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|name              = Chola military
|name              = Chola military
|native_name        = சோழர் படை
|native_name        = சோழர் படை
|image              = [[File:Chola flag.png|150px]]
|image              =  
|caption            = '''Note''': The flag is designed without reference for illustrating the [[Chola Flag]]
|caption            =  
|image2            =
|image2            =
|caption2          =
|caption2          =
|founded            = 300 BC
|founded            = Unknown date
|current_form      =
|current_form      =
|disbanded          = 1280 AD
|disbanded          = 1280 AD
|branches          = Chola military
|headquarters      = * [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]]  
*Chariot Corps
*[[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]], [[Chola Empire]]
*Elephant Corps
*Cavalry Corps
*Infantry Corps
*Auxiliary Forces
*Other
**Archers
**Swordsman
**Velaikkarappadaigal (Guards regiment)
**Strike Corps
**Medical Corps
[[Chola Navy]]
* Kanni (tactical formation)
* Thalam (self-sustained unit)
* Mandalam (Task force)
* Ganam (Fleet-Squadron)
* Ani (battle group)
* Pirivu (Fleet)
|headquarters      = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]]
|flying_hours      =
|flying_hours      =
<!-- Leadership -->
<!-- Leadership -->
|commander-in-chief =   [[Chakravarti]] or [[Maharaja]]
|commander-in-chief =
|commander-in-chief_title= [[Commander-in-chief|Supreme Commander]]
|commander-in-chief_title=  
|minister          =   
|minister          =   
|minister_title    =   
|minister_title    =   
|commander          = [[Senaithalaivar]]
|commander          =  
|commander_title    = [[Commander-in-chief]] or [[Commander]]
|commander_title    =  
<!-- Manpower -->
<!-- Manpower -->
|age                =
|age                =
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|imports            =
|imports            =
|exports            =
|exports            =
<!-- Related aricles -->
<!-- Engagements -->
|history            = Invasions
|history            = Wars
* [[Chola occupation of Anuradhapura|Invasion of Anuradhapura, 993]]
* [[Chola expedition to North India|Annexation of Kalinga and Bengal, 1019–1024]]
* [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I|South-East Asia campaign, 1025]]
* [[Chola–Chalukya wars]]
*[[Pandyan Civil War (1169–1177)]]
Invasions
* [[Chola occupation of Anuradhapura|Conquest of Anuradhapura, 993]]
* [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|Invasion of Srivijaya, 1025]]
* [[Chola invasion of Kadaram (1068)|Invasion of Kadaram, 1068]]
* [[Chola invasion of Kadaram (1068)|Invasion of Kadaram, 1068]]
* [[Chola invasion of Kalinga (1097)|Invasion of Kalinga, 1097]]
* [[Chola invasion of Kalinga (1097)|Invasion of Kalinga, 1097]]
* [[Chola invasion of Kalinga (1110)|Invasion of Kalinga, 1110]]
* [[Chola invasion of Kalinga (1110)|Invasion of Kalinga, 1110]]
Battles
Battles
*[[Battle of Vijithapura|Battle of Vijuthapura(161 or 162 BC)]]
*[[Battle of Venni|Battle of Venni (130 CE)]]
*[[Battle of Takkolam|Battle of Takkolam (949 CE)]]
*[[Battle of Takkolam|Battle of Takkolam (949 CE)]]
*[[Battle of Kandalur Salai|Battle of Kandalur Salai (988 CE)]]
*[[Battle of Kandalur Salai|Battle of Kandalur Salai (988 CE)]]
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*[[Battle of Vijayawada|Battle of Vijayawada (1068)]]
*[[Battle of Vijayawada|Battle of Vijayawada (1068)]]
*[[Battle of Nettur|Battle of Nettur (1188 CE)]]
*[[Battle of Nettur|Battle of Nettur (1188 CE)]]
|ranks              = Senathipathi (Marshal of the Army)<br />
Thalapathi (General)<br />
Anipathi (Colonel)
}}
}}
{{Chola history}}
{{Chola history}}
The '''Chola Military''' ({{Lang-ta|சோழர் படை}}) was organized in the [[Medieval Era|medieval era]] by emperor [[Rajaraja Chola I]]. The [[Chola]]s of the [[Vijayalaya Chola|Vijayalaya]] Dynasty, who ruled parts of [[South India]] and [[Lanka]] between the tenth and thirteenth centuries CE, were dependent on their army and navy to expand and maintain order in their vast empire. Chola was the head of this army and navy.
The '''Chola military''' ({{Lang-ta|சோழர் படை}}) was the combined armed forces of the [[Chola Dynasty|Chola Empire]] organized during two separate Tamil golden ages, the [[Sangam Period]] and the [[Medieval Cholas|Medieval Era]]. The Chola military fought dozens of wars, it also underwent numerous changes in structure, organization, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting [[Tamil culture|Tamil]] traditions.


== Origins ==
==Sangam period (300 BC–300 AD)==
Chola inscriptions mention numerous regiments by specific names. Rajaraja Chola I created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy, which achieved even greater success under his son [[Rajendra Chola I]]. The army consisted of the [[Infantry]], [[Cavalry]] and [[War elephant|Elephant]] corps. There is no evidence of traditional Chariot corps found in ancient [[Hindu]] literature; rather, there were other specialists, like bowmen (''villaligal'').
It has not been possible to assemble an internal chronology of the Sangam works and pinpoint when and how the early Chola military was formed. The earliest mention of the Chola army comes from Indian historian, [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], who claimed that King [[Ilamchetchenni]] defeated [[Maurya Empire]] King [[Bindusara]], son of [[Chandragupta Maurya]], in battle. Fragmentary poems in the ''[[Purananuru]]''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sastri|first=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eg9uAAAAMAAJ|title=The Cōlas|date=1955|publisher=University of Madras|language=en}}</ref> also state that, Ilamchetchenni Chola, revered as a brave king and hard fighter, successfully resisted the exploration of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan army]] in [[Tamilakam]].


At its peak, the Cholan army is said to have had two million soldiers simultaneously fighting for their kingdom. Chinese geographer '''[[Chau Ju-kua]]''', writing in around 1225, gave the following account of the Chola Army:
===Karikala Chola===
<blockquote>''This [Chola] country is at war with the kingdom of the [west] of India. The government owns sixty thousand war elephants, every one seven or eight feet high. When fighting these elephants carry on their backs houses, and these houses are full of soldiers who shoot arrows at long range, and fight with spears at close quarters''.<ref name="elephants">The kings themselves used to fight in battlefields riding on such war elephants. There are a few occasions of the king dying in the battlefield on these elephants. [[Parantaka I]]'s son Rajaditya died at Sripurambayam. The Chola king [[Rajadhiraja Chola I]] died on an elephant fighting the Chalukya army at Thakolam The epithet ''Yanai-mel-thunjiya'' (who died on an elephant) is attached to these kings in their inscriptions indicating their valour.</ref></blockquote>
{{main|Karikala Chola}}
Karikala Chola stands pre-eminent amongst all those mentioned in ''[[Pattinappaalai]]''. 'Karikala' means 'elephant feller' or 'charred leg', which is assumed to be a reference to an accident by fire that befell the prince early in his life. ''Pattinappaalai'' describes this accident and the enterprising way in which the prince escaped and established himself on the Chola throne. ''Pattinappalai'' is a poem on the then Chola capital [[Puhar, Nagapattinam|Kaveripattinam]] and describes the numerous battles Karikala fought against the Cheras and Pandyas, including the famous [[Battle of Venni]] where the Chola army defeated a confederacy of (about) a dozen rulers headed by Chera and Pandya kings. Following the battle, the Chera king was disgraced (received a wound on his back) and committed suicide. Karikala thus broke the confederacy that was formed against him, conquered the Chera and Pandya kingdoms, and established Chola hegemony over Tamilakam. After the Battle of Venni, Karikala defeated the confederacy of nine minor chieftains in the Battle of Vakaipparandalai. He also invaded Sri Lanka and took away, among other things, 12,000 Sinhalese men to work as slaves in the construction of the [[Kallanai Dam]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Walking_to_Kataragama/6nrXAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=sinhalese+slaves+kaveri+dam&dq=sinhalese+slaves+kaveri+dam&printsec=frontcover | isbn=9789555801102 | title=Walking to Kataragama | year=2007 | publisher=International Centre for Ethnic Studies }}</ref>


== Organisation and administration ==
{{main|Nalankilli|Nedunkilli}}
The Army of the Cholas followed the ancient Indian tradition of ''Chaturangabala'' for organization and ''Sadangabala'' for administration, the fourfold force and sixfold control. In its shortened form, it is called ''RathaGajaTuraPadai'', where ''Ratha'' is the chariot, ''Gaja'' the elephant, ''Tura'' the horses, and ''Padai'' the infantry. It was said that an army with proportional growth of the said forces was a balanced and well-composed one.
The poet Kovur Kilar mentions a protracted civil war between two Chola chieftains [[Nalankilli]] and [[Nedunkilli]]. Nedunkilli isolated himself in a fort in Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, Nalankilli's younger brother. The poet chided Nedunkilli to come out and fight like a man instead of causing untold misery to the people of the city. In another poem, the poet begs both the princes to give up the civil war as whoever wins, the loser will be a Chola.


In addition to the divisions, there were the ''Nadapu'' – the commissariat and ''Payanam'' – the admiralty and logistics. The addition to these, bureaucratic reforms revolutionized the Chola Army, resulting in victories on a massive scale.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present'', Page 1458–59 by Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy -1986,</ref>
{{main|Kocengannan}}
''Kalavali'' by Poygayar mentions the Chola King Kocengannan and his battle with the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner and Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera, sang a poem praising the Chola King Kochchenganan in 40 stanzas. The Chola king, pleased with the work, released the Chera. Kalavali describes the battle fought at Kalumalam, near the Chera capital. [[Kocengannan]] is one of the 63 [[nayanars]]. Kocengannan became the subject of many instances in later times and is portrayed as a pious [[Shiva|Siva]] devotee who built many fine temples for Siva along the banks of the river [[Kaveri]].


The regiments of the Chola Army had a degree of autonomy and were free to endow benefactions and build temples in their own names. Some regiments were entrusted with the management of minor temple shrines and were expected to provide for them. Others took money from the temple on interest, which they agreed to pay in cash. It is not known for what purposes they used this money, although the transactions serve to reveal the army's interest and involvement in the temples.  
== Medieval Chola army ==
The Chola Dynasty faded into darkness after c. 300 CE. During this period, the Cholas lost their sovereignty in Tamilakam and held on to their old capital city of [[Urayur]] by serving as a vassal state under the [[Kalabhra]] and [[Pallava]] dynasties. Making use of the opportunity during a war between the Pandyas and Pallavas, [[Vijayalaya Chola]] rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur and re-established the Chola Dynasty. In 852 CE, Vijayalaya Chola declared war on the Pandyas and defeated them. The Cholas became so powerful that the Pallavas were also wiped out from the Thanjavur region at a later stage. The Medieval Chola Empire traced their ancestry to the ancient Tamil King, [[Karikala]], making him the dynasty's ancestral father.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/epigraphiaindica014342mbp | title=Epigraphia Indica Vol V | publisher=Manager of Publications, Delhi }}</ref>


=== Senai ===
== Organization and administration ==
'''Commanding Officer's Rank''': ''Senathipathi'' (Lord of the Army) <br/>
Cholas recruited military personnel of four types: soldiers of hereditary military families, soldiers raised from various tribes, personnel provided by various tradesman and merchants, and mercenaries.<ref>Sastri 1992b: 745-7</ref>  
'''Modern equivalent''': Marshal of the Army


The standing army was organized into multiple ''Senai''s. The composition of each depended on its deployment or stationed location and role. Normally, a Chola ''Senai'' was the largest organizational unit. At various times in its existence, the army had between one and three ''Senai''s.<ref>Historical Military Heritage of the Tamils By Ca. Vē. Cuppiramaṇiyan̲, Ka.Ta. Tirunāvukkaracu, International Institute of Tamil Studies, Pages 152-156</ref>
In addition to the divisions, there were the ''Nadapu''—the commissariat and ''Payanam''—the admiralty and logistics. The addition to these, bureaucratic reforms revolutionized the Chola Army, resulting in victories on a massive scale.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present'', Page 1458–59 by Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy -1986,</ref>


=== Thalam ===
=== Famous generals ===
'''Commanding Officer's Rank''': ''Thalapathi'' – equivalent to the naval rank of ''Kalapathi''.<br />
{{Infobox royalty
'''Modern equivalent''': General
| name        = Araiyan Raja Rajan
 
| image        = Rajendra Chola I - Chola State.jpg
The ''Senai'' is divided into various ''Thalam''s. A ''Thalam'' is a self-sustaining army formation with its own material resources and inventory. A ''Thalam'' usually contains:
| caption      = Araiyan Rajarajan (aka) Vikrama chola
* 3 ''Yanaipadai'' – elephant corps, each with 300–500 elephants.
| title        = Chola Army commander-in-chief
* 3 ''Kudhiraipadai'' – cavalry corps, each with 500–1000 horses.
}}
* 6 ''Kaalaatpadai'' – infantry corps, each with 2000–3000 men.
There were hundreds of generals in the Medieval Chola Army, some notable commanders include:  
* 2 ''Thalpadai'' – [[auxiliaries]], a mix of infantry & cavalry, each with 1000–2000 Men and 500–1000 Horses. They could be used as rear-guard units as well as a guerilla force in times of withdrawal.
*Senathipathi Araiyan Rajarajan (11th century)
* 2 ''Marathuvarani'' – [[medical corps]] of about 200–300 doctors with horse-drawn carriages and medical provisions.
**Younger brother of [[Rajendra Chola I]] and highest ranking general of the Chola Army during their victories against the Western Chalukya Dynasty, Somavamsi Dynasty, the Pala Kingdom, and the Kamboja Pala dynasty
* 1 or 2 ''Oosipadai'' – [[strike corps]]
* Senathipathi Abrameya pallavan, was the commander in chief of Rajaraja chola.  
 
** He was the commander in [[Battle of Kandalur Salai|kandalur salai battle 988CE]] and also in kudamalai battle in 994 CE where the Prince Rajendra lead the forces.
=== Ani ===
*Senathipathi [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan]] (10th–11th century)
'''Commanding Officer's Rank'''': ''Anipathi'' (Lord of Group)<br />
** Commander of the Sri Lanka Front Army of Rajaraja l and Rajendra I during the [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura]]
'''Modern equivalent''': [[Colonel]]
*Senathipathi [[Karunakara Tondaiman]] (Late 11th century)
 
** Famous general during the reign of [[Kulottunga Chola I]] that defeated the Kalinga armies of King Anantavarman and went on to plunder Lanka
A ''Thalam'' is subdivided into various ''Ani''s, which is one-third of a ''Thalam'', with
**The Karunakara Pillaiyar temple in the Jaffna peninsula was built after him. The village, Thondaimanaru, in Ceylon was also named after him
* 1 ''Yanaipadai''
*Senathipathi [[Naralokaviran]] (Late 11th century)  
* 1 ''Kudhiraipadai''
**General during the reign of [[Kulottunga Chola I]] and his successor [[Vikrama Chola]] that led many Chola campaigns in the deep south and distinguished himself in the Pandya Wars
* 2 ''Kaalatpadai''
*Senathipathi [[Paluvettaraiyar]] Maravan Kandanar (Late 10th century)
* 2 ''Thalpadai''
**An important general during the reign of [[Parantaka Chola II]] who strengthened the Pazhuvettaraiyar regiment that was actively deployed during the [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura]]
*Thalapathi Thiruchitrambalamudaiyan Perumanambi (Late 12th century)
**Defeated Polonnaruwa Army generals [[Lankapura Dandanatha]] and Jagad Vijaya in battle and successfully re-conquered the Pandyan Kingdom on behalf of [[Rajadhiraja Chola II ]] during the [[Pandyan Civil War (1169-1177)|Pandyan Civil War (1169–1177)]]
*Anipathi Annan Pallavarayan (Late 12th century)
**Invaded Polonnaruwa and destroyed Parakramabahu's preparations for the invasion of Chola Nadu and provided support for Sinhalese Prince Sri Vallabha, nephew of Parakramabahu and a rival claimant to the Polonnaruwa throne


== Regiments ==
== Regiments ==
The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the [[Pandyas]] down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant and shows the spirit with which the king treated his soldiers. Rajaraja evidently gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests. The army composed chiefly of [[Kaikolar|Kaikolars]] (men with stronger arms), which were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury. (e.g. ''Arul mozhideva-terinda-kaikola padai''; in this, ''arulmozhideva'' is the king's name, ''terinda'' means well known, and ''padai'' means regime)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491|title=Kaikolar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1db0kdWgWVf2z9oxl1smUT02adimFNPra/view|title=Kaikolappadai}}</ref>
Chola inscriptions mention numerous regiments by specific names. [[Rajaraja Chola I]] created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy, which achieved even greater success under his son [[Rajendra Chola I]]. The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the [[Pandyas]] down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant and shows the spirit with which the king treated his soldiers. Rajaraja evidently gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests. The army composed chiefly of [[Kaikolar|Kaikolars]] (men with stronger arms), which were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury (e.g. ''Arul mozhideva-terinda-kaikola padai''; in this, ''arulmozhideva'' is the king's name, ''terinda'' means well known, and ''padai'' means regime).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491|title=Kaikolar|isbn=9788122411980|last1=Sen|first1=Sailendra Nath|year=1999}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1db0kdWgWVf2z9oxl1smUT02adimFNPra/view|title=Kaikolappadai}}</ref>
   
   
The following regiments are mentioned in the [[Tanjavur]] inscriptions:
The following regiments are mentioned in the [[Tanjavur]] inscriptions:


* ''Uttama- Chola-terinda-Andalagattalar''
* ''Uttama- Chola-terinda-Andalagattalar''
* ''Perundanattu Anaiyatkal'' – Elephant corps.
* ''Perundanattu Anaiyatkal'' — Elephant corps.
* ''Pandita-Chola-Terinda-villigal'' – Archers
* ''Pandita-Chola-Terinda-villigal'' — Archers
* ''Nigarili- Chola terinda-Udanilai-Kudiraichchevagar'' – Cavalry
* ''Nigarili- Chola terinda-Udanilai-Kudiraichchevagar'' — Cavalry
* ''Mummadi- Chola-terinda-Anaippagar'' – Elephant corps
* ''Mummadi- Chola-terinda-Anaippagar'' — Elephant corps
* ''Vira- Chola-Anukkar''
* ''Vira- Chola-Anukkar''
* ''Parantaka-Kongavalar'' – Light Infantry
* ''Parantaka-Kongavalar'' — Light Infantry
* ''Mummadi- Chola-terinda-parivarattar''
* ''Mummadi- Chola-terinda-parivarattar''
* ''Keralantaka-terinda-parivarattar''
* ''Keralantaka-terinda-parivarattar''
Line 158: Line 153:
* ''Vikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar''
* ''Vikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar''
* ''Keralantaka-vasal-tirumeykappar''
* ''Keralantaka-vasal-tirumeykappar''
* ''Anukka-vasal-tirumeykappar'' – Personal bodyguards
* ''Anukka-vasal-tirumeykappar'' — Personal bodyguards
* ''Parivarameykappargal'' – Personal bodyguards
* ''Parivarameykappargal'' — Personal bodyguards
* ''Palavagai-Parampadaigalilar''
* ''Palavagai-Parampadaigalilar''
* ''Perundanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal''
* ''Perundanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal''
Line 169: Line 164:
It may not be unreasonable to suppose that these royal names were prefixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments.
It may not be unreasonable to suppose that these royal names were prefixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments.


Top officers took various titles after the different kings such as ''Rajaraja chola Brahmarajan'', ''Rajarajakesari Muvendavelar'', ''Jayamkondachola Villuparaiyar'', ''Uttamachola Muvendavelar'', ''Manukula Muvendavelar'', ''Nittavinotha Muvendavelar'', ''Atirajendra'' ''Muvendavelar'', M''ummudi chola pallavaraiyar'', and ''Viranarayanan Muvendavelan''.<ref name="The Travancore state manual, Volume 1, page 192">''The Travancore state manual, Volume 1, page 192''</ref>
Top officers took various titles after the different kings such as ''Rajaraja chola Brahmarajan'', ''Rajarajakesari Muvendavelar'', ''Jayamkondachola Villuparaiyar'', ''Uttamachola Muvendavelar'', ''Manukula Muvendavelar'', ''Nittavinotha Muvendavelar'', ''Atirajendra'' ''Muvendavelar'', ''Mummudi chola pallavaraiyar'', and ''Viranarayanan Muvendavelan''.<ref name="The Travancore state manual, Volume 1, page 192">''The Travancore state manual, Volume 1, page 192''</ref>


== Garrisons ==
== Garrisons ==
The army was stationed throughout the country in the form of local garrisons and in cantonments called ''Kadagams''. After the troubles in the [[Pandya]] country, [[Kulothunga Chola I]] stationed his army in a number of military colonies along the main route to Pandya from Chola lands. One such colony was found at Kottaru and another at Madavilagam near [[South Arcot]] district in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>''South Indian Inscriptions'', vol. 3</ref>
The army was stationed throughout the country in the form of local garrisons and in cantonments called ''Kadagams''. The Cholas also stationed garrisons outside the country to consolidate the administration of their conquered territories. Following the [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura]], Senathipathi of the Sri Lanka Front Army of [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja l]] and [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]], [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan]], garrisoned the city of [[Polonnaruwa]] to administer control over the island and deter any attempt of reconquest by the Sinhalese armies.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/A_Global_History_of_Pre_Modern_Warfare/yE85EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=chola+army+sri+lanka+garrisons&pg=PT189&printsec=frontcover | isbn=9781000432121 | title=A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE | date=14 September 2021 | publisher=Routledge }}</ref> After the troubles in the [[Pandya]] country, [[Kulothunga Chola I]] stationed his army in a number of military colonies along the main route to Pandya from Chola lands. One such colony was found at Kottaru and another at Madavilagam near [[South Arcot]] district in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>''South Indian Inscriptions'', vol. 3</ref>
 
== Recruitment ==
There are no records of Chola recruitment methods or the number of permanent troops in the army. In feudal times, the children of warriors and soldiers readily joined the army in keeping with the spirit of chivalry and Tamil martial tradition. They were a highly motivated and professionally trained force with a very strong martial tradition. Some of the regiments clearly had martial customs and history of their own and the members of such regiments clearly exhibited high levels of discipline, pride and self-esteem.
 
The presence of military cantonments called ''Kadagam'' in [[Sangam period|Sangam]] [[Tamil language|Tamil]] indicates that there were regular training and military practices as part of the Tamil martial arts tradition. The ''Palayam'' system was based on a feudal class structure of warriors, farmers, artisans and merchants, where the distinctions between the [[caste]] statuses of the constituent classes were strictly enforced. To symbolize this society, Tamil warriors wore swords in everyday life because the system was maintained by their military prowess. These martial tradition and practices were later outlawed by the British. The modern Indian army has a Madras regiment that serves as the sole unit for all of South India.
 
There were military colonies known as ''nilai puram''. A ''nilaipuram'' contained a number of forts. In Keralasinga Valanadu of the North Pandya country, there were five ''nilaipurams''. These were named after the five coronational names of the Pandyas: ''Sundara'', ''Kulasekhara'', ''Vikrama'', ''Vira'', and ''Parakrama Pandya''.


== Navy ==
== Navy ==
{{Main|Chola Navy}}
{{Main|Chola Navy}}
The Chola Navy comprised the naval forces of the Chola Empire along with several other naval arms of the country. It played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Empire, including the conquest of the [[Ceylon]] islands and Sri Vijaya (present-day [[Indonesia]]), the spread of [[Shaivism]], Tamil architecture and Tamil culture to Southeast Asia, and in curbing the piracy in Southeast Asia in the tenth century.
The maritime force of Cholas was formed from ships used for trade, as they did not have a dedicated ship for naval combat. The ships were used for transporting the land army overseas.<ref name="MajumdarHistCult3">{{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Romesh Chandra |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforempir05bhar/page/250/mode/2up?q= |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume V: The Struggle for Empire |publisher=[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]] |year=2001 |location=Mumbai |author-link=R. C. Majumdar}}</ref>{{rp|251}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sakhuja |first1=Vijay |last2=Sakhuja |first2=Sangeeta |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |location=Singapore |pages=76–90 |chapter=Rajendra Chola I’s Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia: A Nautical Perspective}}</ref>{{rp|77}}
 
There is evidence that even in the time of [[Parantaka I]], there was a considerable navy involved in the numerous invasions of Lanka. [[Rajendra Chola]]'s naval victories in [[Srivijaya]] were a culmination of centuries of naval tradition. All the Tamil kingdoms had some sort of navy in their arsenal.
 
The Cholas continued the ancient tradition and gave much attention to developing their naval strength. The conquest of Sri Lanka and [[Maldives]] and the embassies sent to [[China]] show the success of the Chola Navy. The Chola Admirals acted as ambassadors in many South-East Asian Kingdoms during this time.
 
During the reigns of RajaRaja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, it is said that the Cholan navy had over one million naval soldiers.
 
Many types of ships (including [[Colandia]]) and naval weapons were employed in the navy.


== Notes ==
== Notes ==
Line 197: Line 177:


== References ==
== References ==
* Chau Ju-Kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Trans. by Rukuo Zhao; Friedrich Hirth; William Woodville Rockhill
* {{cite book |first=Kulke |last=Hermann |author2=Rothermund D |orig-year=1986 |year=1998 |title=A History of India |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-203-44345-4 |edition=3rd |location=London and New York |url=https://archive.org/details/a-history-of-india_202106/page/n3/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book | first= Kulke | last= Hermann |author2=Rothermund D| orig-year= 2000| year=2001 | title= A History of India | publisher= Routledge | isbn= 0-415-32920-5}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hirth |first1=Friedrich |last2=Rockhill |first2=William Woodville |title=Chau Ju-Kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, entitled Chu Fan Chï |publisher=Imperial Academy of Sciences |year=1911 |location=St. Petersburg |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023289345/page/n7/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book | first= K.A| last= Nilakanta Sastri| orig-year= 1935| year= 1984| title= The CōĻas| publisher= University of Madras | location= Madras}}
* {{cite book |first=K.A |last=Nilakanta Sastri |orig-year=1935 |year=1955 |title=The CōĻas |publisher=G. S. Press |edition=2nd |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n7/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book | first= K.A | last= Nilakanta Sastri| orig-year= 1955| year= 2002| title= A History of South India| publisher= OUP| location= New Delhi}}
* {{cite book |first=K.A |last=Nilakanta Sastri |orig-year=1955 |year=1958 |title=A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=2nd |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16035/page/n7/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book | first= Rama Sankar| last= Tripathi| year= 1967| title= History of Ancient India| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass Publications| location= India| isbn= 81-208-0018-4}}
* {{cite book |first=Rama Sankar |last=Tripathi |year=1987 |title=History of Ancient India |publisher=Narendra Prakash Jain |location=Delhi |orig-date=1942 |isbn=81-208-0017-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancientindiaramshankartripathimlbd_919_P/page/n1/mode/2up}}


[[Category:Chola Empire|Military]]
[[Category:Chola Empire|Military]]
[[Category:Military history of India]]
[[Category:Military history of India]]
[[Category:Military of Chola| ]]
[[Category:Military of Chola| ]]

Revision as of 07:57, 30 November 2022

Chola military
சோழர் படை
FoundedUnknown date
Disbanded1280 AD
Headquarters
Related articles
HistoryWars

Invasions

Battles

List of Chola kings and emperors
Early Cholas
Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848)
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya 848–871(?)
Aditya I 871–907
Parantaka I 907–950
Gandaraditya 950–957
Arinjaya 956–957
Sundara (Parantaka II) 957–970
Aditya II (co-regent)
Uttama 970–985
Rajaraja I 985–1014
Rajendra I 1012–1044
Rajadhiraja 1044–1054
Rajendra II 1054–1063
Virarajendra 1063–1070
Athirajendra 1070–1070
Later Cholas
Kulothunga I 1070–1120
Vikrama 1118–1135
Kulothunga II 1133–1150
Rajaraja II 1146–1173
Rajadhiraja II 1166–1178
Kulothunga III 1178–1218
Rajaraja III 1216–1256
Rajendra III 1246–1279
Related dynasties
Telugu Chodas of Andhra
Chodagangas of Kalinga
Nidugal Cholas of Karnataka
Rajahnate of Cebu
Chola society

The Chola military (Tamil: சோழர் படை) was the combined armed forces of the Chola Empire organized during two separate Tamil golden ages, the Sangam Period and the Medieval Era. The Chola military fought dozens of wars, it also underwent numerous changes in structure, organization, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting Tamil traditions.

Sangam period (300 BC–300 AD)

It has not been possible to assemble an internal chronology of the Sangam works and pinpoint when and how the early Chola military was formed. The earliest mention of the Chola army comes from Indian historian, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, who claimed that King Ilamchetchenni defeated Maurya Empire King Bindusara, son of Chandragupta Maurya, in battle. Fragmentary poems in the Purananuru[1] also state that, Ilamchetchenni Chola, revered as a brave king and hard fighter, successfully resisted the exploration of the Mauryan army in Tamilakam.

Karikala Chola

Main article: Karikala Chola

Karikala Chola stands pre-eminent amongst all those mentioned in Pattinappaalai. 'Karikala' means 'elephant feller' or 'charred leg', which is assumed to be a reference to an accident by fire that befell the prince early in his life. Pattinappaalai describes this accident and the enterprising way in which the prince escaped and established himself on the Chola throne. Pattinappalai is a poem on the then Chola capital Kaveripattinam and describes the numerous battles Karikala fought against the Cheras and Pandyas, including the famous Battle of Venni where the Chola army defeated a confederacy of (about) a dozen rulers headed by Chera and Pandya kings. Following the battle, the Chera king was disgraced (received a wound on his back) and committed suicide. Karikala thus broke the confederacy that was formed against him, conquered the Chera and Pandya kingdoms, and established Chola hegemony over Tamilakam. After the Battle of Venni, Karikala defeated the confederacy of nine minor chieftains in the Battle of Vakaipparandalai. He also invaded Sri Lanka and took away, among other things, 12,000 Sinhalese men to work as slaves in the construction of the Kallanai Dam.[2]

Main articles: Nalankilli and Nedunkilli

The poet Kovur Kilar mentions a protracted civil war between two Chola chieftains Nalankilli and Nedunkilli. Nedunkilli isolated himself in a fort in Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, Nalankilli's younger brother. The poet chided Nedunkilli to come out and fight like a man instead of causing untold misery to the people of the city. In another poem, the poet begs both the princes to give up the civil war as whoever wins, the loser will be a Chola.

Main article: Kocengannan

Kalavali by Poygayar mentions the Chola King Kocengannan and his battle with the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner and Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera, sang a poem praising the Chola King Kochchenganan in 40 stanzas. The Chola king, pleased with the work, released the Chera. Kalavali describes the battle fought at Kalumalam, near the Chera capital. Kocengannan is one of the 63 nayanars. Kocengannan became the subject of many instances in later times and is portrayed as a pious Siva devotee who built many fine temples for Siva along the banks of the river Kaveri.

Medieval Chola army

The Chola Dynasty faded into darkness after c. 300 CE. During this period, the Cholas lost their sovereignty in Tamilakam and held on to their old capital city of Urayur by serving as a vassal state under the Kalabhra and Pallava dynasties. Making use of the opportunity during a war between the Pandyas and Pallavas, Vijayalaya Chola rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur and re-established the Chola Dynasty. In 852 CE, Vijayalaya Chola declared war on the Pandyas and defeated them. The Cholas became so powerful that the Pallavas were also wiped out from the Thanjavur region at a later stage. The Medieval Chola Empire traced their ancestry to the ancient Tamil King, Karikala, making him the dynasty's ancestral father.[3]

Organization and administration

Cholas recruited military personnel of four types: soldiers of hereditary military families, soldiers raised from various tribes, personnel provided by various tradesman and merchants, and mercenaries.[4]

In addition to the divisions, there were the Nadapu—the commissariat and Payanam—the admiralty and logistics. The addition to these, bureaucratic reforms revolutionized the Chola Army, resulting in victories on a massive scale.[5]

Famous generals

Araiyan Raja Rajan
Chola Army commander-in-chief
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Araiyan Rajarajan (aka) Vikrama chola

There were hundreds of generals in the Medieval Chola Army, some notable commanders include:

  • Senathipathi Araiyan Rajarajan (11th century)
    • Younger brother of Rajendra Chola I and highest ranking general of the Chola Army during their victories against the Western Chalukya Dynasty, Somavamsi Dynasty, the Pala Kingdom, and the Kamboja Pala dynasty
  • Senathipathi Abrameya pallavan, was the commander in chief of Rajaraja chola.
  • Senathipathi Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan (10th–11th century)
  • Senathipathi Karunakara Tondaiman (Late 11th century)
    • Famous general during the reign of Kulottunga Chola I that defeated the Kalinga armies of King Anantavarman and went on to plunder Lanka
    • The Karunakara Pillaiyar temple in the Jaffna peninsula was built after him. The village, Thondaimanaru, in Ceylon was also named after him
  • Senathipathi Naralokaviran (Late 11th century)
    • General during the reign of Kulottunga Chola I and his successor Vikrama Chola that led many Chola campaigns in the deep south and distinguished himself in the Pandya Wars
  • Senathipathi Paluvettaraiyar Maravan Kandanar (Late 10th century)
  • Thalapathi Thiruchitrambalamudaiyan Perumanambi (Late 12th century)
  • Anipathi Annan Pallavarayan (Late 12th century)
    • Invaded Polonnaruwa and destroyed Parakramabahu's preparations for the invasion of Chola Nadu and provided support for Sinhalese Prince Sri Vallabha, nephew of Parakramabahu and a rival claimant to the Polonnaruwa throne

Regiments

Chola inscriptions mention numerous regiments by specific names. Rajaraja Chola I created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy, which achieved even greater success under his son Rajendra Chola I. The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the Pandyas down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant and shows the spirit with which the king treated his soldiers. Rajaraja evidently gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests. The army composed chiefly of Kaikolars (men with stronger arms), which were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury (e.g. Arul mozhideva-terinda-kaikola padai; in this, arulmozhideva is the king's name, terinda means well known, and padai means regime).[6][7]

The following regiments are mentioned in the Tanjavur inscriptions:

  • Uttama- Chola-terinda-Andalagattalar
  • Perundanattu Anaiyatkal — Elephant corps.
  • Pandita-Chola-Terinda-villigal — Archers
  • Nigarili- Chola terinda-Udanilai-Kudiraichchevagar — Cavalry
  • Mummadi- Chola-terinda-Anaippagar — Elephant corps
  • Vira- Chola-Anukkar
  • Parantaka-Kongavalar — Light Infantry
  • Mummadi- Chola-terinda-parivarattar
  • Keralantaka-terinda-parivarattar
  • Mulaparivara-vitteru alias Jananatha-terinda-parivarattar
  • Singalantaka-terinda-parivarattar
  • Sirudanattu Vadugakkalavar
  • Valangai-Parambadaigalilar
  • Sirudanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal
  • Aragiya- Chola-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Aridurgalanghana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Chandaparakrama-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Ilaiya-Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Kshatriyasikhamani-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Murtavikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Rajakanthirava-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Rajavinoda-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Ranamukha-Bhima-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Vikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
  • Keralantaka-vasal-tirumeykappar
  • Anukka-vasal-tirumeykappar — Personal bodyguards
  • Parivarameykappargal — Personal bodyguards
  • Palavagai-Parampadaigalilar
  • Perundanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal

Velaikkarappadaigal or Velaikkarar is the equivalent of "Guards regiment" or "King's Regiment"—a royal suffix given in honor of their loyalty and bravery. Some historians like Stein also propose that they were drawn from the civilian population during wartime, suggesting they were more like a national guard. They are mentioned in the Mahavamsa; according to that account, the Sinhalese kingdom tried to use them as mercenaries against the Chola empire. They were later silenced and decommissioned when they refused and rebelled.

There are almost seventy of such regiments that have been found in these inscriptions. In most of the foregoing names, the first portion appears to be the surnames or titles of the king himself or that of his son. That these regiments were called after the king or his son shows the attachment that the Chola king bore towards his army.

It may not be unreasonable to suppose that these royal names were prefixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments.

Top officers took various titles after the different kings such as Rajaraja chola Brahmarajan, Rajarajakesari Muvendavelar, Jayamkondachola Villuparaiyar, Uttamachola Muvendavelar, Manukula Muvendavelar, Nittavinotha Muvendavelar, Atirajendra Muvendavelar, Mummudi chola pallavaraiyar, and Viranarayanan Muvendavelan.[8]

Garrisons

The army was stationed throughout the country in the form of local garrisons and in cantonments called Kadagams. The Cholas also stationed garrisons outside the country to consolidate the administration of their conquered territories. Following the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura, Senathipathi of the Sri Lanka Front Army of Rajaraja l and Rajendra I, Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, garrisoned the city of Polonnaruwa to administer control over the island and deter any attempt of reconquest by the Sinhalese armies.[9] After the troubles in the Pandya country, Kulothunga Chola I stationed his army in a number of military colonies along the main route to Pandya from Chola lands. One such colony was found at Kottaru and another at Madavilagam near South Arcot district in Tamil Nadu.[10]

Navy

Main article: Chola Navy

The maritime force of Cholas was formed from ships used for trade, as they did not have a dedicated ship for naval combat. The ships were used for transporting the land army overseas.[11]:251[12]:77

Notes

  1. ↑ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1955). The Cōlas. University of Madras.
  2. ↑ Walking to Kataragama. International Centre for Ethnic Studies. 2007. ISBN 9789555801102.
  3. ↑ "Epigraphia Indica Vol V". Manager of Publications, Delhi.
  4. ↑ Sastri 1992b: 745-7
  5. ↑ The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present, Page 1458–59 by Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy -1986,
  6. ↑ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Kaikolar. ISBN 9788122411980.
  7. ↑ "Kaikolappadai".
  8. ↑ The Travancore state manual, Volume 1, page 192
  9. ↑ A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE. Routledge. 14 September 2021. ISBN 9781000432121.
  10. ↑ South Indian Inscriptions, vol. 3
  11. ↑ Majumdar, Romesh Chandra (2001). The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume V: The Struggle for Empire. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  12. ↑ Sakhuja, Vijay; Sakhuja, Sangeeta (2009). "Rajendra Chola I's Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia: A Nautical Perspective". In Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay (eds.). Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 76–90.

References

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