle.net/2015/11/the-awami-league-in-our-history/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Syed Badrul Ahsan defends its actions, but acknowledges "it would have been more effective and effectual, more properly indoctrinated in the spirit of the 1971 war, history would have been different."<ref name=":0" />


===In popular culture===
===In popular culture===
* ''[[The Black Coat]]'', a historical novel written by [[Neamat Imam]] and published by Penguin Books India in 2013, presents the most scathing criticism of Sheikh Mujib's rule and his employment of the Rakkhi Bahini in decades. The novel explores Sheikh Mujib's rule from 1972 to 1975, especially during the [[Bangladesh famine of 1974]], when he became increasingly autocratic. Radio Canada commented that: ''The Black Coat'' is 'a novel that slays Sheikh Mujib,'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radio-canada.ca/emissions/plus_on_est_de_fous_plus_on_lit/2012-2013/chronique.asp?idChronique=297801|title=Controverse littéraire au Bangladesh - Plus on est de fous, plus on lit! - ICI Radio-Canada Première|access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref> and ''The Daily Star'' remarked: '...a poignant political tale... Imam has shown a lot of courage in dealing with one of the most tumultuous and controversial phases of independent Bangladesh's history.'<ref>{{cite news |date=2013-07-08 |title=From euphoria to disillusion |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/beta2/news/from-euphoria-to-disillusion/ |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref> The novel attacks Sheikh Mujib's introduction of one party rule, the ruthlessness of the Rakkhi Bahini and Mujib's suppression of his political opposition and claims that Sheikh Mujib was Bangladesh's first and deadliest dictator. As the famine deepened, and the political opposition to Mujib's rule intensified, the Rakkhi Bahini units got busier than ever. Although they were freedom fighters at one time, they engaged themselves in promoting Mujib's autocratic aspirations.
* ''[[The Black Coat]]'', a historical novel written by [[Neamat Imam]] and published by [[Penguin Books|Penguin Books India]] in 2013, presents the most scathing criticism of Sheikh Mujib's rule and his employment of the Rakkhi Bahini in decades. The novel explores Sheikh Mujib's rule from 1972 to 1975, especially during the [[Bangladesh famine of 1974]], when he became increasingly autocratic. Radio Canada commented that: ''The Black Coat'' is 'a novel that slays Sheikh Mujib,'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radio-canada.ca/emissions/plus_on_est_de_fous_plus_on_lit/2012-2013/chronique.asp?idChronique=297801|title=Controverse littéraire au Bangladesh - Plus on est de fous, plus on lit! - ICI Radio-Canada Première|access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref> and ''[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]'' remarked: '...a poignant political tale... Imam has shown a lot of courage in dealing with one of the most tumultuous and controversial phases of independent Bangladesh's history.'<ref>{{cite news |date=2013-07-08 |title=From euphoria to disillusion |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/beta2/news/from-euphoria-to-disillusion/ |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=2015-03-02}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Rapid Action Battalion]]
* [[Kader Bahini]]
* [[Kader Bahini]]
* [[Mujib Bahini]]
* [[Mujib Bahini]]
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{{Sheikh Mujibur Rahman}}
{{Sheikh Mujibur Rahman}}


[[Category:Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]
[[Category:Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini| ]]
[[Category:Paramilitary forces of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Political career of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]
[[Category:History of Bangladesh (1971–present)]]
[[Category:History of Bangladesh (1971–present)]]
[[Category:Bangladesh Awami League]]
[[Category:History of the Awami League]]
[[Category:Torture in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Torture in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Sheikh Mujibur Rahman administration initiatives]]

Latest revision as of 23:04, 11 March 2026


National Guard
জাতীয় রক্ষী বাহিনী
Seal of Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini
Active1 February 1972 – 9 October 1975
Disbanded9 October 1975
CountryBangladesh
AllegiancePrime Minister of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Awami League[1]
TypeInfantry
Presidential guard
Death squad
RoleCounter-insurgency
Counter-terrorism[2]
Anti-communism
Size16,000 (1975)[1]
HeadquartersSher-E-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka
Nickname(s)Rakkhi, JRB
PatronSheikh Mujibur Rahman
ColorsDark Brown, Light French Beige
   
Mascot(s)Index finger of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Engagements
Commanders
Notable
commanders		Brigadier General A. N. M. Nuruzzaman
Insignia
JRB Insignia

The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.)[1] was a Bangladeshi paramilitary force formed in 1972 by the Sheikh Mujibur Rahman government. Initially formed to curb an insurgency and maintain law and order, the force became involved in numerous charges of human rights abuses, including political killings,[3][4][5] shooting by death squads,[6] and rape.[5] It was seen as the armed wing of the ruling Awami League[1] and it swore an oath of loyalty to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.[7]

The Rakkhi Bahini has been condemned by many academics and journalists, including Ghulam Murshid who compared it with the Gestapo,[8] and Anthony Mascarenhas who said that it was a "gang of hoodlums little different from the Nazi Brown shirts."[9] Human Rights Watch states that the institutionalized violence committed by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, established the culture of impunity with which security forces in independent Bangladesh continue to abuse human rights.[3] Pro Awami League commentators dismiss the charges as "myths".[10][11]

History[edit | edit source]

Background[edit | edit source]

After the end of the Bangladesh Liberation War, there was a violent insurgency led by Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal to replace the elected revolutionary government of the newly independent country with a "scientific socialist" system of government inspired by Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China through the uses of private militias formed by left-wing army commanders who fought in the war, such as Colonel Abu Taher.[1][12]

During the Liberation War of Bangladesh, numerous civilians joined the war after being trained by the Indian forces. Tajuddin Ahmad felt these people should come under national service as they had arms and training. Tajuddin Ahmad asked Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to form a para-military force for them.[13]

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman primarily rejected the proposal but soon realized the necessity of an elite force, because many police officers died in the Bangladesh Liberation War. Whenever rebels attacked them in their office, they were outnumbered.[8] Raw materials, machinery and goods of factories were being smuggled through the border to India which also became a headache for the newly formed government.[8]

Time remarked after independence that "Many of the more radical young guerrillas who fought with the Mukti Bahini may not be content with the moderate course charted by the middle-aged politicians of the Awami League. Moreover, the present Dacca government is a very remote power in country villages where the local cadres of the Mukti Bahini are highly visible."[14] The article also quoted one of its commanders, Ali Ashraf Chowdhury: "We will never lay down our arms until our social ideals have been realized".[14] he said. The article continues, "So far the Mujib Bahini has done a commendable job of protecting the Biharis, the non-Bengali Moslems who earned Bengali wrath by siding with the Pakistani army. But the government is anxious to disarm the Mujib Bahini, and has plans to organize it into a constabulary that would carry out both police and militia duties."[14]

Masudul Haque in his book, Bangladesher Swadhinota Juddho O CIA (Liberation War of Bangladesh and CIA), mentions Abdur Rajjak, a young leader and the chief of Bangladesh Swecchasebok League (Bangladesh Volunteer's League) that Mujib told them not to surrender all the guns.

Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was actively deployed just after the Indian Army left Bangladesh on 17 March. The force was trained and brought up by Major General Sujan Singh Uban from Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) as per the request of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Moidul Hassan, confirmed this information in the book Muktijuddher Purbapor.[15] Moidul Hassan wrote,

Analyzing the geo-political situation when United States started to recover their loss after the surrender of Pakistan Army on 16 December, Pakistan government had to release Sheikh Mujibur Rahman without any condition. Just after returning home Sheikh Mujibur Rahman realized to form a security force and he decided to form the Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini only with the loyal part of Maujib Bahini. Without any discussion in the cabinet, which members were concerned about the stages of liberation war he himself gave the responsibility of forming the force to Major General S. S. Uban who was a recruit of CIA in 60s and now working as the IG of RAW.[15]

However, this is at least partially inaccurate as Pakistani President Bhutto did not release Sheikh Mujibur Rahman "without any condition". Indeed, at the direction of Indira Gandhi, who was desperate to keep Sheikh Mujibur Rahman alive and to free him, some 90,000 Pakistani POWs (including thousands of women and children civilians) were housed in comfort and released without extradition or charges despite massive and manifest human rights violations against both Bengali Muslims and Hindus during the War of Liberation.[16] In Savar camp there was three additional battalions who were called Recruit Battalion. These three battalions were directly supervised by Major Bala Reddy.[16] Anwar-ul-Alam admitted that there were many Junior Commissioned Officers of Indian Army in the training camp of Savar.[11]

Formation[edit | edit source]

On 3 January 1972, naming prime minister Tajuddin Ahmad as the chairman, the Bangladesh government announced the names of the ten members of the Central Regulating Board of the National Militia.[citation needed] The members were:

  1. Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani (chairman, National Awami Party (Bhashani))
  2. Abul Hasnat Muhammad Qamaruzzaman (home minister, People's Republic of Bangladesh)
  3. Manoranjan Dhar (member of National Assembly, Awami League)
  4. Moni Singh (chairman, Communist Party of Bangladesh)
  5. Professor Muzaffar Ahmed (president, National Awami Party (Muzaffar))
  6. Gazi Golam Mostafa (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
  7. Rafiq Uddin Bhuiyan (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
  8. Tofael Ahmed (member of National Assembly, Awami League)
  9. Abdur Razzaq (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League)
  10. Captain (retd.) Muhammad Shujat Ali (member of Provincial Assembly, Awami League).

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, wanted to merge the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, with the Bangladesh Rifles but the Bangladesh Rifles personnel stiffly opposed the move in a commotion that resulted in a mutiny. This plan was then abandoned.[17]

The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Order (President's order No. 21) of 1972 provided for the establishment of the force and set out its responsibilities and powers. The presidential order, published on 7 March, was retroactive to 1 February.[18]

Political opponents of the Awami League allege that the Rakkhi Bahini was made to replace the army.[19] The Rakkhi Bahini had automatic weapons, steel helmets, jeeps, trucks etc.[20] The Awami League government seemed to be more interested in the development of the militia than in the armed forces.[1] It was planned that this militia would be increased annually so that by the end of 1980 its strength would be 20,000.[1] On the other hand, Bangladesh Army was poorly equipped.[1] In winter they had to guard the border in slippers.[20]

The Rakkhi Bahini was distrusted by the defence services in Bangladesh because of its pro-Indian orientation.[1] This was so for several reasons. First, most of the members of the armed forces who fought during the War of Independence strongly believed that the Indian Army just walked in at the end of Bangladesh Liberation War thereby robbing the Bangladesh military of the "glory of liberating their motherland."[1] Second, many senior military officers believed that the government-in-exile at Mujibnagar signed a secret treaty with the Indian government, compromising the sovereignty of Bangladesh and that Sheikh Mujib became less interested in the development of the defence forces because of that treaty. Third, many senior army personnel felt that the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was planned and designed by the Indian Army for the safety of the Awami League regime. The poorly equipped defence services were also bitter about the fact that the Indian Army took away all the sophisticated weapons left by the Pakistan Army.[1]

Mascarenhas also records the statement of Major General Abul Manzoor, that numerous military personnel were killed by Rakkhi Bahini terming them as Razakars or collaborators.[20] Despite the indignation, from July 1973 to July 1974, the army conducted a number of combined military operations with the Rakkhi Bahini and the police such as checking for smuggling at the border, handling 'extremists', and maintaining law and order.[1]

The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (Amendment) Act of 1974 added two new articles, 8A and 16A, to the act, effective retroactively to 1 February 1972. Article 8A granted officers of the Rakkhi Bahini the power to arrest without warrant any person they reasonably suspect of having committed a cognizable offence under any law. This is similar to the power of police officers. The article further states that anyone arrested by the Rakkhi Bahini shall be delivered forthwith to the nearest police station.[21] It also gives officers the right of search and seizure in connection with any reasonable suspicion that an offence has been committed.[22]

Article 3 of the act says,

No suit, prosecution, or other legal proceedings shall be against any member of the Bahini for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of this order or rule made there under."[23]

After the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman[edit | edit source]

Main article: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

When Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was killed on 15 August 1975 by members of the Bangladesh Army, the Rakkhi Bahini was very inactive.[10][19]

After the coup, members of Rakkhi Bahini who were deployed all around the country escaped from their camps and houses in fear of mob-violence, as the people were very angry with them.[24]

After the death of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the force was absorbed in Bangladesh Army after the "Jatiyo Rokkhi Bahini Absorption Act, 1975 came into effect.[25] It was issued on 9 October 1975 and was in effect from 3 September 1975.[10]

The director general of the force Brigadier Nuruzzaman was appointed as an ambassador after the force was absorbed.[citation needed]

Organization[edit | edit source]

Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini had a complete table of organization which was circulated on 8 March 1972 by a gazette notification. The chief of the force was known as director general. His five deputies were known as Deputy Director General. In reality, the Rakkhi Bahini was under the direct control of the prime minister's office and attached to the local Awami League units.[1] In time, the government planned to place each unit under the command of a district governor.[1] The Rakkhi Bahini also swore an oath of loyalty to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.[7]

Brigadier A. N. M. Nuruzzaman was appointed as the director general while Major Anwar Ul Alam Shahid (deputy director, Training), Lieutenant Colonel Abul Hasan Khan (deputy director, administration), Lieutenant Colonel Sarwar (deputy director, operations), Lieutenant Colonel Sabihuddin Ahmed (deputy director, signals), Lieutenant Colonel Azizul Islam (deputy director, Zonal Headquarters of Chittagong) and Lieutenant Colonel A M Khan (deputy director, medical) were his six deputies.[citation needed] The bulk of the Rakkhi Bahini personnel were recruited from the Mujib Bahini, a militia force that was formed during the concluding part of Liberation War and was under direct Indian supervision.[26]

The basic training of the force officers candidates were given in Indian Military Academy, and at Savar camp,[27] under the supervision of Indian military officer named Major Bala Reddy.[16] Any other additional courses, special courses were also provided by Indian Army, at the Indian Military Academy of Dehradun.[20]

Some additional land and properties were also given to this force by the government. The zonal headquarters building in the Bhatiary of Chittagong and lands in Giltala of Khulna, Bateshwar of Sylhet, Bogra and in Mirpur of Dhaka.[11]

During its first days as it was formed as an auxiliary of Police, it helped police to guard the office. When police failed to control the situation, they were deployed. At least 44 offices and residents of police were attacked and looted from June to December 1973. So the government deployed Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini within September of the year.[11] JASAD challenged the government's activities and started to gain huge popularity especially among the students and youths. And many other secret organizations emerged and gained popularity as the government was failing to solve almost every issue.[20]

Human rights abuses[edit | edit source]

The Rakkhi Bahini committed various human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killing,[3][4][5] forced disappearances,[28] shooting by death squads,[6] and rape.[5] Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal claims that over 60,000 of its members were killed.[11] The most conservative estimates put the death toll at over 2000.[5] Syed Badrul Ahsan dismisses these claims as "myths."[10]

Anthony Mascarenhas describes the activities of Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini in his book Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood, he writes:

The Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini, which roughly translated means National Security Force, was an elite para-military force whose members had to take oaths of personal loyalty to Mujib. Despite its high-sounding name, it was a sort of private army of bully boys not far removed from Nazi Brown shirts.[9]

Mascarenhas adds that by the end of 1973 the total of politically motivated murders in Bangladesh had crossed the 2000 mark. The victims included some members of Parliament and many of the murders were resulted of intra-party conflicts within Awami League.[20]

Within three years, political killings by Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini reached about 30,000.[20] This included numerous Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal members.[20]

Even the capital Dhaka was not immune to the violence. An unofficial curfew was introduced after midnight. Almost every rickshaw, taxi and private car was checked and searched by Rakkhi Bahini personnel.[20]

1974 famine[edit | edit source]

When the famine started, millions of people came to the capital from villages in search of food. The government decided to drive the poor and have-nots out of the capital as it was embarrassed in front of international community with the famine. On 3 January Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was deployed to 'Clean Dhaka' depriving the poor-beggars and the destitute from the city.[citation needed] In this operation about 200,000 have-nots and slum dwellers were taken away from the capital and were forced either to return to their villages or to be moved to the three camps. The camps were hastily laid out several miles from the city. Condition of the camps was disastrous.[citation needed]

Amongst the three camps, the camp of Demra was the most appalling one, in where Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini gathered about 50,000 people. Those people were ill-treated and sometimes they felt that death is a better solution.[20]

Al Mahmud did not listen to the government and tried to publish the accurate news. When the government came to know that, they sent three trucks full of Police and Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini personnel to seize the office and press of 'Gonokontho' at night and arrested the Editor Al Mahmud along with seven workers of the press.[citation needed]

Crackdowns on JaSaD[edit | edit source]

1974 Ramna massacre[edit | edit source]

Main article: 1974 Ramna massacre

Jasad, frequently tortured by JRB, decided to hold a rally on 17 March at Paltan. They also made a plan to surround the residence of Home Minister Muhammad Mansur Ali on the same day after the rally.[20]

On 17 March 1975, agitated Jasad supporters tried to set up a barricade in front of the residence of the Home Minister Muhammad Mansur Ali after the rally. But prepared Rakkhi Bahini personnel started firing indiscriminately upon the crowd leaving several people dead on the spot.[20]

A notable occurrence occurred on 17 March 1975. Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini set up fire on the headquarters of JASAD on 14 March 1975. JASAD decided to form a rally towards Home Minister Mansoor Ali's house and surround it as a counter to that incident on 17 March.[20]

The rally that started from Paltan was forwarding to the Home Minister's house but the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini opened brush-fire and at least 50 JASAD activists were killed on the spot.[29]

During the regime of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman thousands of youths were killed due to the suspicion of having connection with JASAD by Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.[4]

Among them a leader of Bangladesh Krishak League central committee and a teacher of Nawabganj High School Siddiqur Rahman Khan was killed on 10 October 1972. On 17 September 1973 JASAD Student's League leader Bablu, Robi, Ebadat Ali, Motaleb, Kalu and many other were killed in daylight by Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.[4]

Notable victims include: General Secretary of City College Students' Union Jahangir, student of Jahangir Nagar University Shah Borhan Uddin Rokon, student of BUET Nikhil Chandra Saha; Narshingdi JASAD leader Alauddin; JASAD leader from Gazipur Akram, Joinal, Shamsu, Badal, Anwar; Manikganj JASAD leader Shahadat Hossain Badal, Delwar Hossain Haraj, Abdul Awal Naju, Najim; activists from Jamalpur Giasuddin Master; JASAD activist Abdur Rashid, Hasu Miah; leader from Mymensingh Masuduzzaman, Abdul Jabbar; Madaripur JASAD activist Jahngir, Saddam, Ali Hosen, Mofijur; Faridpur's Kamaluzzaman, Abdul Hakim; Moniddin Ahmed, Salam Master, Rafique Uddin from Razshahi; Ata, Ranju, Manik Das Gupta, Tota, Colonel Rana, Khalil, Rajjak of Bagura; Natore's JASAD leader Nasiruddin; leader from Pabna Ashfaqur Rahman Kalu.[4]

Execution of Siraj Sikder[edit | edit source]

Siraj Sikder was a freedom fighter.[30] He was educated in EPUET, now which is known as BUET.[31] After the liberation war he started his mission to establish a socialist society. During the liberation war on 3 June he established the Proletarian Party of East Bengal. On the first congress of the party he was elected as the party's president on 14 January 1972.[30] He started working as the President of the party. In 1973, he was elected as the President of an alliance of eleven peoples' organization named as Purba Banglar Jatyo Mukti Front (National Liberation Front of East Bengal). But analyzing political situation of the country which was named as "One Party Democracy" by Guardian and the increasing torture over his party members forced him to choose the way of revolution.[30]

On 28 December 1974, the government announced the first ever state of emergency in the history of Bangladesh to arrest all the terrorists and opposition leaders.[30] From then Sikder was being treated as an outlaw by the law and enforcement forces. He went underground after the promulgation of emergency.[20] A Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini commander later denied that the murder of Sikder was committed by his force.[32]

Other incidents[edit | edit source]

Aruna Sen[33] the wife of politician Shanti Sen, was detained by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, along with her relative Chanchal Sen.[34] She was subjected to torture while in captivity.[35] Aruna Sen published a statement regarding her captivity in the 17 March edition of Weekly Holiday and in the June edition of Monthly Sangskriti in 1974. After Aruna Sen was detained, a writ was filed at Supreme Court. The court asked Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini to present her in front of the court and prove her detention legal. They presented her but failed to support the legality of the detention.[34][36]

Shahjahan was an 18-year-old boy from what is now Naria Upazila of Faridpur District. He was arrested in Dhaka on 28 December 1973 and handed over to the Rakkhi Bahini at their request. He was not seen again after 2 January 1974, when his brother said he saw him in custody at Rakkhi Bahini headquarters. His brother petitioned the court for a writ of habeas corpus, challenging the legality of Shahjahan's detention. The Rakkhi Bahini responded that Shahjahan had escaped on 29 December, so was not in detention and could not be brought to the court.[37] On cross examination, officers said the organization followed no regulations or procedure. They kept no records of their searches, seizures, arrests, or other activities. Former prime minister Moudud Ahmed believes that because Shahjahan allegedly belonged to the student wing of the Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal, an opposition political party, the Rakkhi Bahini killed him and secretly disposed of his body. Without evidence, however, the Rakkhi Bahini could not be held to account.[38]

The court held that the Rakkhi Bahini version of events was "a pure concoction" that "demonstrates complete disregard of the law of the country."[39] In May 1974, Justice Debesh Bhattacharya,[40] condemned the organization in his verdict, stating:

The irregular and very unsatisfactory manner of the handling of the matter by the Rakkhi Bahini has created a situation that urgently calls for an effective action on the part of the authorities to clear the cloud and create a sense of assurance in the mind of the people.[41]

The court urged the government to hold an enquiry into the whereabouts of Shahjahan, but none was ever undertaken.[41]

Ayesha Faiz[42] is the widow of Faizur Rahman and the mother of novelists Humayun Ahmed and Muhammad Zafar Iqbal. A house in Babar Road of Mohammadpur was allotted to her by the government for her husband.[43] But just after three days she was kicked out of the house with her family by a Subedar Major of Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini.[42] She detailed the incident in her biography Jibon Je Rokom (Life as it is).[44] Ayesha Faiz left the home with her children. She later recalled: "Once I was made refugee by the Pakistan Army of occupation. The second time it was done by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Jatiyo Rakkhi Bahini.

Legacy[edit | edit source]

Human rights abuse[edit | edit source]

Human Rights Watch states that institutionalized violence committed by the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, established the culture of impunity and widespread prevalence of abuses by security forces in independent Bangladesh.[45] Pro-Awami columnist[46] Syed Badrul Ahsan defends its actions, but acknowledges "it would have been more effective and effectual, more properly indoctrinated in the spirit of the 1971 war, history would have been different."[10]

In popular culture[edit | edit source]

  • The Black Coat, a historical novel written by Neamat Imam and published by Penguin Books India in 2013, presents the most scathing criticism of Sheikh Mujib's rule and his employment of the Rakkhi Bahini in decades. The novel explores Sheikh Mujib's rule from 1972 to 1975, especially during the Bangladesh famine of 1974, when he became increasingly autocratic. Radio Canada commented that: The Black Coat is 'a novel that slays Sheikh Mujib,'[47] and The Daily Star remarked: '...a poignant political tale... Imam has shown a lot of courage in dealing with one of the most tumultuous and controversial phases of independent Bangladesh's history.'[48]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 Ahamed, Emajuddin (2004). "The military and democracy in Bangladesh" (PDF). In May, Ronald James; Selochan, Viberto (eds.). The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific. Sydney: Australian National University Press. pp. 108–110. ISBN 978-1-920942-01-4.
  2. ↑ Alam, Aksadul (2012). "History". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Ignoring Executions and Torture : Impunity for Bangladesh's Security Forces" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 18 March 2009. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 রক্ষীবাহিনীর নৃশংসতা মধ্যযুগীয় বর্বরতাকেও হার মানিয়েছিল. Amar Desh (in Bengali). 16 January 2011. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Fair, Christine C.; Riaz, Ali (2010). Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh. Routledge. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1136926242. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Chowdhury, Atif (18 February 2013). "Bangladesh: Baptism By Fire". Huffington Post. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Pike, Francis (2010). Empires At War: A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II. I.B. Tauris. p. 569. ISBN 978-1-84885-079-8.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Murshid, Ghulam (2010). Muktiyuddha o tārapara: ekaṭi nirdalīẏa itihāsa মুক্তিযুদ্ধ ও তারপর একটি নির্দলীয় ইতিহাস. Dhaka: Prothoma Prakashani. p. 199. ISBN 978-984-8765-37-1.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Mascarenhas, Anthony (1986). Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood. London: Hodder and Stoughton. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-340-39420-5.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Ahsan, Syed Badrul (13 January 2014). "Myth, reality and Rakkhi Bahini". The Daily Star. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Anwar-ul-Alam (2013). রক্ষীবাহিনীর সত্য-মিথ্যা [The captain of the truth] (in Bengali). Prathama prakasana. ISBN 978-9849025399.
  12. ↑ "JS sees debate over role of Gono Bahini". The Daily Star. 4 July 2014.
  13. ↑ "Ayesha Abed Library". bracu.ac.b. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "BANGLADESH: Mujib's Road from Prison to Power". Time. 17 January 1972. Archived from the original on 8 March 2008.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Hassan, Moidul (2011). মুক্তিযুদ্ধের পূর্বাপর : কথোপকথন [War Context: Conversation] (in Bengali). Prathama Prakasana. ISBN 978-9848765227.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Hossain, M. Shakhawat. বাংলাদেশ: রক্তাক্ত অধ্যায় ১৯৭৫-৮১-ব্রিগেডিয়ার জেনারেল এম. সাখাওয়াত হোসেন [Bangladesh: a bloody chapter in 1975-81] (in Bengali). Palaka pabalisarsa.
  17. ↑ Bhaumik, Subir (25 February 2009). "Bangladesh's first line of defence". BBC. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  18. ↑ Hossain, Hamza; Islam, Kamrul (April 1974). Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act. Khoshroz Kitab Mahal. pp. 1–2. OCLC 499457300.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Brazen politicization: Bureaucracy, police, army". Holiday. No. 1. 18 December 2015. Archived from the original on 7 December 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
  20. ↑ 20.00 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.10 20.11 20.12 20.13 Mascarenhas, Anthony (1986). Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood. London: Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-39420-5.
  21. ↑ Hossain, Hamza; Islam, Kamrul (April 1974). Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act. Khoshroz Kitab Mahal. pp. 2–4. OCLC 499457300.
  22. ↑ Hossain, Hamza; Islam, Kamrul (April 1974). Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Act. Khoshroz Kitab Mahal. pp. 5–6. OCLC 499457300.
  23. ↑ "Act No. XI of 1974" (PDF). The Bangladesh Gazette, Extra. 7 February 1974. p. 1629. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  24. ↑ দেয়াল [Walls]. Prothom Alo (Review of Novel) (in Bengali). 27 July 2012. Archived from the original on 5 September 2012.
  25. ↑ "The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (Absorption in the Army) Ordinance, 1975". Information System of the Laws of Bangladesh. Government of Bangladesh. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  26. ↑ "Mujib Bahini sowed rift between Bangabandhu, Tajuddin". The Daily Star. 7 September 2014. Retrieved 28 February 2015.
  27. ↑ Ahmed, Humayun (2013). দেয়াল [Walls] (Fiction) (in Bengali). Anyaprakasa. ISBN 978-9845021272.
  28. ↑ Ahmed, Moudud (1984) [First published 1983]. Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 57. ISBN 3-515-04266-0.
  29. ↑ জাসদের মিছিলে রক্ষীবাহিনীর গুলিতে নিহত ৫০. Amar Desh (in Bengali). Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 বিপ্লবীদের ঝাপসা স্মৃতি [Revolutionaries Fuzzy Memory]. Prothom Alo (in Bengali). 4 January 2011. Archived from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
  31. ↑ বুয়েট বাঁচান [Save Technology]. Prothom Alo (in Bengali). 31 July 2012. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012.
  32. ↑ রক্ষীবাহিনীর অজানা অধ্যায়. Bangladesh Pratidin (in Bengali). Retrieved 2 March 2015.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  33. ↑ "Comrade Aruna Sen passes away". The Daily Star. 6 January 2007.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Justice Debesh Bhattacharya protected citizens' rights". No. 1. The New Age. The New Age. 11 September 2015. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  35. ↑ Portraits of repression and anarchy : eras of Mujib & Hasina : dark chapters in Bangladesh's history. Dhaka, Bangladesh: E-Forum. p. 27. OCLC 53019306.
  36. ↑ "The Law Commission" (PDF). Lawcommissionbangladesh.org. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  37. ↑ Ahmed, Moudud (1984) [First published 1983]. Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 56–57. ISBN 3-515-04266-0.
  38. ↑ Ahmed, Moudud (1984) [First published 1983]. Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 59. ISBN 3-515-04266-0.
  39. ↑ Ahmed, Moudud (1984) [First published 1983]. Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 57–58. ISBN 3-515-04266-0.
  40. ↑ Ahmed, Moudud (1984) [First published 1983]. Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 58. ISBN 3-515-04266-0.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Ahmed, Moudud (1984) [First published 1983]. Bangladesh: Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 59–60. ISBN 3-515-04266-0.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 আমার ছেলেদের লেখক হতে আলাদা কোনো পরিবেশ লাগেনি. Kaler Kantho (in Bengali). 3 August 2012. Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
  43. ↑ পড়বে না তাঁর পায়ের চিহ্ন. Amar Desh (in Bengali). Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  44. ↑ জীবন যে রকম - আয়েশা ফয়েজ. amarboi.com (in Bengali).
  45. ↑ "Ignoring Executions and Torture: Impunity for Bangladesh's Security Forces". Human Rights Watch. 18 May 2009. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
  46. ↑ Ahsan, Syed Badrul. "The Awami League in our history". The Bangladesh Chronicle. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
  47. ↑ "Controverse littéraire au Bangladesh - Plus on est de fous, plus on lit! - ICI Radio-Canada Première". Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  48. ↑ "From euphoria to disillusion". The Daily Star. 8 July 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2015.

External links[edit | edit source]

  • Ziring, Lawrence (1993), Bangladesh: From Mujib to Ershad: An Interpretive Study, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195774207.
  • Halim, Abdul (1995), সংবিধান, সাংবিধানিক আইন ও রাজনীতি, CCB Foundation, OCLC 39842685.
  • Siddiqui, Rezwan (1994), কথামালার রাজনীতি, কমলকুঁড়ি প্রকাশনী.
  • Faiz, Ayesha (2008), জীবন যে রকম, সময়, OCLC 278264877.
  • Musa, Ahmed, ইতিহাসের কাঠগড়ায় আওয়ামীলীগ.

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