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{{short description|Ancient culture and kingdom of western and northwestern Tibet}}
{{Short description|Ancient kingdom in western Tibet}}
{{for|the language|Zhangzhung language}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = Xangxung {{Bo-textonly|ཞང་ཞུང་}}
| native_name            = {{Bo-textonly|ཞང་ཞུང་}}
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Zhangzhung
| conventional_long_name = Zhangzhung
| common_name            = Zhang Zhung
| common_name            = Zhangzhung
| image_map              = {{Location map+
| image_map              = {{Location map+
|South Asia
|South Asia
|float      = center
|float      = center
|width      = 270
|width      = 270
|caption    = General location of the Zhangzhung Kingdom, with contemporary neighbouring polities circa 500 CE.
|caption    = General location of Zhangzhung, with contemporary neighbouring polities {{circa}} AD 500
|nodiv      = 1
|nodiv      = 1
|mini      = 1
|mini      = 1
|border=none
|relief=yes
|relief=yes
|places    =
|places    =
{{location map~ |India |lat=27.5|N |long=77|E |label=<div style="text-align: center;">[[Alchon Huns|Alchon<br />Huns]]</div> |label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=27.5|N |long=77|E |label=<div style="text-align: center;">[[Alchon Huns|<span style="color:#4F311CFF>'''Alchon'''<br />Huns</span>]]</div> |label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=36|N |long=67|E |label=[[Hephthalites]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=36|N |long=67|E |label=[[Hephthalites|<span style="color:#4F311CFF>'''Hephthalites'''</span>]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=30|N |long=67|E |label=[[Sassanian Empire|<div style="text-align: center;">Sassanian<br />Empire</div>]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=30|N |long=67|E |label=[[Sassanian Empire|<span style="color:#4F311CFF>'''<div style="text-align: center;">Sassanian<br />Empire</div>'''</span>]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=24|N |long=91|E |label=[[Gupta Empire|Guptas]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=24|N |long=91|E |label=[[Gupta Empire|<span style="color:#4F311CFF>'''Gupta<br>Empire'''</span>]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18|N |long=78|E |label=[[Vakataka dynasty|Vakatakas]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18|N |long=78|E |label=[[Vakataka dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF>'''Vakatakas'''</span>]]|label_size=80|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=31.0698 |N |long=81.3127|E |label=<div style="text-align: center;">Zhangzhung<br />Kingdom</div>|label_size=70|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=31.0698 |N |long=81.3127|E |label=<div style="text-align: center;">'''Zhangzhung'''</div>|label_size=85|mark=1000x1.png|marksize=0 }}
}}
}}
| image_map_caption      =  
| image_map_caption      =  
Line 24: Line 27:
| status                =  
| status                =  
| event_start            =  
| event_start            =  
| year_start            = c. 500 BC
| year_start            = {{circa}} 500 BC
| date_start            =  
| date_start            =  
| event_end              = Conquest of [[Songtsen Gampo]]
| event_end              = Conquest of [[Songtsen Gampo]]
Line 35: Line 38:
| stat_pop1              =  
| stat_pop1              =  
| p1                    = Neolithic Tibet
| p1                    = Neolithic Tibet
| s1                    = Tibetan Empire
| s1                    = Yarlung dynasty
| flag_s1                = Tibetan snow leopard.svg
| s2                    = Tibetan Empire
| capital                = [[Kyunglung]]
| capital                = [[Kyunglung]]
| common_languages      = [[Zhangzhung language]]
| common_languages      = [[Zhang-Zhung language]]
| religion              = [[Bön]]
| religion              = [[Bön]]
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
Line 49: Line 52:
| leader4                =  
| leader4                =  
| year_leader4          =  
| year_leader4          =  
| title_leader          = Brtsanpo
| title_leader          = Tsenpo
| today                  = [[China]]<br />[[India]]<br />[[Nepal]]
| today                  = [[China]]<br />[[India]]<br />[[Nepal]]
}}
}}
{{ Infobox Tibetan-Chinese
| t    = ཞང་ཞུང་
| w    =
| ipa  = ɕaŋɕuŋ
| z    =
| thdl =
| e    =
| tc  =
| s    = 象雄
| p    = Xiàngxióng
}}
'''Zhangzhung''' or '''Shangshung''' was an ancient culture and kingdom in western and northwestern [[Tibet]], which pre-dates the culture of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] in Tibet. Zhangzhung culture is associated with the [[Bon]] religion, which in turn, has influenced the philosophies and practices of Tibetan Buddhism.  Zhangzhung people are mentioned frequently in ancient Tibetan texts as the original rulers of today's central and western Tibet. Only in the last two decades have archaeologists been given access to do archaeological work in the areas once ruled by the Zhangzhung.


A tentative match has been proposed between the Zhangzhung and an [[Iron Age]] culture now being uncovered on the [[Changtang]] plateau in northwestern Tibet.<ref name=tibetarchaeology/>
'''Zhangzhung''' or '''Shangshung''' was an ancient kingdom in western and northwestern [[Tibet]], existing from about 500 BC to 625 AD, pre-dating [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. The Zhangzhung culture is associated with the [[Bon]] religion, which has influenced the philosophies and practices of Tibetan Buddhism. Zhangzhung people are mentioned frequently in ancient Tibetan texts as the original rulers of today's western Tibet. Only in the last two decades have archaeologists been given access to do field work in the areas once ruled by the Zhangzhung.


==Extent of the Zhangzhung kingdoms==
==Extent==
Tradition has it that Zhangzhung consisted "of three different regions: sGob-ba, the outer; Phug-pa, the inner; and Bar-ba, the middle. The outer is what we might call Western Tibet, from [[Gilgit]] in the west to Dangs-ra khyung-rdzong in the east, next to lake gNam-mtsho, and from [[Khotan]] in the north to Chu-mig brgyad-cu rtsa-gnyis in the south. Ladakh, including lahaul and spiti, was part of sGob-ba. The inner region is said to be sTag-gzig (Tazig) [often identified with [[Bactria]]], and the middle rGya-mkhar bar-chod, a place not yet identified." While it is not certain whether Zhangzhung was really so large, it was an independent kingdom and covered the whole of what is today's Western, Ladakh and Gilgit. Tibet.<ref>[[Karmey, Samten G.]] (1979). ''A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon'', p. 180. The Toyo Bunko, Tokyo.</ref><ref>Stein, R. A. (1972). ''Tibetan Civilization''. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. {{ISBN|0-8047-0806-1}} (cloth); {{ISBN|0-8047-0901-7}}.</ref>
Tradition has it that Zhangzhung consisted "of three different regions: Goba, the outer; Phugpa, the inner; and Barba, the middle. The outer is what we might call Western Tibet, from [[Gilgit]] in the west to Dangs-Ra Khyung-rDzong in the east, next to lake Namtso, and from [[Khotan]] in the north to Chu-Mig-brGyad-Cu-gTsa-gNyis in the south. [[Ladakh]], including [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul and Spiti]], was part of Goba. The inner region is said to be Tazig [often identified with [[Bactria]]], and the middle Rgya-Khar-Bar-Chod, a place not yet identified." {{citation needed|date=February 2023}} While it is not certain whether Zhangzhung was really so large, it was an independent kingdom and covered the whole of what is today's Western Tibet, Ladakh and Gilgit.<ref>[[Karmey, Samten G.]] (1979). ''A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon'', p. 180. The Toyo Bunko, Tokyo.</ref><ref>Stein, R. A. (1972). ''Tibetan Civilization''. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. {{ISBN|0-8047-0806-1}} (cloth); {{ISBN|0-8047-0901-7}}.</ref>


The capital city of Zhangzhung was called [[Khyunglung]] ({{bo|t=|w=Khyunglung Ngülkhar |s= |z= |l= }} or {{bo|t=|w=Khyung-lung dngul-mkhar |s= |z= |l= }}), the "Silver Palace of [[Garuda]]", southwest of [[Mount Kailash]] (Mount Ti-se),  which is identified with palaces found in the upper [[Sutlej Valley]].<ref>[[Charles Allen (writer)|Allen, Charles]]. (1999). ''The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History''. Abacus Edition, London. (2000), pp. 266-267; 273-274. {{ISBN|0-349-11142-1}}.</ref>
The capital city of Zhangzhung was called [[Khyunglung]] ({{bo|t=|w=Khyunglung Ngülkhar |s= |z= |l= }}), the "Silver Palace of [[Garuda]]", southwest of [[Mount Kailash]] (Mount Tise),  which is identified with palaces found in the upper [[Sutlej Valley]].<ref>[[Charles Allen (writer)|Allen, Charles]]. (1999). ''The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History''. Abacus Edition, London. (2000), pp. 266–267; 273–274. {{ISBN|0-349-11142-1}}.</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2022}}


According to [[Rolf Alfred Stein]], author of ''Tibetan Civilization'', the area of Shang Shung was not historically a part of Tibet and was a distinctly foreign territory to the Tibetans:<ref name=Stein>''Tibetan Civilization'' by R.A. Stein, Faber and Faber</ref>  
According to [[Rolf Alfred Stein]], author of ''Tibetan Civilization'', the area of Zhangzhung was not historically a part of Tibet and was a distinctly foreign territory to the Tibetans:<ref name=Stein>''Tibetan Civilization'' by R.A. Stein, Faber and Faber</ref>  
{{blockquote|"... then further west, the Tibetans encountered a distinctly foreign nation. - Shangshung, with its capital at Khyunglung. [[Mt. Kailāśa]] (Tise) and [[Lake Manasarovar]] formed part of this country., whose language has come down to us through early documents. Though still unidentified, it seems to be Indo European.... Geographically the country was certainly open to India, both through Nepal and by way of Kashmir and Ladakh. Kailāśa is a holy place for the Indians, who make pilgrimages to it. No one knows how long they have done so, but the cult may well go back to the times when Shangshung was still independent of Tibet.
{{blockquote...{{nbsp}}then further west, the Tibetans encountered a distinctly foreign nation. – Zhangzhung, with its capital at Khyunglung. [[Mt. Kailāśa]] (Tise) and [[Lake Manasarovar]] formed part of this country, whose language has come down to us through early documents. Though still unidentified, it seems to be Indo-European {{nbsp}}.... Geographically the country was certainly open to India, both through Nepal and by way of Kashmir and Ladakh. Kailāśa is a holy place for the Indians, who make pilgrimages to it. No one knows how long they have done so, but the cult may well go back to the times when Zhangzhung was still independent of Tibet.


How far Shangshung stretched to the north, east and west is a mystery.... We have already had an occasion to remark that Shangshung, embracing Kailāśa sacred Mount of the Hindus, may once have had a religion largely borrowed from Hinduism.  The situation may even have lasted for quite a long time. In fact, about 950, the Hindu King of Kabul had a statue of Vişņu, of the Kashmiri type (with three heads), which he claimed had been given him by the king of the Bhota (Tibetans) who, in turn had obtained it from Kailāśa."<ref name=Stein/>}}
How far Zhangzhung stretched to the north, east and west is a mystery{{nbsp}}.... We have already had an occasion to remark that Zhangzhung, embracing Kailāśa sacred Mount of the Hindus, may once have had a religion largely borrowed from Hinduism.  The situation may even have lasted for quite a long time. In fact, about 950, the Hindu King of Kabul had a statue of Vishņu, of the Kashmiri type (with three heads), which he claimed had been given him by the king of the Tibetans who, in turn had obtained it from Kailāśa.<ref name=Stein/>}}


==History of the Zhangzhung==
==History==


===Iron Age culture of the Chang Tang&mdash;the Zhangzhung?===
===Possible Iron Age culture===
Recent archeological work on the [[Chang Tang]] plateau finds evidence of an Iron Age culture which some have tentatively identified as the Zhangzhung.<ref name=tibetarchaeology>{{cite web |url=http://www.tibetarchaeology.com/article1.htm |title=KM-III EXPLORATION REPORT: A Reconnaissance Mission to Locate the Sri Ashtapad Temple. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528222406/http://www.tibetarchaeology.com/article1.htm |archive-date=2010-05-28 |access-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref>
Archeological work on the [[Chang Tang]] plateau in 2010 found possible evidence of an Iron Age culture in the area which some have tentatively identified as that of the Zhangzhung.<ref name=tibetarchaeology>{{cite web |url=http://www.tibetarchaeology.com/article1.htm |title=KM-III EXPLORATION REPORT: A Reconnaissance Mission to Locate the Sri Ashtapad Temple. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528222406/http://www.tibetarchaeology.com/article1.htm |archive-date=2010-05-28 |access-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref>


===The Conquest of Zhangzhung===
===Conquest of Zhangzhung===
[[File:Tibetan empire greatest extent 780s-790s CE.png|thumb|200px|Map showing Zhangzhung and its capital [[Kyunglung]] under the [[Tibetan Empire]]]]
[[File:Tibetan empire greatest extent 780s-790s CE.png|thumb|200px|Map showing Zhangzhung and its capital [[Kyunglung]] under the [[Tibetan Empire]]]]


There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhangzhung during the reign of [[Songtsen Gampo]] (605 or 617&ndash;649) or in the reign of [[Trisong Detsen]] ({{bo|t= |w=Khri-srong-lde-btsan |s= |z= |l= }}), (r. 755 until 797 or 804).<ref>Karmey, Samten G. (1975). "'A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon", p. 180. ''Memoirs of Research Department of The Toyo Bunko'', No, 33. Tokyo.</ref> The records of the ''[[Old Book of Tang|Tang Annals]]'' do, however, seem to clearly place these events in the reign of Songtsen Gampo for they say that in 634, Yangtong (Zhangzhung) and various [[Qiang people|Qiang]] tribes, "altogether submitted to him". Following this he united with the country of Yangtong to defeat the 'Azha or [[Tuyuhun Kingdom|Tuyuhun]], and then conquered two more tribes of Qiang before threatening Songzhou with an army of more than 200,000 men. He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, [[Tibetan attack on Songzhou|attacked Songzhou]]. He apparently finally retreated and apologised and later the emperor granted his request.<ref>Lee, Don Y. (1981). ''The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey'', pp. 7&ndash;9. Eastern Press, Bloomington, IN.</ref><ref>Pelliot, Paul. (1961). ''Histoire ancienne du Tibet'', pp. 3&ndash;4. Librairie d'Amérique et d'orient, Paris.</ref>
There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhangzhung during the reign of [[Songtsen Gampo]] (605 or 617–649) or in the reign of [[Trisong Detsen]] ({{bo|t= |w=Khri-SrONG-iDE-bTsan |s= |z= |l= }}), (r. 755 until 797 or 804).<ref>Karmey, Samten G. (1975). "'A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon", p. 180. ''Memoirs of Research Department of The Toyo Bunko'', No, 33. Tokyo.</ref> The records of the ''[[Old Book of Tang|Tang Annals]]'' do, however, seem to clearly place these events in the reign of Songtsen Gampo for they say that in 634, Yangtong (Zhangzhung) and various [[Qiang people|Qiang]] tribes, "altogether submitted to him". Following this he united with the country of Yangtong to defeat the 'Azha or [[Tuyuhun Kingdom|Tuyuhun]], and then conquered two more tribes of Qiang before threatening Songzhou with an army of more than 200,000 men. He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, [[Tibetan attack on Songzhou|attacked Songzhou]]. He apparently finally retreated and apologised and later the emperor granted his request.<ref>Lee, Don Y. (1981). ''The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey'', pp. 7–9. Eastern Press, Bloomington, IN.</ref><ref>Pelliot, Paul. (1961). ''Histoire ancienne du Tibet'', pp. 3–4. Librairie d'Amérique et d'orient, Paris.</ref>


Early Tibetan accounts say that the Tibetan king and the king of Zhangzhung had married each other's sisters in a political alliance. However, the Tibetan wife of the king of the Zhangzhung complained of poor treatment by the king's principal wife. War ensued, and through the treachery of the Tibetan princess, "King Ligmikya of Zhangzhung, while on his way to ''Sum-ba'' ([[Amdo]] province) was ambushed and killed by King Srongtsen Gampo's soldiers. As a consequence, the Zhangzhung kingdom was annexed to Bod (Central Tibet). Thereafter the new kingdom born of the unification of Zhangzhung and Bod was known as Bod rGyal-khab."<ref>Norbu, Namkhai. (1981). ''The Necklace of Gzi, A Cultural History of Tibet'', p. 30. Information Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama, Dharamsala, H.P., India.</ref><ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987). ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia'', p. 20. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Fourth printing with new afterword and 1st paperback version. {{ISBN|0-691-02469-3}}.</ref><ref>[[Charles Allen (writer)|Allen, Charles]]. ''The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History'', pp. 127&ndash;128. (1999). Reprint: (2000). Abacus, London. {{ISBN|0-349-11142-1}}.</ref> R. A. Stein places the conquest of Zhangzhung in 645.<ref>Stein, R. A. (1972). ''Tibetan Civilization'',  p. 59. Stanford University Press, Stanford California. {{ISBN|0-8047-0806-1}} (cloth); {{ISBN|0-8047-0901-7}}.</ref>
Early Tibetan accounts say that the Tibetan king and the king of Zhangzhung had married each other's sisters in a political alliance. However, the Tibetan wife of the king of the Zhangzhung complained of poor treatment by the king's principal wife. War ensued, and through the treachery of the Tibetan princess, "King Ligmikya of Zhangzhung, while on his way to ''Sumba'' ([[Amdo]] province) was ambushed and killed by King Songtsen Gampo's soldiers. As a consequence, Zhangzhung was annexed to U-Tsang (Central Tibet). Thereafter the new kingdom born of the unification of Zhangzhung and Bod(Tibet) was known as Bod-rGyal-Khab."<ref>Norbu, Namkhai. (1981). ''The Necklace of Gzi, A Cultural History of Tibet'', p. 30. Information Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama, Dharamsala, H.P., India.</ref><ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987). ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia'', p. 20. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Fourth printing with new afterword and 1st paperback version. {{ISBN|0-691-02469-3}}.</ref><ref>[[Charles Allen (writer)|Allen, Charles]]. ''The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History'', pp. 127–128. (1999). Reprint: (2000). Abacus, London. {{ISBN|0-349-11142-1}}.</ref> R. A. Stein places the conquest of Zhangzhung in 645.<ref>Stein, R. A. (1972). ''Tibetan Civilization'',  p. 59. Stanford University Press, Stanford California. {{ISBN|0-8047-0806-1}} (cloth); {{ISBN|0-8047-0901-7}}.</ref>


===Revolt of Zhangzhung in 677===
[[File:Tibetan Thangka Srongtsen Gampo - Wovensouls.jpg|thumb|Tibetan Thangka featuring Songtsen Gampo, courtesy the Wovensouls collection, Singapore]]
Zhangzhung revolted soon after the death of King [[Mangsong Mangtsen]] or Trimang Löntsän ({{bo|t=|w=Khri-mang-slon-rtsan}}, r. 650&ndash;677), the son of [[Songtsen Gampo]], but was brought back under Tibetan control by the "firm governance of the great leaders of the Mgar clan".<ref name="Beckwith1987">Beckwith, Christopher I. ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages,'' 1987, Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02469-3}}, p. 43.</ref>


==The Zhangzhung language==
===677 revolt===
{{Further|Zhangzhung language}}
Zhangzhung revolted soon after the death of King [[Mangsong Mangtsen]] or Trimang Löntsän ({{bo|t=|w=Khri-Mang-sLon-rTsan}}, r. 650–677), the son of [[Songtsen Gampo]], but was brought back under Tibetan control by the "firm governance of the great leaders of the Gar clan".<ref name="Beckwith1987">Beckwith, Christopher I. ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages,'' 1987, Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02469-3}}, p. 43.</ref>


A handful of Zhangzhung texts and 11th century bilingual Tibetan documents attest to a [[Zhang-Zhung language|Zhangzhung language]] which was related to [[Kinnauri language|Kinnauri]]. The [[Bonpo]] claim that the Tibetan writing system is derived from the Zhangzhung alphabet, while modern scholars recognize the clear derivation of Tibetan script from a North Indian script, which accords with non-Bon Tibetan accounts.  
==Zhangzhung language==
{{Further|Zhang-Zhung language}}
 
A handful of Zhangzhung texts and 11th century bilingual Tibetan documents attest to a Zhang-Zhung language which was related to [[Kinnauri language|Kinnauri]]. The [[Bonpo]] claim that the Tibetan writing system is derived from the Zhangzhung alphabet, while modern scholars recognise the clear derivation of Tibetan script from a North Indian script, which accords with non-Bon Tibetan accounts.  
A modern Kinnauri language called by the same name (pronounced locally [[Jangshung language|Jangshung]]) is spoken by 2,000 people in the [[Sutlej Valley]] of Himachal Pradesh who claim to be descendants of the Zhangzhung.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=JNA Ethnologue 14 report for language code:JNA<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
A modern Kinnauri language called by the same name (pronounced locally [[Jangshung language|Jangshung]]) is spoken by 2,000 people in the [[Sutlej Valley]] of Himachal Pradesh who claim to be descendants of the Zhangzhung.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=JNA Ethnologue 14 report for language code:JNA<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>


==Zhangzhung culture's influence in India==
==Cultural legacy==
It is noteworthy that the Bonpo tradition claims that it was founded by a [[Buddhahood|Buddha]]-like figure named [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ligmincha.org/bon/founder.html |title=Bon: Tonpa Shenrab - The Founder of Bon |website=www.ligmincha.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230093707/http://www.ligmincha.org/bon/founder.html |archive-date=2005-12-30}} </ref> to whom are ascribed teachings similar in scope to those ascribed to the historical [[Gautama Buddha]].  Bonpos claim that Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche lived some 18,000 years ago, and visited Tibet from the land of [[Tagzig Olmo Lung Ring]], or [[Shambhala]]. Bonpos also suggest that during this time Lord Shenrab Miwoche's teaching permeated the entire subcontinent and was in part responsible for the development of the Vedic religion. An example of this link is said to be [[Mount Kailash]], which is the center of Zhangzhung culture, and also the most sacred mountain to Hindus. As a result, the Bonpos claim that the supposedly much later teaching at least indirectly owes its origin to Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche.
Bonpo tradition claims that Bon was founded by a [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] named [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ligmincha.org/bon/founder.html |title=Bon: Tonpa Shenrab – The Founder of Bon |website= www.ligmincha.org |url-status=dead | quote = The Founder of Bon religion is the Lord Shenrab Miwo.{{nbsp}}... The Lord Shenrab was born in the Barpo Sogye Palace to the south of Mount Youngdong. He was born a prince, married while young, and had children. At the age of 31 he renounced the world and lived in austerity, teaching the doctrine. |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051230093707/http://www.ligmincha.org/bon/founder.html |archive-date=2005-12-30}}</ref> to whom are ascribed teachings similar in scope to those ascribed to the historical [[Gautama Buddha]].  Bonpos claim that Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche lived some 18,000 years ago, and visited Tibet from the land of Tagzig Olmo Lung Ring, or [[Shambhala]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jigme N. Kazi |date=20 October 2020 |chapter=Buddhism in Tibet |title=Sons of Sikkim: The Rise and Fall of the Namgyal Dynasty of Sikkim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MwDEAAAQBAJ |publication-place=Chennai |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=9781648059810 |access-date=31 October 2022 |quote=The mysterious land of Olmo Lungring is said to be part of a larger geographical region to the northwest of Tibet called Tazig, which scholars identify with Iran or, more properly, Central Asia.{{nbsp}}... According to the 'gZi-brjid,' Olmo Lungring was also known as Shambhala in Sanskrit{{nbsp}}....{{nbsp}}... Bonpos claim that Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche lived some 18,000 years ago, and visited Kongpo in southern Tibet from the land of Tagzig Olmo Lungring or Shambhala.}}</ref> Bonpos also suggest that during this time Lord Shenrab Miwoche's teaching permeated the entire subcontinent and was in part responsible for the development of the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]]. An example of this link is said to be [[Mount Kailash]], which is the center of Zhangzhung culture, and also the most sacred mountain to Hindus. As a result, the Bonpos claim that the supposedly much later Hindu teaching owes its origin – at least indirectly – to Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche.


==See also==
==See also==
Line 105: Line 98:
*[[Zhang Zhung Meri|Zhangzhung Meri]]
*[[Zhang Zhung Meri|Zhangzhung Meri]]
*[[History of Tibet]]
*[[History of Tibet]]
*[[Shambhala Buddhism|Shambala]]
*[[Ngari Prefecture]]
*[[Shambhala|Shambala]]
*[[Guge]]
*[[Guge]]
*[[Purang-Guge Kingdom]]
==References==


==Footnotes==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


=== Sources ===
===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Charles Allen (writer)|Allen, Charles]]. (1999) ''The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History''. Little, Brown and Company. Reprint: 2000 Abacus Books, London. {{ISBN|0-349-11142-1}}.
* [[Charles Allen (writer)|Allen, Charles]]. (1999) ''The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History''. Little, Brown and Company. Reprint: 2000 Abacus Books, London. {{ISBN|0-349-11142-1}}.
* Bellezza, John Vincent: ''Zhangzhung. Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. A Historical and Ethnoarchaeological Study of the Monuments, Rock Art, Texts, and Oral Tradition of the Ancient Tibetan Upland.'' Denkschriften der phil.-hist. Klasse 368. Beitraege zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens 61, Verlag der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2008.
* Bellezza, John Vincent: ''Zhangzhung. Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. A Historical and Ethnoarchaeological Study of the Monuments, Rock Art, Texts, and Oral Tradition of the Ancient Tibetan Upland.'' Denkschriften der phil.-hist. Klasse 368. Beitraege zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens 61, Verlag der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2008.
Line 118: Line 116:
* Stein, R. A. (1961). ''Les tribus anciennes des marches Sino-Tibétaines: légends, classifications et histoire''. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. (In French)
* Stein, R. A. (1961). ''Les tribus anciennes des marches Sino-Tibétaines: légends, classifications et histoire''. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. (In French)
* Zeisler, Bettina. (2010). "Ëast of the Moon and West of the Sun? Approaches to a Land with Many Names, North of Ancient India and South of Khotan". In: ''The Tibet Journal'', Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp.&nbsp;371–463.
* Zeisler, Bettina. (2010). "Ëast of the Moon and West of the Sun? Approaches to a Land with Many Names, North of Ancient India and South of Khotan". In: ''The Tibet Journal'', Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp.&nbsp;371–463.
{{refend}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* Bellezza, John Vincent. (2010). "gShen-rab Myi-bo, His life and times according to Tibet's earliest literary sources". ''Revue d'Etudes Tibétaines'' Number 19 October 2010, pp.&nbsp;31–118.
* Bellezza, John Vincent. (2010). "gShen-rab Myi-bo, His life and times according to Tibet's earliest literary sources". ''Revue d'Études Tibétaines'' Number 19 October 2010, pp.&nbsp;31–118.
* Blezer, Henk. (2010). "Greatly Perfected, in Space and Time: Historicities of the Bon Aural Transmission from Zhangzhung". In: ''The Tibet Journal'', Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp.&nbsp;71–160.
* Blezer, Henk. (2010). "Greatly Perfected, in Space and Time: Historicities of the Bon Aural Transmission from Zhangzhung". In: ''The Tibet Journal'', Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp.&nbsp;71–160.
* Zeisler, Bettina (2010). "East of the Moon and West of the Sun? Approaches to a Land with Many Names, North of Northern India and South of Khotan". In: The Earth Ox Papers. Special Issue. ''The Tibet Journal'', Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n 3-Summer 2010 vol. SSSV n. 2. Edited by Roberto Vitali. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India. pp.&nbsp;371–463.
* Zeisler, Bettina (2010). "East of the Moon and West of the Sun? Approaches to a Land with Many Names, North of Northern India and South of Khotan". In: The Earth Ox Papers. Special Issue. ''The Tibet Journal'', Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n 3-Summer 2010 vol. SSSV n. 2. Edited by Roberto Vitali. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India. pp.&nbsp;371–463.
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[[Category:Dzogchen]]
[[Category:Dzogchen]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]
[[Category:History of Tibet]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]
[[Category:Iron Age Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age Asia]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 7th century]]
[[Category:Tibetan archaeology]]
[[Category:Tibetan archaeology]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of Nepal]]

Latest revision as of 03:48, 28 December 2025


For the language, see Zhangzhung language.

Zhangzhung
ཞང་ཞུང་
c. 500 BC–625 AD[1]
General location of Zhangzhung, with contemporary neighbouring polities c. AD 500
CapitalKyunglung
Common languagesZhang-Zhung language
Religion
Bön
GovernmentMonarchy
Tsenpo 
Historical eraIron Age to Classical Antiquity
• Established
c. 500 BC
• Conquest of Songtsen Gampo
625 AD[1]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Neolithic Tibet
Yarlung dynasty
Tibetan Empire
Today part ofChina
India
Nepal

Zhangzhung or Shangshung was an ancient kingdom in western and northwestern Tibet, existing from about 500 BC to 625 AD, pre-dating Tibetan Buddhism. The Zhangzhung culture is associated with the Bon religion, which has influenced the philosophies and practices of Tibetan Buddhism. Zhangzhung people are mentioned frequently in ancient Tibetan texts as the original rulers of today's western Tibet. Only in the last two decades have archaeologists been given access to do field work in the areas once ruled by the Zhangzhung.

Extent[edit | edit source]

Tradition has it that Zhangzhung consisted "of three different regions: Goba, the outer; Phugpa, the inner; and Barba, the middle. The outer is what we might call Western Tibet, from Gilgit in the west to Dangs-Ra Khyung-rDzong in the east, next to lake Namtso, and from Khotan in the north to Chu-Mig-brGyad-Cu-gTsa-gNyis in the south. Ladakh, including Lahaul and Spiti, was part of Goba. The inner region is said to be Tazig [often identified with Bactria], and the middle Rgya-Khar-Bar-Chod, a place not yet identified." [citation needed] While it is not certain whether Zhangzhung was really so large, it was an independent kingdom and covered the whole of what is today's Western Tibet, Ladakh and Gilgit.[2][3]

The capital city of Zhangzhung was called Khyunglung (Wylie: Khyunglung Ngülkhar), the "Silver Palace of Garuda", southwest of Mount Kailash (Mount Tise), which is identified with palaces found in the upper Sutlej Valley.[4][better source needed]

According to Rolf Alfred Stein, author of Tibetan Civilization, the area of Zhangzhung was not historically a part of Tibet and was a distinctly foreign territory to the Tibetans:[5] {{blockquote... then further west, the Tibetans encountered a distinctly foreign nation. – Zhangzhung, with its capital at Khyunglung. Mt. Kailāśa (Tise) and Lake Manasarovar formed part of this country, whose language has come down to us through early documents. Though still unidentified, it seems to be Indo-European  .... Geographically the country was certainly open to India, both through Nepal and by way of Kashmir and Ladakh. Kailāśa is a holy place for the Indians, who make pilgrimages to it. No one knows how long they have done so, but the cult may well go back to the times when Zhangzhung was still independent of Tibet.

How far Zhangzhung stretched to the north, east and west is a mystery .... We have already had an occasion to remark that Zhangzhung, embracing Kailāśa sacred Mount of the Hindus, may once have had a religion largely borrowed from Hinduism. The situation may even have lasted for quite a long time. In fact, about 950, the Hindu King of Kabul had a statue of Vishņu, of the Kashmiri type (with three heads), which he claimed had been given him by the king of the Tibetans who, in turn had obtained it from Kailāśa.[5]}}

History[edit | edit source]

Possible Iron Age culture[edit | edit source]

Archeological work on the Chang Tang plateau in 2010 found possible evidence of an Iron Age culture in the area which some have tentatively identified as that of the Zhangzhung.[6]

Conquest of Zhangzhung[edit | edit source]

Map showing Zhangzhung and its capital Kyunglung under the Tibetan Empire

There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhangzhung during the reign of Songtsen Gampo (605 or 617–649) or in the reign of Trisong Detsen (Wylie: Khri-SrONG-iDE-bTsan), (r. 755 until 797 or 804).[7] The records of the Tang Annals do, however, seem to clearly place these events in the reign of Songtsen Gampo for they say that in 634, Yangtong (Zhangzhung) and various Qiang tribes, "altogether submitted to him". Following this he united with the country of Yangtong to defeat the 'Azha or Tuyuhun, and then conquered two more tribes of Qiang before threatening Songzhou with an army of more than 200,000 men. He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, attacked Songzhou. He apparently finally retreated and apologised and later the emperor granted his request.[8][9]

Early Tibetan accounts say that the Tibetan king and the king of Zhangzhung had married each other's sisters in a political alliance. However, the Tibetan wife of the king of the Zhangzhung complained of poor treatment by the king's principal wife. War ensued, and through the treachery of the Tibetan princess, "King Ligmikya of Zhangzhung, while on his way to Sumba (Amdo province) was ambushed and killed by King Songtsen Gampo's soldiers. As a consequence, Zhangzhung was annexed to U-Tsang (Central Tibet). Thereafter the new kingdom born of the unification of Zhangzhung and Bod(Tibet) was known as Bod-rGyal-Khab."[10][11][12] R. A. Stein places the conquest of Zhangzhung in 645.[13]

Tibetan Thangka featuring Songtsen Gampo, courtesy the Wovensouls collection, Singapore

677 revolt[edit | edit source]

Zhangzhung revolted soon after the death of King Mangsong Mangtsen or Trimang Löntsän (Wylie: Khri-Mang-sLon-rTsan, r. 650–677), the son of Songtsen Gampo, but was brought back under Tibetan control by the "firm governance of the great leaders of the Gar clan".[14]

Zhangzhung language[edit | edit source]

Further information: Zhang-Zhung language

A handful of Zhangzhung texts and 11th century bilingual Tibetan documents attest to a Zhang-Zhung language which was related to Kinnauri. The Bonpo claim that the Tibetan writing system is derived from the Zhangzhung alphabet, while modern scholars recognise the clear derivation of Tibetan script from a North Indian script, which accords with non-Bon Tibetan accounts. A modern Kinnauri language called by the same name (pronounced locally Jangshung) is spoken by 2,000 people in the Sutlej Valley of Himachal Pradesh who claim to be descendants of the Zhangzhung.[15]

Cultural legacy[edit | edit source]

Bonpo tradition claims that Bon was founded by a Buddha named Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche,[16] to whom are ascribed teachings similar in scope to those ascribed to the historical Gautama Buddha. Bonpos claim that Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche lived some 18,000 years ago, and visited Tibet from the land of Tagzig Olmo Lung Ring, or Shambhala.[17] Bonpos also suggest that during this time Lord Shenrab Miwoche's teaching permeated the entire subcontinent and was in part responsible for the development of the Vedic religion. An example of this link is said to be Mount Kailash, which is the center of Zhangzhung culture, and also the most sacred mountain to Hindus. As a result, the Bonpos claim that the supposedly much later Hindu teaching owes its origin – at least indirectly – to Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche.

See also[edit | edit source]

Template:History of Tibet

References[edit | edit source]

Citations[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Aldenderfer, Mark (2007). "Defining Zhang Zhung ethnicity: an archaeological perspective from far western Tibet". In Amy Heller and Giacomella Orofino (ed.). Discoveries in Western Tibet and the Western Himalayas: Essays on History, Literature, Archaeology and Art. Tibetan Studies, Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. Leiden: Brill. pp. 1–22. ISBN 978-90-04-15520-6.
  2. ↑ Karmey, Samten G. (1979). A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon, p. 180. The Toyo Bunko, Tokyo.
  3. ↑ Stein, R. A. (1972). Tibetan Civilization. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.
  4. ↑ Allen, Charles. (1999). The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History. Abacus Edition, London. (2000), pp. 266–267; 273–274. ISBN 0-349-11142-1.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Tibetan Civilization by R.A. Stein, Faber and Faber
  6. ↑ "KM-III EXPLORATION REPORT: A Reconnaissance Mission to Locate the Sri Ashtapad Temple". Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  7. ↑ Karmey, Samten G. (1975). "'A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon", p. 180. Memoirs of Research Department of The Toyo Bunko, No, 33. Tokyo.
  8. ↑ Lee, Don Y. (1981). The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey, pp. 7–9. Eastern Press, Bloomington, IN.
  9. ↑ Pelliot, Paul. (1961). Histoire ancienne du Tibet, pp. 3–4. Librairie d'Amérique et d'orient, Paris.
  10. ↑ Norbu, Namkhai. (1981). The Necklace of Gzi, A Cultural History of Tibet, p. 30. Information Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama, Dharamsala, H.P., India.
  11. ↑ Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia, p. 20. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Fourth printing with new afterword and 1st paperback version. ISBN 0-691-02469-3.
  12. ↑ Allen, Charles. The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History, pp. 127–128. (1999). Reprint: (2000). Abacus, London. ISBN 0-349-11142-1.
  13. ↑ Stein, R. A. (1972). Tibetan Civilization, p. 59. Stanford University Press, Stanford California. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.
  14. ↑ Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages, 1987, Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, p. 43.
  15. ↑ Ethnologue 14 report for language code:JNA
  16. ↑ "Bon: Tonpa Shenrab – The Founder of Bon". www.ligmincha.org. Archived from the original on 2005-12-30. The Founder of Bon religion is the Lord Shenrab Miwo. ... The Lord Shenrab was born in the Barpo Sogye Palace to the south of Mount Youngdong. He was born a prince, married while young, and had children. At the age of 31 he renounced the world and lived in austerity, teaching the doctrine.
  17. ↑ Jigme N. Kazi (20 October 2020). "Buddhism in Tibet". Sons of Sikkim: The Rise and Fall of the Namgyal Dynasty of Sikkim. Chennai: Notion Press. ISBN 9781648059810. Retrieved 31 October 2022. The mysterious land of Olmo Lungring is said to be part of a larger geographical region to the northwest of Tibet called Tazig, which scholars identify with Iran or, more properly, Central Asia. ... According to the 'gZi-brjid,' Olmo Lungring was also known as Shambhala in Sanskrit .... ... Bonpos claim that Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche lived some 18,000 years ago, and visited Kongpo in southern Tibet from the land of Tagzig Olmo Lungring or Shambhala.

Sources[edit | edit source]

  • Allen, Charles. (1999) The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History. Little, Brown and Company. Reprint: 2000 Abacus Books, London. ISBN 0-349-11142-1.
  • Bellezza, John Vincent: Zhangzhung. Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. A Historical and Ethnoarchaeological Study of the Monuments, Rock Art, Texts, and Oral Tradition of the Ancient Tibetan Upland. Denkschriften der phil.-hist. Klasse 368. Beitraege zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens 61, Verlag der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2008.
  • Hummel, Siegbert. (2000). On Zhang-zhung. Edited and translated by Guido Vogliotti. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. Dharamsala, H.P., India. ISBN 81-86470-24-7.
  • Karmey, Samten G. (1975). A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon. Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko, No. 33, pp. 171–218. Tokyo.
  • Stein, R. A. (1961). Les tribus anciennes des marches Sino-Tibétaines: légends, classifications et histoire. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. (In French)
  • Zeisler, Bettina. (2010). "Ëast of the Moon and West of the Sun? Approaches to a Land with Many Names, North of Ancient India and South of Khotan". In: The Tibet Journal, Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp. 371–463.

Further reading[edit | edit source]

  • Bellezza, John Vincent. (2010). "gShen-rab Myi-bo, His life and times according to Tibet's earliest literary sources". Revue d'Études Tibétaines Number 19 October 2010, pp. 31–118.
  • Blezer, Henk. (2010). "Greatly Perfected, in Space and Time: Historicities of the Bon Aural Transmission from Zhangzhung". In: The Tibet Journal, Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp. 71–160.
  • Zeisler, Bettina (2010). "East of the Moon and West of the Sun? Approaches to a Land with Many Names, North of Northern India and South of Khotan". In: The Earth Ox Papers. Special Issue. The Tibet Journal, Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n 3-Summer 2010 vol. SSSV n. 2. Edited by Roberto Vitali. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India. pp. 371–463.

External links[edit | edit source]

Template:Tibet topics

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