Canna indica: Difference between revisions

'''''Canna indica''''', commonly known as '''Indian shot''',<ref name=PLANTS>{{PLANTS | symbol = CAIN19 | taxon = Canna indica | access-date = 23 March 2020 }}</ref> '''African arrowroot''', '''edible canna''', '''purple arrowroot''', '''Sierra Leone arrowroot''',<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN | ''Canna indica'' L. | 8858 | access-date = 12 Aug 2016 }}</ref> is a plant species in the family [[Cannaceae]]. It is native to much of South America, Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico. It is also naturalized in the southeastern United States ([[Florida]], [[Texas]], [[Louisiana]], and [[South Carolina]]), and much of Europe, [[sub-Saharan Africa]], Southeast Asia, and Oceania.<ref name=GRIN/> ''Canna indica'' ('''achira''' in Latin America,<ref name=GRIN/> '''cana-da-índia''' in Brazil) has been a minor food crop cultivated by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] for thousands of years.<ref>Flora of North America Editorial Committee, e. 2000. Magnoliophyta: Alismatidae, Arecidae, Commelinidae (in part), and Zingiberidae. Fl. N. Amer. 22: i-xxiii, 1-352.</ref><ref>Hokche, O., PE Berry & O. Huber. (eds.) 2008. New Cat. Fl. Vasc. Venezuela 1-860. Botanical Institute of Venezuela Foundation, Caracas.</ref>

''Canna indica'' is a [[Perennial plant|perennial]] growing to between 0.5 m and 2.5 m, depending on the variety. It is [[Hardiness zone|hardy to zone 10]] and is frost tender. The flowers are [[hermaphrodite]].<ref>Johnson's Gardeners Dictionary, 1856</ref><ref name=chate>Chaté, E. (1867) Le Canna, son histoire, son culture. Libraire Centrale d'Agriculture et de Jardinage.</ref><ref name=khoshoo>[[Triloki Nath Khoshoo|Khoshoo, T.N.]] & Guha, I. - Origin and Evolution of Cultivated Cannas. Vikas Publishing House.</ref><ref name=cooke>Cooke, Ian, 2001. The Gardener's Guide to Growing cannas, Timber Press. {{ISBN|0-88192-513-6}}</ref> ''Canna indica'' sps. can be used for the treatment of industrial waste waters through constructed wetlands. It is effective for the removal of high organic load,  color and chlorinated organic compounds from paper mill wastewater.<ref>Choudhary et al. (2011) Performance of constructed wetland for the treatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater,  Proceedings of World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2011: Bearing Knowledge for Sustainability, Palm Springs, California, USA, p-4856-4865, 22–26 May.</ref>

[[File:Canna indica (C. discolor) Edwards's Bot. Reg. 15. 1231. 1829.jpg|thumb|left|''Canna indica'' (artist: (M. Hart)]] It forms branched [[rhizome]]s 60&nbsp;cm long that are divided into bulbous segments and covered in two lines by pale green or purple flaky leaves. The very large grains of starch stored there can supposedly be seen with the naked eye. Cannae indicae reach, depending on the variety, stature heights of up to about 2 meters. They form an upright, unbranched stem or the overlapping [[leaf sheath]]s form a pseudo trunk.<ref>Funk, VA, PE Berry, S. Alexander, TH Hollowell & CL Kelloff. 2007. Checklist of the Plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contr. US Natl. Herb. 55: 1-584.</ref>

The alternate and spiral or two-line arranged, very large, simple leaves are divided into leaf sheaths, short petioles and leaf blades. The leaf blade has a length of 30 to 60&nbsp;cm and a width of 10 to 20&nbsp;cm. The parallel leaf veins arise from the midrib (not typical of [[monocot]]s). The leaves are broad, green or [[wikt:violet|violet]] green, with petiolesshort and elliptical sheets, which can measure 30 to 60&nbsp;cm long and 10 to 25&nbsp;cm wide, with the base obtuse or narrowly cuneate and the [[Apical meristem|apex]] is shortly acuminate or sharp. The surface of the rhizome is carved by transverse grooves, which mark the base of scales that cover it; from the lower part white and apex rootlets emerge, where there are numerous buds, the leaves sprout, the floral stem and the stems.<ref>Flora of China Editorial Committee. 2000. Flora of China (Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae). 24: 1-431. In CY Wu, PH Raven & DY Hong (eds.) Fl. China. Science Press & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing & St. Louis.</ref>

===Flowers===

The [[hermaphrodite]], mostly large flowers are [[zygomorph]]ic and threefold. On pedicels, they are 0.2–1&nbsp;cm long, red or yellow-orange, except in some cultivars, 4.5–7.5&nbsp;cm long, with the sepals being closely triangular, 1–1.7&nbsp;cm long and the petals erect, 4–6.5&nbsp;cm long. The tube is 1.5–2&nbsp;cm long. The bracts are designed differently. The three free [[sepal]]s are usually green. The three petals are green or have depending on the variety shades of yellow about orange and red to pink. The base of the petals is fused with the staminodien to a stamen column. There are two circles, each with originally three stamens present. The petals and staminodes are usually yellow to red. The three carpels are at a constant under (syncarp) ovary adherent which has a soft-spiky surface and many central angle constant ovules contains. The pollen is deposited on the [[abaxial]] (off-axis) surface of the [[stylus]].

The seeds are small, globular, black pellets, hard and dense enough to sink in water.<ref name=khoshoo/> They resemble [[shotgun]] pellets giving rise to the plant's common name of Indian shot.<ref name=PLANTS/><ref name=BBC>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00p14q0 Seeds fired from a shotgun], BBC, 9 February 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2012.</ref> The seeds are hard enough to shoot through wood and still survive and later germinate. According to the [[BBC]] "The story goes that during the [[Indian Mutiny]] of the 19th century, soldiers used the seeds of a ''Canna indica'' when they ran out of bullets."<ref name=BBC/>

The seeds are widely used for jewellery. The seeds are also used as the mobile elements of the [[kayamb]], a [[musical instrument]] from [[Réunion]], as well as the [[hosho (instrument)|hosho]], a [[gourd]] [[rattle (percussion instrument)|rattle]] from [[Zimbabwe]], where the seeds are known as ''"hota"'' seeds.<ref>Maas-van de Kamer, H. & PJM Maas. 2003. Cannaceae. In: Manual of Plants of Costa Rica, BE Hammel, MH Grayum, C. Herrera & N. Zamora (eds.). Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 92: 384-385.</ref>

[[File:Canna edulis fruit.jpg|thumb|''Canna edulis'' fruit]]

[[File:Canna indica var. flava (11).jpg|thumb|right|Flower of ''Canna indica'' var. ''flava'']]

[[File:Cann indica flower.jpg|thumb|Canna indica, commonly known as Indian shot photo taken at Tagore Park Mahe District, Puducherry UT, India]]

In the last three decades of the 20th century, ''Canna'' species have been categorised by two different [[taxonomists]], [[Paulus Johannes Maria Maas]] from the Netherlands and [[Nobuyuki Tanaka]] from Japan.  Maas regards ''C''. ''coccinea'', ''C''. ''compacta'', ''C''. ''discolor'', ''C''. ''patens'' and ''C''. ''speciosa'' as synonyms or varieties of ''C''. ''indica'', while Tanaka recognises several additional varieties of ''C''. ''indica''.

:Yellow bloom. Many plants previously offered as ''C. lutea'' fall into this subspecies.<ref name=tanaka/>

:A medium sized species; green foliage, ovoid shaped, branching habit; spikes of flowers are erect, yellow with red spots, staminodes are long and narrow, edges regular, petals green, fully self-cleaning, low bloomer; fertile both ways, self-pollinating and also true to type, capsules globose; rhizomes are thick, up to 3 cm in diameter, coloured white and pink; tillering is average. Introduced by Hook.. Many plants previously offered as ''Canna lutea'' fall into this subspecies.<ref name=tanaka/>

==Uses==

===As food===

The starch is easily digestible and therefore well suited as a health and baby food. The tubers can be eaten raw or cooked. The starch is also suitable for baking. In South America, the leaves are used to wrap [[pastries]] ([[tamales]], humitas, quimbolitos, juanes, etc.), similar to banana leaves or [[maize]] leaves. In some areas, the leaves are fed to [[livestock]]. The round seeds are pierced in some areas and used as pearls. They are also used as a filling of rattles. From the Indians, the seeds were previously used as gold weights, similar to the seeds of [[Ceratonia siliqua]] (carob), as they have a constant weight.<ref>PF Yeo: Secondary pollen presentation: Form, function and evolution. In: Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl. 6, 1993, pp. 204–208.</ref>

The ''C. indica'' (achira) rhizomes are large, up to {{convert|60|cm|inch}} in length, and edible.<ref>FAO, "''[http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=2228 Canna edulis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005090156/http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=2228 |date=2016-10-05 }}''", accessed 23 Feb 2016.</ref> They can be eaten raw, but are usually baked. Cooked, the rhizomes become translucent, mucilaginous, and sweet. Starch is produced by grinding or pounding the roots and soaking them in water, separating the starch granules from fibers in the roots.  The starch granules of ''C. indica'' are also translucent and the largest known from any plant. The starch is occasionally marketed commercially as "arrowroot", a name also applied to the starch of other similar roots crops such as ''[[Maranta arundinacea]]''.<ref>''Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation'', National Academies Press, Nation Research Council, p. 27, [http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1398.html], accessed 22 Feb 2016.</ref> It was an ingredient in mid-nineteenth century recipes such as cakes<ref>{{Cite book|title=Beeton's Book of Household Management|last=Beeton|first=Isabella|publisher=S. O. Beeton|year=1859–61|isbn=1-870962-15-X|location=England|pages=863, 864}}</ref> and was called '''tout-les-mois'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/tous-les-mois|title=Dictionary.com|access-date=2016-07-07}}</ref>[[File:Canna Indica Leafs.jpg|thumb|right|''Canna indica'' leaves]]

The [[Spanish people|Spanish]] took notice of achira in 1549 when it was mentioned as one of four root crops being grown for food by the people of the Chuquimayo valley ([[Jaén Province, Peru|Jaén province]]) of Peru. The other three were sweet potato (''[[Ipomoea batatas]]''), cassava (''[[Manihot esculenta]]''), and racacha (''[[Arracacia xanthorrhiza]]''). In 1609, achira was described by a Spanish visitor to [[Cusco|Cusco, Peru]].<ref>Ugent, Donald, Pozorski, Shelia, and Pozorski, Thomas (Oct-Dec 1984), "New Evidence for Ancient Cultivation of Canna edulis in Peru", ''Economic Botany'', Vol 38, No. 4, p. 418</ref>  In modern times, achira is rarely grown for food, although in the 1960s it was still an important crop in [[Paruro Province]] on the upper [[Apurimac River]] near Cusco. There, at elevations of up to {{convert|2600|m|ft}}, achira is cultivated and harvested, especially to be eaten during the [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Festival of Corpus Christi]] in May or June. The achira rhizomes are wrapped with achira leaves and placed in a pit with heated rocks. The pit is then filled with dirt and the achira is slowly baked underground.<ref>Gade, Daniel W. (1966), "Achira, the Edible Canna, Its Cultivation and Use in the Peruvian Andes", ''Economic Botany'', Vol 20, No. 4, pp. 409–413</ref>

In the 1950s, ''Canna indica'' was introduced to [[China]] as a perennial ornamental crop. It was mainly planted in parks and home gardens in [[Guizhou]] for ornamental purposes. From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, China suffered from a severe food shortage, known as the [[Great Chinese Famine]]. During this time, weeds, tree roots, tubers, etc., became an important food source. ''Canna indica'' was also part of this [[famine food]]. As a consequence, the plant became known as a food crop. Today, the rhizomes are processed to [[starch]], [[vermicelli]], [[white wine]], and [[ethanol]]. Due to the use as a food crop and relatively low diseases and pests pressure, ''Canna indica'' has become a characteristic crop for large-scale cultivation in China. The research in China mainly focuses on processing methods, and additionally, there are few studies on varieties and cultivation techniques.<ref name="Food">{{cite journal |last1=Zhengbang |first1=Zhou |title=Development Situation and Potentiality of Canna edulis in Guizhou |journal=Guizhou Agricultural Sciences |date=2009}}</ref>

The Achira rhizomes consist of 73% water. In addition to 24% starch, they still contain 1% protein, 0.6% crude fiber and 1.4% minerals.<ref>Vernon Hilton Heywood: ''Flowering Plants of the World'' , Basel-Boston-Stuttgart 1978.</ref>

In [[China]], ''Canna indica'' starch and [[polyethylene]] are used as raw materials to produce [[biodegradable plastics]]. This type of plastics is affordable and can degrade completely into fertilizer for crop production in just a few months. The method for producing ''Canna indica'' plastics consists of fusing 60 - 80% of ''Canna indica'' starch and 20 - 40% of polyethylene uniformly at 240&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite patent|country=CN|number=CN101798401B|title=芭蕉芋塑料及其生产方法|status=|pubdate=|gdate=2012|invent1=Chen|inventor1-first=Jun|url=http://www.zhangqiaokeyan.com/patent-detail/06120920003.html}} [in Mandarin]</ref>

==Domestication==

''Canna indica'' (achira) has been cultivated by indigenous peoples of the Americas in tropical America for thousands of years. The place of the first domestication may have been the northern [[Andes]], as may be true of other similar root crops such as ''[[Calathea allouia]]'' and ''M. arundinacea''. The [[Cauca river]] valley of Colombia was a center of early domestication. Archaeological evidence has been found of the cultivation of achira in 3000 BCE by people of the [[Las Vegas culture]] of coastal Ecuador. As the Las Vegas region is arid and semiarid, achira was not likely a native plant, but imported from more humid climates.<ref>Piperno, Dolores R. (Oct 2011), "The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics", ''Current Anthropology'', Vol 52, No. S4, pp. S457-S458. Downloaded from JSTOR.</ref> Achira was also being cultivated by 2000 BCE by the people of the [[Casma/Sechin culture]] in the extremely arid region of coastal [[Peru]], also an area in which achira was probably not native.<ref>Ugent et al, p. 417</ref>

==Cultivation==

Canna can be cultivated from sea level to 2,700 meters above [[sea level]], but thrives in temperate, tropical or subtropical mountain climates, between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level; at an average temperature of 14 to 27&nbsp;°C and minimum annual rainfall of 500&nbsp;mm and up to 1,200&nbsp;mm. Canna prefers light sandy-loamy soils, but can also grow on heavy soils, as far as they are not wet. It is indifferent to the soil reaction (pH value). To make the seeds germinate, it is also necessary to let them soak in water for two to three days.<ref>Idárraga-Piedrahita, A., RDC Ortiz, R. Callejas Posada & M. Merello. (eds.) 2011. Fl. Antioquia: Cat. 2: 9-939. University of Antioquia, Medellín.</ref>

To cultivate ''Canna indica'', the substrate should be rich, humiferous, and light.<ref name="aujardin1">{{cite web |url=https://www.aujardin.info/plantes/canna-brasiliensis.php |title=www.aujardin.info/plantes/canna-brasiliensis}}</ref> The optimal substrate consists of a deep, rich and well-drained soil in a sunny place with a pH between 5.5 - 7.5.<ref name="thefern">{{cite web |url=http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Canna+indica |title=www.tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Canna+indica}}</ref> The rhizomes should be planted at 10&nbsp;cm deep, after the last frost.<ref name="aujardin2">{{cite web |url=https://www.aujardin.info/plantes/canna.php |title=www.aujardin.info/plantes/canna}}</ref> Although it can tolerate dry periods, occasional irrigation will be beneficial for the yield. ''Canna indica'' is a plant that can withstand low temperatures (down to -10&nbsp;°C in regions with a mild climate). Nevertheless, the foliage can already be affected at 0&nbsp;°C.<ref name="aujardin2"/><ref name="thefern"/>

''Canna indica'' can be found at elevations up to 2,000 meters above sea level in humid tropical climates. The plant can also be cultivated in subtropical and warm temperate zones. The best climate for growing ''Canna indica'' is found in areas where annual daytime temperatures are between 12&nbsp;°C and 32&nbsp;°C.<ref name="thefern"/> The plant prefers a mean annual rainfall between 1,000 - 4,500&nbsp;mm, but it can tolerate 500 - 5,000&nbsp;mm per year.<ref name="aujardin2"/>

''Canna indica'' is usually propagated by putting either the rhizome tips or the whole rhizomes in the ground.<ref name="NRC 1989">National Research Council. (1989). Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation. National Academies Press.</ref> Because the rhizomes are quickly perishable, storing them properly between the harvest and the next planting time is essential.<ref name="Gade 1966">Gade, D. W. (1966). Achira, the edible canna, its cultivation and use in the Peruvian Andes. Economic Botany, 20(4), 407-415.</ref> The large rhizomes can be divided in spring before the new shoots appear.<ref name="Cook" >{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=I. |title=The gardener's guide to growing canna. |date=2001}}</ref> Additionally, ''Canna indica'' can also be propagated by seeds. Seedlings growing early in spring are able to flower the same year they are sown.<ref name="aujardin1"/>

The amount of rhizomes used for sowing is normally about 3000 – 4500&nbsp;kg/ha, and the planting density should not exceed 22,500 plants/ha. When putting the rhizomes in the ground, the sprouts should point upwards. The ideal spacing between plants in a row is 60 – 70&nbsp;cm, and the spacing between rows is 70 – 80&nbsp;cm. Because ''Canna indica'' grows quite tall, it should be cultivated at locations with relatively low wind speed to prevent bending over. [[Germination]] begins when the soil temperature is above 16&nbsp;°C, while the optimal temperature is 20 - 25&nbsp;°C. 20 – 30 days after sowing, seedlings emerge.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Xiyou |first1=Zhang |title=芭蕉芋高产栽培技术 |journal=Xiandai Nongye Keji |date=2011 |doi=10.3969/j.issn.1007-5739.2011.10.074}}</ref>

''Canna indica'' is reliant on fertilizer to achieve a good yield. In the early stages, seedling fertilizer should be applied during the first tillage and spread according to seedling conditions. Up to 750&nbsp;kg/ha of ternary compound fertilizer (N, P, K) can be applied. When applying fertilizer, direct contact with the base and leaves should be avoided. Before flowering, the second tillage can be combined with the second fertilizer application to promote the growth of underground stems and roots. Applying fertilizer evenly on both sides of the roots helps them to absorb water and grow uniformly.<ref name="fertilization">{{cite journal|last1=Lan|first1=Changxian|date=2020|title=芭蕉芋高产高效栽培技术|journal=乡村科技}} [in Mandarin]</ref>

Fast growing weeds can have a negative impact on ''Canna indica'', especially before the 4th leaf appears. Two [[weed control]] methods are usually practiced: Firstly, applying [[herbicides]] to eradicate weeds and secondly, carrying out mechanical operations depending on the weed growth.<ref name="fertilization" />

About six months after planting, the crop can be harvested. At this time, the rhizomes are tender and succulent. However, the rhizomes are mainly harvested later, after 8 – 10 months, when they reach their maximum size. ''Canna indica'' is suitable as an emergency crop in case of shortfalls due to its long durability in the ground. It can be harvested during times when the cultivation of other crops is not successful.<ref name="NRC 1989" />

Harvesting is done manually by pulling out the crop with a [[shovel]] or another digging tool, shaking off the soil, and then cutting the stems to separate the rhizomes.<ref name="Gade 1966" /><ref name="Caicedo 2003" />

The yield varies depending on the region of cultivation and its climate and soil conditions.<ref name="NRC 1989" /><ref name="Kay 1973">Kay, D. E. (1973). Root crops (No. 2). London: Tropical Products Institute.</ref> In certain locations, the yield of ''Canna indica'' can be higher than other starchy crops like [[cassava]] and [[arrowroot]].<ref name="NRC 1989" /> The average [[rhizome]] yield is believed to be around 22 - 50 tons per hectare, whereas the [[starch]] yield is about 2 - 5 tons per hectare and can reach up to 10 tons per hectare.<ref name="NRC 1989" /> Observations show that the highest yield in rhizomes does not necessarily correspond to the highest yield in starch.<ref name="Caicedo 2003">Caicedo Díaz, G. E., Rozo Wilches, L. S., & Rengifo Benítez, G. (2003). La achira: alternativa agroindustrial para áreas de economía campesina. [in Spanish]</ref>

===Diseases===

Cannas suffer from relatively few diseases compared to other species. Nevertheless, some diseases have been recorded to affect ''Canna indica''. One of them is Canna rust (''[[Puccinia thaliae]]''), a fungus that causes orange spots on the leaves. In addition, plant viruses occur: [[Hippeastrum mosaic virus]], [[Tomato aspermy virus]], [[Canna yellow mottle virus]] and [[Canna yellow streak virus]] which can cause mild or strong symptoms from streaked leaves, stunted growth to distorted blooms. Furthermore, there is [[Botrytis (fungus)]], a mold that affects the flowers.<ref name="Reddy P. P.">{{cite journal |last1=Reddy |first1=P. P. |title=Reddy P.P. (2015) Achira, Canna edulis. In: Plant Protection in Tropical Root and Tuber Crops. Springer, New Delhi. |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2389-4_9}}</ref>

Many different Canna varieties exist, and some of them are resistant to a certain type of disease. To prevent mold, the soil should be well-drained without too much soil moisture or stagnating water.<ref name="Reddy P. P." /> To diminish the risk of spreading diseases, dead and infected leaves should be removed.<ref name=":0" />

===Pests===

The Canna leaf roller moth (''[[Calpodes ethlius]]'') has been seen on Canna plants in the [[US]].<ref name="Cook"/> It is a [[caterpillar]] known as the worst pest for this plant and primarily found in the Southern United States. This pest causes damages by laying its eggs in the bud of developing stalks. To protect the eggs from predators and insecticide, caterpillars use sticky webs to keep the leaves from unfurling. The pupate then feed on the leaves which can lead to losses of yield due to reduced photosynthesis.<ref name="Reddy P. P." />

The Japanese Beetle (''[[Popillia japonica]]'') is another leaf ragging pest with mainly small consequences for Canna plants. This beetle feeds on the part of the leaves between the veins. In its originating region in Japan, it does not cause a lot of damages. However, in the US it has no natural predator and can cause serious damages on Cannas and other plants.<ref name="Reddy P. P." />

The Bird Cherry Oat Aphid (''[[Rhopalosiphum padi]]'') has been recorded to affect stored rhizomes. Although this pest has not been causing severe damages yet, it can particularly affect plants grown in greenhouses and can be combatted with parasitical wasps. It is a more common pest on [[cereals]].<ref name="Reddy P. P." />

Rhizomes for starch extraction should be processed within days after the harvest due to their perishability.<ref name="Kay 1973"/><ref name="Garcia 1998">García, H., Arias, R., & Camacho, J. (1998). Almidón de achira: Producción y uso industrial. CORPOICA, Programa Nacional de Maquinaria Agrícola y Postcosecha, Tibaitatá. [in Spanish]</ref> The following steps of traditional [[starch]] production in [[Colombia]] show that the process is dependent on a significant supply of fresh water.<ref name="NRC 1989"/><ref name="Garcia 1998" />

In rural areas in Colombia, the recently harvested rhizomes are packed up in sacks and transported to the processing site. The first step is cleaning the rhizomes by washing them in tanks. The second step is grating the rhizomes mechanically to disrupt the cell walls to release the starch. The third step is sieving to separate the starch from the rest of the rhizome pulp: The grated rhizomes and additional water are passed manually or mechanically through a sieve. The fourth step is separating the starch from the sieving water by letting the starch granules sink to the bottom of a tank. The fifth step is washing the starch multiple times with clean water. The last step is drying the starch by exposing it to the sun. The starch is now ready to be stored or transported.<ref name="Caicedo 2003"/><ref name="Garcia 1998" />

Canna indica is native to South America: Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina as well as the West Indies and Central America.<ref>illeen, TJ & TS Schulenberg. 1998. A biological assessment of Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Bolivia. RAP Working Papers 10: 1–372.</ref>

In modern times, ''C. indica'' is reportedly naturalized in Austria, Portugal, Spain, [[Azores]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira]], most of tropical Africa, [[Ascension Island]], [[St. Helena]], Madagascar, China, Japan, Taiwan, the [[Bonin Islands]], India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma, [[Java]], Malaysia, the Philippines, [[Christmas Island]], the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], [[Norfolk Island]], [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], Fiji, Tonga, Vanuatu, Kiribati, the [[Cook Islands]], the [[Society Islands]], the [[Caroline Islands]] and [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{WCSP | 223906 | accessdate = 30 March 2018}}</ref>

C. Indica has been included in the [[Global Invasive Species Database]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canna Indica Factsheet|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/14575#tosummaryOfInvasiveness|url-status=live|access-date=6 March 2021|website=CABI Invasive Species Compendium}}</ref> and has been declared as invasive in the following places:

 

* [[South Africa]] where it is categorised as a category 1b Invader in terms of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (10/2004) list of Alien and Invasive Species<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act: Alien and Invasive Species Lists {{!}} South African Government|url=https://www.gov.za/documents/national-environmental-management-biodiversity-act-alien-and-invasive-species-lists-18-sep|access-date=2021-03-06|website=www.gov.za}}</ref> which prohibits their cultivation, propagation, translocation and trade, and requires them to be removed and destroyed when found. This is because it competes with and replaces indigenous species, often in waterways and marshy areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Janey|title=Invasive Species South Africa - Protecting Biodiversity from Invasion - Indian shot {{!}} Canna indica|url=http://www.invasives.org.za/legislation/item/211-indian-shot-canna-indica|access-date=2021-03-06|website=www.invasives.org.za|language=en-gb}}</ref> 

* Australia, regarded as a weed in [[New South Wales]] and South Eastern [[Queensland]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=NSW WeedWise|url=https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/CannaLily|access-date=2021-03-06|website=weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au}}</ref>

* Pacific Islands, where it has been included in the list of plant threats to Pacific ecosystems<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canna indica: info from PIER (PIER species info)|url=http://www.hear.org/pier/species/canna_indica.htm|access-date=2021-03-06|website=www.hear.org}}</ref> as a high risk species

* [[Ghana]], where it was noted to compete with and invade natural shrub and tree woodland vegetation in the [[Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary]] and [[Kakum National Park]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://papaco.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Invasive-plants-study.pdf|title=Invasive plants affecting protected areas of West Africa. Management for reduction of risk for biodiversity|publisher=IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso|year=2013|isbn=978-2-8317-1596-4}}</ref>