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| speakers = all Kinnauri varieties: {{sigfig|83,561|2}}; | | speakers = all Kinnauri varieties: {{sigfig|83,561|2}}; | ||
Kinnauri proper: about 45,000 | Kinnauri proper: about 45,000 | ||
| date = 2011 census | | date = 2011 census<!--census for all Kinnauri lects--> | ||
| ref = | | ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2018-07-07}}</ref><!--census for all Kinnauri lects--> | ||
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan | | familycolor = Sino-Tibetan | ||
| fam2 = [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] ? | | fam2 = [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] ? | ||
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}} | }} | ||
'''Kinnauri''' is the most widely used language in [[Kinnaur]]. The languages have seen different nomenclatures in written literature. Kinnauri was mentioned as '''Kunawaree''' (Gerard 1842, Cunninham 1844), '''Kanauri''' (Konow 1905), '''Kanawari''' (Bailey 1909) and '''Kunawari''' (Grierson 1909). | '''Kinnauri''' is the most widely used language in [[Kinnaur]]. The languages have seen different nomenclatures in written literature. Kinnauri was mentioned as '''Kunawaree''' (Gerard 1842, Cunninham 1844), '''Kanauri''' (Konow 1905), '''Kanawari''' (Bailey 1909) and '''Kunawari''' (Grierson 1909).<ref>NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “Languages of Kannaura Tribe.” Languages of INDIAN HIMALAYAS, 2021.</ref> It is the language of the upper castes in lower Kinnaur.<ref>NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “LANGUAGE USE, PRESTIGE AND VITALITY OF LANGUAGES IN KINNAUR.” International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, 2023.</ref> It is also spoken in Moorang tehsil and, Ropa and Giabong villages in upper Kinnaur. It is a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] [[dialect cluster]] centered on the [[Kinnaur district]] of the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]]. | ||
[[Kaike language|Kaike]], once thought to be Kinnauri, is closer to [[Tamangic languages|Tamangic]]. [[Bhoti Kinnauri language|Bhoti Kinnauri]] and [[Tukpa language|Tukpa]] (locally called Chhoyuli) are [[Bodish languages|Bodish]] ([[Lahuli–Spiti languages|Lahauli–Spiti]]). | [[Kaike language|Kaike]], once thought to be Kinnauri, is closer to [[Tamangic languages|Tamangic]]. [[Bhoti Kinnauri language|Bhoti Kinnauri]] and [[Tukpa language|Tukpa]] (locally called Chhoyuli) are [[Bodish languages|Bodish]] ([[Lahuli–Spiti languages|Lahauli–Spiti]]). | ||
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[[Pahari Kinnauri language|'''''Pahari Kinnauri''''']] is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language of [[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]] spoken mainly by the scheduled caste community of Nichar, Kalpa, Sangla and Moorang tehsils in Kinnaur. It has a population of 9000. | [[Pahari Kinnauri language|'''''Pahari Kinnauri''''']] is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language of [[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]] spoken mainly by the scheduled caste community of Nichar, Kalpa, Sangla and Moorang tehsils in Kinnaur. It has a population of 9000. | ||
In absence of a detailed sociolinguistic survey on language use, the actual number of fluent speakers of KLs is unknown. The actual number of speakers is much lower than the total population. Census data include native as well as the non native and the migratory workers in the survey. | In absence of a detailed sociolinguistic survey on language use, the actual number of fluent speakers of KLs is unknown. The actual number of speakers is much lower than the total population. Census data include native as well as the non native and the migratory workers in the survey.<ref>NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “LANGUAGE USE, PRESTIGE AND VITALITY OF LANGUAGES IN KINNAUR.” International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, 2023.</ref> | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3| [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] | ! rowspan=3| [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] | ||
! | ! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small> | ||
| {{IPA link|b}} | | {{IPA link|b}} | ||
| {{IPA link|d}} | | {{IPA link|d}} | ||
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| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small> | ||
| {{IPA link|p}} | | {{IPA link|p}} | ||
|{{IPA link|t}} | |{{IPA link|t}} | ||
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| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! <small>[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small> | ||
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} | | {{IPA link|pʰ}} | ||
|{{IPA link|tʰ}} | |{{IPA link|tʰ}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] | ! rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] | ||
! | ! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small> | ||
| | | | ||
| {{IPA link|dz}} | | {{IPA link|dz}} | ||
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| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small> | ||
| | | | ||
| {{IPA link|ts}} | | {{IPA link|ts}} | ||
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| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! <small>[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small> | ||
| | | | ||
| {{IPA link|tsʰ}} | | {{IPA link|tsʰ}} | ||
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phrase, modifiers precede the head noun, causative occurs after main verb, marker of comparison follows the standard of comparison, negatives are pre-verbal, auxiliary follows | phrase, modifiers precede the head noun, causative occurs after main verb, marker of comparison follows the standard of comparison, negatives are pre-verbal, auxiliary follows | ||
the main verb, anaphor follows the antecedent and main clause precedes the subordinate clause. It exhibits some exceptions in SOV language features. SOV language should have | the main verb, anaphor follows the antecedent and main clause precedes the subordinate clause. It exhibits some exceptions in SOV language features. SOV language should have | ||
preposed genitives and adjective should follow noun. But Kinnauri has postpositional genitive and the adjective precedes the noun. | preposed genitives and adjective should follow noun. But Kinnauri has postpositional genitive and the adjective precedes the noun.<ref>NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “Typological Characteristics of Kinnauri.” Interdisciplinary Journal of LinguisticC, KU Srinagar, India 5 (2012): 329–48.</ref> | ||
== Script == | == Script == | ||
| Line 209: | Line 209: | ||
==Language vitality== | ==Language vitality== | ||
Kinnaura people are bilinguals who speak Hindi along with their mother tongue. Hindi is the main lingua franca for people from different language groups in Kinnaur. It is also the main language in schools, colleges, government offices, market place, banks and more such domains. Younger generation is exposed to entertainment media like movies, music, mobile phone, newspapers etc., in Hindi. Kinnauri songs beings produced show heavy influence of Hindi. Young learners are encouraged to learn and speak Hindi in order to benefit in education and employment in future. Fluent speakers of Kinnauri are only the elders or the mid aged people who have little exposure to the outer world or are still unaffected by the modernity. But whether the next generation will inherit the cultural knowledge or the legacy of ancestors is doubted. From UNESCO factors study, all languages in Kinnaur region are definitely endangered, inter-generational transmission is unsafe, number of speakers using Kinnauri as first language is very low, domains are shifting, Hindi is replacing Kinnauri in most domains, there is lack of literary traditions, government support towards the protection and promotion of Kinnaur language or culture is absent, very little is known about the linguistic structure of the languages in the region. | Kinnaura people are bilinguals who speak Hindi along with their mother tongue. Hindi is the main lingua franca for people from different language groups in Kinnaur. It is also the main language in schools, colleges, government offices, market place, banks and more such domains. Younger generation is exposed to entertainment media like movies, music, mobile phone, newspapers etc., in Hindi. Kinnauri songs beings produced show heavy influence of Hindi. Young learners are encouraged to learn and speak Hindi in order to benefit in education and employment in future. Fluent speakers of Kinnauri are only the elders or the mid aged people who have little exposure to the outer world or are still unaffected by the modernity. But whether the next generation will inherit the cultural knowledge or the legacy of ancestors is doubted. From UNESCO factors study, all languages in Kinnaur region are definitely endangered, inter-generational transmission is unsafe, number of speakers using Kinnauri as first language is very low, domains are shifting, Hindi is replacing Kinnauri in most domains, there is lack of literary traditions, government support towards the protection and promotion of Kinnaur language or culture is absent, very little is known about the linguistic structure of the languages in the region.<ref>NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “LANGUAGE USE, PRESTIGE AND VITALITY OF LANGUAGES IN KINNAUR.” International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, 2023.</ref> | ||
Like other tribal languages, Kinnauri too may lose much of its linguistic characteristics due to lack of proper documentation and government support and community apathy as well. Among urgent measures, Kinnauri languages need community collaborative efforts to document and discuss among the locals, scholars, linguists and researchers.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} | Like other tribal languages, Kinnauri too may lose much of its linguistic characteristics due to lack of proper documentation and government support and community apathy as well. Among urgent measures, Kinnauri languages need community collaborative efforts to document and discuss among the locals, scholars, linguists and researchers.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} | ||
Latest revision as of 12:32, 22 March 2026
| Kinnauri | |
|---|---|
| 𑚊𑚝𑚦𑚤𑚮𑚎𑚨𑚶𑚊𑚛, Kanawaringskad, ཀནབརིངསྐད | |
 | |
| Region | Himachal Pradesh |
Native speakers | all Kinnauri varieties: 84,000; Kinnauri proper: about 45,000 (2011 census)[1] |
Sino-Tibetan
| |
| Dialects | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Variously:kfk – Kinnauri propercik – Chitkuli Kinnaurissk – Sunam (Thebor)[citation needed]jna – Jangshung (Thebor)scu – Shumcho (Thebor) |
| Glottolog | kinn1250 |
| Jangshung[2] | |
Kinnauri is the most widely used language in Kinnaur. The languages have seen different nomenclatures in written literature. Kinnauri was mentioned as Kunawaree (Gerard 1842, Cunninham 1844), Kanauri (Konow 1905), Kanawari (Bailey 1909) and Kunawari (Grierson 1909).[3] It is the language of the upper castes in lower Kinnaur.[4] It is also spoken in Moorang tehsil and, Ropa and Giabong villages in upper Kinnaur. It is a Sino-Tibetan dialect cluster centered on the Kinnaur district of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh.
Kaike, once thought to be Kinnauri, is closer to Tamangic. Bhoti Kinnauri and Tukpa (locally called Chhoyuli) are Bodish (Lahauli–Spiti).
Linguistic varieties and geographical distribution[edit | edit source]
Kinnaur has nearly ten linguistic varieties, with Kinnauri being the major language. Ethnologue lists the following locations for Kinnauri proper and related languages.
Kinnauri is spoken in the villages from Badhal Rampur Bushahr to Sangla and north along Satluj river to Morang. Mainly the Kinnauri-speaking area is located in lower parts of Kinnaur district in Himachal Pradesh. The estimated population of Kinnauri speaking people is 45,000.
Chitkuli Kinnauri is spoken by a thousand people in the Baspa river area of the Sangla valley in Nichar subdivision, Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh (in Chitkul and Rakchham villages).
Jangshung is spoken in Morang tehsil, Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh (in Jangi, Lippa, and Asrang villages). These villages have a population of nearly 2600.
Sumcho is spoken in Poo tehsil, Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh (in Kanam, Labrang, Spilo, Shyaso, Taling, and Rushkaling villages) by a population of 2500.
Bhoti Kinnauri is spoken in Poo division of upper Kinnaur. The language shows slight phonemic variations in the valley. Main varieties are spoken in Poo Hangrang and Nako villages. It is a generic Tibetan language spoken by nearly 7000 people.
Chhoyuli is a Tibetic language spoken in Nesang and Kunnu Charan villages of Poo division in upper Kinnaur. It has a population of around 700. The language is considered a variety of Bhoti Kinnauri but is shows enough characteristics to stand as an independent language.
Sunnami language is spoken in Sunnam village of Poo division in upper Kinnaur. It has a population of about 700.
Pahari Kinnauri is an Indo-Aryan language of Kinnaur spoken mainly by the scheduled caste community of Nichar, Kalpa, Sangla and Moorang tehsils in Kinnaur. It has a population of 9000.
In absence of a detailed sociolinguistic survey on language use, the actual number of fluent speakers of KLs is unknown. The actual number of speakers is much lower than the total population. Census data include native as well as the non native and the migratory workers in the survey.[5]
Phonology[edit | edit source]
This description is of the Pangi dialect of Kinnauri.
Consonants[edit | edit source]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | |||
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɡ | ||
| voiceless | p | t | ʈ | k | |||
| aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | ʈʰ | kʰ | |||
| Affricate | voiced | dz | dʒ | ||||
| voiceless | ts | tʃ | |||||
| aspirated | tsʰ | tʃʰ | |||||
| Fricative | s | ʃ | h | ||||
| Trill | r | ||||||
| Approximant | l | j | w | ||||
Note on palatals: /dʒ/, /tʃ/, /tʃʰ/, and /ʃ/ are post-alveolar. /ɲ/ is alveolo-palatal.
Vowels[edit | edit source]
Kinnauri has six pairs of long/short vowels:
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | ɨ | u |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Open | a |
Syllables[edit | edit source]
/h/, aspirated obstruents (i.e. /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /ʈʰ/, /kʰ/, /t͡sʰ/, /t͡ʃʰ/), and glides (i.e. /w/, /j/) do not occur in syllable codas.
All consonants may occur in onsets and word-medially.
Kinnauri has the following types of syllables:
- (C)V(C)(C)(C)
- CCV(C)
- CCCVC
Grammar[edit | edit source]
Word order in Kinnari is SOV, it is a postpositional language, it shows agreement in person number features, adjective precedes head in the noun phrase, modifiers precede the head noun, causative occurs after main verb, marker of comparison follows the standard of comparison, negatives are pre-verbal, auxiliary follows the main verb, anaphor follows the antecedent and main clause precedes the subordinate clause. It exhibits some exceptions in SOV language features. SOV language should have preposed genitives and adjective should follow noun. But Kinnauri has postpositional genitive and the adjective precedes the noun.[6]
Script[edit | edit source]
The language does not have a script. It is an oral language
Language vitality[edit | edit source]
Kinnaura people are bilinguals who speak Hindi along with their mother tongue. Hindi is the main lingua franca for people from different language groups in Kinnaur. It is also the main language in schools, colleges, government offices, market place, banks and more such domains. Younger generation is exposed to entertainment media like movies, music, mobile phone, newspapers etc., in Hindi. Kinnauri songs beings produced show heavy influence of Hindi. Young learners are encouraged to learn and speak Hindi in order to benefit in education and employment in future. Fluent speakers of Kinnauri are only the elders or the mid aged people who have little exposure to the outer world or are still unaffected by the modernity. But whether the next generation will inherit the cultural knowledge or the legacy of ancestors is doubted. From UNESCO factors study, all languages in Kinnaur region are definitely endangered, inter-generational transmission is unsafe, number of speakers using Kinnauri as first language is very low, domains are shifting, Hindi is replacing Kinnauri in most domains, there is lack of literary traditions, government support towards the protection and promotion of Kinnaur language or culture is absent, very little is known about the linguistic structure of the languages in the region.[7] Like other tribal languages, Kinnauri too may lose much of its linguistic characteristics due to lack of proper documentation and government support and community apathy as well. Among urgent measures, Kinnauri languages need community collaborative efforts to document and discuss among the locals, scholars, linguists and researchers.[citation needed]
See also[edit | edit source]
- Kanashi language of Malana, Himachal Pradesh, mutually intelligible with Kinnauri
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
- ↑ Endangered Languages Project data for Jangshung.
- ↑ NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “Languages of Kannaura Tribe.” Languages of INDIAN HIMALAYAS, 2021.
- ↑ NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “LANGUAGE USE, PRESTIGE AND VITALITY OF LANGUAGES IN KINNAUR.” International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, 2023.
- ↑ NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “LANGUAGE USE, PRESTIGE AND VITALITY OF LANGUAGES IN KINNAUR.” International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, 2023.
- ↑ NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “Typological Characteristics of Kinnauri.” Interdisciplinary Journal of LinguisticC, KU Srinagar, India 5 (2012): 329–48.
- ↑ NEGI, HARVINDER K U M A R. “LANGUAGE USE, PRESTIGE AND VITALITY OF LANGUAGES IN KINNAUR.” International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, 2023.
Bibliography[edit | edit source]
- Nagano, Yasuhiko; LaPolla, Randy J., eds. (2001). New research on Zhangzhung and related Himalayan languages. Bon studies. Vol. 3. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
- Negi, Harvinder Kumar. (2023). Language use, prestige and vitality of languages in kinnaur (https://www.academia.edu/105610420/LANGUAGE_USE_PRESTIGE_AND_VITALITY_OF_LANGUAGES_IN_KINNAUR). International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics.
- Negi, Harvinder Kumar. (2021). Languages of kannaura tribe (https://www.academia.edu/50932512/Languages_of_kannaura_tribe). Languages of INDIAN HIMALAYAS, .
- Negi, Harvinder (2012). "A Sociolinguistic profile of the Kinnaura tribe" (PDF). Nepalese Linguistics. 27: 101–105. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
- Nishi 西, Yoshio 義郎 (1993a). "カナウル語" [Kanauru language]. In 亀井 Kamei, 孝 Takashi; 河野 Kōno, 六郎 Rokurō; 千野 Chino, 栄一 Eichi (eds.). 三省堂言語学大辞典 The Sanseido Encyclopaedia of Linguistics (in Japanese). Vol. 5. Tokyo: 三省堂 Sanseido Press. pp. 75b–86b. ISBN 4385152144.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Perumalsamy, P (2022). "Kinnauri language". Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. Himachal Pradesh. New Delhi: Language Division, Office of the Registrar General India. pp. 935–1028.
- Takahashi, Yoshiharu (2001). "A descriptive study of Kinnauri (Pangi dialect): A preliminary report". In Nagano, Yasuhiko; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.). New research on Zhangzhung and related Himalayan languages. Vol. 19. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. pp. 97–119. doi:10.15021/00002143.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) - Takahashi, Yoshiharu (2007). "On the deictic patterns in Kinnauri (Pangi dialect)". In Bielmeier, Roland; Haller, Felix (eds.). Linguistics of the Himalayas and beyond. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 341–354.
- Takahashi, Yoshiharu (2009). Nagano, Yasuhiko (ed.). "On the Verbal Affixes in West Himalayan". Senri Ethnological Studies. 75: Issues in Tibeto-Burman Historical Linguistics: 21–49. doi:10.15021/00002556. ISSN 0387-6004.
- Takahashi, Yoshiharu (2012). Nakamura, Wataru; Kikusawa, Ritsuko (eds.). "On a Middle Voice Suffix in Kinnauri (Pangi dialect) Yoshiharu". Senri Ethnological Studies. 77 (77): 157–175. doi:10.15021/00002533.