India–Myanmar border: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|International border}}
{{Short description|Border separating India and Myanmar}}
 
{{Update|part=History|date=December 2025}}
[[File:Burma Indian map.png|thumb|right|Map of the India-Myanmar border (the areas marked "[[East Pakistan|Pakistan]]" are part of present-day [[Bangladesh]])]]
[[File:Burma Indian map.png|thumb|right|Map of the India-Myanmar border (the areas marked "[[East Pakistan|Pakistan]]" are part of present-day [[Bangladesh]])]]
The '''India–Myanmar border''' is the international border between [[India]] and [[Myanmar]] (formerly Burma). The border is {{convert|1,643|km|mi}} in length and runs from the [[tripoint]] with [[China]] in the north to the tripoint with [[Bangladesh]] in the south.<ref>{{cite web |title=Burma |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=17 September 2020}}</ref>
The '''India–Myanmar border''' is the international border between [[India]] and [[Myanmar]] (formerly Burma). The {{convert|1,643|km|mi}} long border runs from the [[tripoint]] with [[China]] in the north to the tripoint with [[Bangladesh]] in the south.<ref>{{cite web |title=Burma |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=17 September 2020 |archive-date=10 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210200835/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Geographically, the [[Indo-Burman Ranges]] stand as a physical barrier between the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asian Massif]].
 
==History==
 
===Early history===
{{see also | History of Myanmar | Names of Myanmar | Buddhism in Myanmar }}
 
Various empires and states of India and [[Names of Myanmar#Burma|Burma]], as [[Indianisation|Indianised]] [[Hinduism in Myanmar|Hindu]]-[[Buddhism in Myanmar|Buddhist]] [[Mandala (political model)|mandala]] of [[Greater India]] and [[Indosphere]], have had changing borders going back [[History of Myanmar#Early history (to the 9th century)|several centuries]].
 
=== 19–20th century: British colonial period ===
 
The first formation of the Indo-Burmese border during the [[British Raj]] was through the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]], which resulted in the [[Treaty of Yandabo]] in 1826. The Burmese relinquished control over [[Assam]], [[Manipur]], [[Rakhine State|Rakhine]] ([[Arakan]]), and the [[Tanintharyi Region|Tanintharyi coast]], thereby delimiting much of the modern boundary in general terms.<ref name="app-237">{{cite book |author=Phayre |first=Arthur Purves |author-link=Arthur Purves Phayre |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofburma01phay/page/n7/mode/2up |title=History of Burma |publisher=Trübner & Company |year=1883 |edition= |location=London |page=}}</ref><ref name="mmb">{{cite book |author=Thant |first=Myint-U |author-link=Thant Myint-U |url=https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin |title=The Making of Modern Burma |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-79914-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin/page/n29 20] |url-access=limited}}</ref> In 1834 the [[Kabaw Valley]] areas was returned to Burma and a modified boundary delimited the region called the 'Pemberton Line' after a British boundary commissioner, [[Robert Boileau Pemberton]].<ref name="IBS" /> In 1837 the [[Patkai|Patkai Hills]] were unilaterally designated as the northern boundary.<ref name="IBS" />
 
Large swathes of Burma were annexed to the British Empire following the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] of 1852–53.<ref name="IBS" /><ref name="Hall">{{cite book|url=http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/Burma/bur_history.pdf|author=D.G.E.Hall|year=1960|title=Burma|publisher=Hutchinson University Library|pages=109–113|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050519230755/http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/Burma/bur_history.pdf|archive-date=2005-05-19}}</ref> The remainder of Burma was [[Third Anglo-Burmese War|conquered]] in 1885 and incorporated into [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] as a province.<ref>{{cite book |last=Raugh, Jr. |first=Harold E. |title=The Victorians at War, 1815-1914: An Encyclopedia of British Military History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=9781576079263 |location=Santa Barbara, California |page=70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Thant |first=Myint-U |author-link=Thant Myint-U |url=https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin |title=The Making of Modern Burma |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-521-79914-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin/page/n27 18] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="webster">{{cite book | title=Gentlemen Capitalists: British Imperialism in South East Asia, 1770–1890 | first=Anthony|last= Webster | publisher=I.B.Tauris | year=1998 | pages=142–145 | isbn=978-1-86064-171-8}}</ref>
 
The Pemberton Line was first refined in 1881.<ref name="IBS" /> In 1894 a boundary between Manipur and the [[Chin Hills]] (recognised as part of Burma) was delimited, and the existing Pemberton boundary modified again in 1896.<ref name="IBS" /> Further boundary modifications were made in 1901, 1921 and 1922.<ref name="IBS" />
 
In 1937 the British government split Burma from India and made it a separate colony.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamalakaran |first=Ajay |date=2024-01-13 |title=Why Burma was separated from British India |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/1062050/why-burma-was-separated-from-british-india |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref> In 1947 India gained independence, however the country was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] into two states (India and [[Pakistan]]), with the [[Bangladesh-Myanmar border|southernmost section]] of the Burma-India border becoming that between Burma and [[East Pakistan]] (modern [[Bangladesh]]).<ref name="IBS" /> Burma gained independence in 1948.<ref name="IBS" /> On 10 March 1967 Burma and India signed a boundary treaty which delimited their common frontier in detail.<ref name="IBS" /> Security along the border has often been poor, owing to ongoing conflicts in [[Insurgency in Northeast India|north-east India]] and [[Internal conflict in Myanmar|western Myanmar]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Das |first1=Pushpita |title=India-Myanmar Border Problems: Fencing not the only solution |url=https://idsa.in/idsacomments/IndiaMyanmarBorderProblems_pdas_151113 |website=IDSA |date=15 November 2013 |access-date=22 September 2020 |archive-date=1 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001204002/https://idsa.in/idsacomments/IndiaMyanmarBorderProblems_pdas_151113 |url-status=live }}</ref>


==Background ==
=== Post-independence of India and Myanmar ===


===Description===
==== 1948–2024: FMR (Free Movement Regime) ====
{{anchor | FMR }}


The precise location of the tripoint with China is unclear owing to the [[Sino-Indian border dispute]] - at present, the de facto tripoint is located just north of the [[Diphu Pass]].<ref name="IBS">{{cite web |title=International Boundary Study No. 80 Burma – India Boundary |url=https://fall.law.fsu.edu/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS080.pdf |publisher=US Department of State |date=15 May 1968|access-date=22 September 2020}}</ref> From here the border proceeds to the south-west through the [[Mishmi Hills]], except for an Indian protrusion at the [[Chaukan Pass]], then continuing through the [[Patkai]] and Kassom Ranges. At the south-east corner of [[Manipur]] it turns sharply westwards along various rivers for a period over to the [[Tiau River]]. It then follows this river southwards for a long stretch down to the [[Chin Hills]], before turning west and proceeding to the Bangladeshi tripoint via a series of irregular lines.<ref name="IBS"/>
The India–Myanmar border previously had a '''Free Movement Regime''' (FMR), allowing border tribes to travel visa-free up to {{convert|16|km|abbr=on}} across,<ref name=singhdas1/><ref name=push1/> which was terminated by Indian government in February 2024 due to [[2023–2025 Manipur violence]] and rampant illegal cross-border activities.<ref name=push2/> This facilitated movement for over 300,000 people in border villages, rooted in historical economic and cultural ties acknowledged by both nations through reciprocal passport rule amendments in 1948–50, permitting travel within {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} with short stays.<ref name=singhdas1>{{citation |title=Indo-Myanmar Border Trade: Status, Problems, and Potentials |editor1=Gurudas Das |editor2=N. Bijoy Singh |editor3=C. Joshua Thomas |publisher=Akansha Publishing House |year=2005 |isbn=9788183700078 |ref={{sfnref|Das, Singh & Thomas, Indo-Myanmar Border Trade|2005}}}}, p. 45-46.</ref><ref name=push1>Pushpita Das, [https://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/Free-Movement-Regime-PDas-170123 Free Movement Regime: A Unique Feature of the India-Myanmar Border], Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, 17 January 2024.</ref> Initially unrestricted, India introduced a permit system in 1968 due to insurgencies, and later, in 2004, limited the travel distance to {{convert|16|km|abbr=on}} and designated three crossing points due to rising drug and arms trafficking.<ref name=singhdas1/> A formal Land Border Crossing Agreement in 2018 required border passes for residents within {{convert|16|km}} with a 14-day stay limit. Amidst the violence, insurgency and rampant illegal cross-border activities, the Indian government terminated the FMR in February 2024, facing opposition from Mizoram government and some civil society groups.<ref name=push2>Harsh V. Pant, Sreeparna Banerjee, [https://www.orfonline.org/research/fencing-frontiers-with-myanmar-the-benefits-and-challenges-of-fmr-along-india-myanmar-border Fencing frontiers with Myanmar: The benefits and challenges of FMR along India-Myanmar border], Observer Research Foundation, 8 January 2024.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Baruah |first=Sukrita |date=Jan 16, 2024 |title=States, civil society restive as Centre plans to scrap Free Movement Regime with Myanmar |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/centre-plans-to-scrap-free-movement-regime-with-myanmar-9111902/ |access-date=Feb 2, 2024 |website=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref>


===History===
==Border==


Historically the border region has been a contested area located at the edge of the various Indian and Burmese empires.<ref name="IBS"/> Britain had begun conquering India in the 17th century, and gradually took control of most of the country, forming [[British India]]. From the 1820s-80s Britain also gradually conquered [[British Burma|Burma]]; by the [[Treaty of Yandabo]] in 1826 which ended the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] Burma recognised British control over [[Assam]], [[Manipur]], [[Rakhine State|Rakhine]] ([[Arakan]]), and the [[Taninthayi]] coast, thereby delimiting much of the modern boundary in general terms.<ref name=app-237>{{cite book | title=History of Burma | author=Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. Phayre | year=1967 | page=237 | edition=2 | publisher=Sunil Gupta | location=London}}</ref><ref name=mmb>{{cite book | title=The Making of Modern Burma | url=https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin | url-access=limited | author=Thant Myint-U | year=2001 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-79914-0 | page=[https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin/page/n29 20]}}</ref> In 1834 the [[Kabaw Valley]] areas was returned to Burma and a modified boundary delimited in this region, dubbed the 'Pemberton line' after a British commissioner, which was later refined in 1881.<ref name="IBS"/> In 1837 the Patkai Hills were unilaterally designated as the northern boundary.<ref name="IBS"/> Large swathes of Burma were annexed following the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] of 1852–53.<ref name="IBS"/><ref name="Hall">{{cite book|url=http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/Burma/bur_history.pdf|author=D.G.E.Hall|year=1960|title=Burma|publisher=Hutchinson University Library|pages=109–113|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050519230755/http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/Burma/bur_history.pdf|archive-date=2005-05-19}}</ref> The remainder of Burma was [[Third Anglo-Burmese War|conquered]] in 1885 and incorporated into British India.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Victorians at war, 1815-1914: an encyclopedia of British military history | page=70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=The Making of Modern Burma | url=https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin | url-access=limited | pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin/page/n27 18]| author=Thant Myint-U|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-79914-7}}</ref><ref name=webster>{{cite book | title=Gentlemen Capitalists: British Imperialism in South East Asia, 1770–1890 | first=Anthony|last= Webster | publisher=I.B.Tauris | year=1998 | pages=142–145 | isbn=978-1-86064-171-8}}</ref> In 1894 a boundary between Manipur and the Chin Hills was delimited, and the existing 'Pemberton line' boundary modified again in 1896.<ref name="IBS"/> Further boundary modifications were made in 1901, 1921 and 1922.<ref name="IBS"/>
===Description===


In 1937 Burma was split off from India and became a separate colony.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080117060229/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788006,00.html Sword For Pen], ''TIME Magazine'', 12 April 1937</ref> In 1947 India gained independence, however the country was split into two states (India and [[Pakistan]]), with the [[Bangladesh-Myanmar border|southernmost section]] of the Burma-India border becoming that between Burma and [[East Pakistan]] (modern [[Bangladesh]]).<ref name="IBS"/> Burma gained independence in 1948.<ref name="IBS"/> On 10 March 1967 Burma and India signed a boundary treaty which delimited their common frontier in detail.<ref name="IBS"/> Security along the border has often been poor, owing to ongoing conflicts in [[Insurgency in Northeast India|north-east India]] and [[Internal conflict in Myanmar|western Myanmar]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Das |first1=Pushpita |title=India-Myanmar Border Problems: Fencing not the only solution |url=https://idsa.in/idsacomments/IndiaMyanmarBorderProblems_pdas_151113 |website=IDSA |date=15 November 2013|access-date=22 September 2020}}</ref>
The trijunction of India, China and Myanmar is not yet agreed among the three nations. The de facto tripoint is located just north of the [[Diphu Pass]] in [[Kibithu]] sector.<ref name="IBS">{{cite web |title=International Boundary Study No. 80 Burma – India Boundary |url=https://fall.law.fsu.edu/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS080.pdf |publisher=US Department of State |date=15 May 1968 |access-date=22 September 2020 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131143245/https://fall.law.fsu.edu/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS080.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> From here the border proceeds to the south-west through the [[Mishmi Hills]], except for an Indian protrusion at the [[Vijaynagar, Arunachal Pradesh#Geography|Chaukan Pass]] entailing [[Vijaynagar,_Arunachal_Pradesh#|Vijaynagar]] valley, then continuing through the [[Patkai]] and Kassom Ranges. At the south-east corner of [[Manipur]] it turns sharply westwards along various rivers for a period over to the [[Tiau River]]. It then follows this river southwards for a long stretch down to the [[Chin Hills]], before turning west and proceeding to the Bangladeshi tripoint via a series of irregular lines.<ref name="IBS"/>


==Barrier==
===Barrier===
{{main|North-East India security fence}}


The India–Myanmar barrier is a [[border barrier]] that [[India]] is constructing{{When|date=October 2021}} to seal its {{convert|1,624|km|mi|adj=on}}-long border with [[Myanmar]]. India hopes to curtail cross-border crime, including goods, arms and counterfeit currency smuggling, drug trafficking, and insurgency.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} The [[United Nations Drug Control Programme]] (UNDCP) and [[International Narcotics Control Board]] (INCB) also warned that the region could become a significant transit point for illicit drugs .<ref name= Bhonsle>{{cite web
{{see also|Borders_of_India#Barriers|l1=India's border barriers with neighbouring countries}}
 
The India–Myanmar barrier, a [[border barrier]] along {{convert|1,624|km|mi|adj=on}}-long border under-construction by [[India]], aims to seal the border, curtail cross-border crime, including goods, arms and counterfeit currency smuggling, drug trafficking,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Challenges To India's National Security: The Illicit Flow Of Drugs From Myanmar To India-Pre And Post Myanmar Coup Of 2021 – CENJOWS |url=https://cenjows.in/challenges-to-indias-national-security-the-illicit-flow-of-drugs-from-myanmar-to-india-pre-and-post-myanmar-coup-of-2021/ |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=cenjows.in}}</ref> and insurgency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India-Myanmar border: Escalating human trafficking concerns |url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/india-myanmar-border |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=orfonline.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name= Bhonsle>{{cite web
  |url          = http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=350
  |url          = http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=350
  |title        = India's 'Look Myanmar' Policy
  |title        = India's 'Look Myanmar' Policy
Line 28: Line 51:
  |archive-date = July 28, 2012
  |archive-date = July 28, 2012
  |url-status  = dead
  |url-status  = dead
}}</ref> Indian security forces blamed the porous border for the deaths of 200 security personnel and civilians in militancy-related violence in the region in 2001–2003.<ref>{{cite web
}}</ref> Four Northeast Indian states share the border with Myanmar, i.e. [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Mizoram]], and [[Manipur]]. Both national governments agreed to conduct a joint survey before erecting the fence. The Indian Home Ministry and its Myanmar counterpart completed the study within six months and in March 2003 began erecting a fence along the border.<ref name= Khaund>{{cite web
|url= http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs3/BNI2004-10-15b.htm
|last= Khaund
|first= Surajit
|title= India-Burma border fencing delays due to protest by local communities
|date= 15 October 2004
|publisher= Burma News International
|access-date= 2007-10-10
|archive-date= 2018-12-25
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181225051727/http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs3/BNI2004-10-15b.htm%0A
|url-status= live
}}</ref> In 2024, India approved {{INRConvert|30000|c|lk=on|year=2024}} for the construction of border fence along the Myanmar border.<ref name=borud1>[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/government-sanctions-31000-crore-to-fence-myanmar-border/article68655939.ece Government sanctions ₹31,000 crore to fence Myanmar border], The Hindu, 16 Sept 2024.</ref> Of the total, {{convert|1,624|km|mi|adj=on}} length, only 30&nbsp;km was fenced by September 2024, remaining was being expedited.<ref name=borud1/> BRO will complete this work over 10 years by 2035-36.<ref name=opbrd1>[https://www.thestatesman.com/exclusive-interviews/linking-frontiers-with-the-nation-1503507700.html Linking frontiers with the nation], The Statesman, 5 Nov 2025.</ref>
 
Issues have been raised that many local ethnic communities, such as the [[Kuki people|Kuki]], [[Naga people|Naga]], [[Mizo people|Mizo]], and [[Chin people|Chins]] whose lands straddle the regions between the two countries, will be divided by this fence.<ref name= Khaund/><ref name=Bhonsle/> However, the Indian security forces justify the need for the fence by blaming the porous border as a national security threat.<ref name=de1/> For example, during two-year period between 2001 and 2003 alone 200 security personnel and civilians died in the militancy-related violence in the region,<ref name=de1>{{cite web
|url= http://www.burmalibrary.org/TinKyi/archives/2003-05/msg00018.html
|url= http://www.burmalibrary.org/TinKyi/archives/2003-05/msg00018.html
|title= India, Burma to fence the border
|title= India, Burma to fence the border
Line 37: Line 73:
|archive-date= January 29, 2013
|archive-date= January 29, 2013
|url-status= dead
|url-status= dead
}}</ref> Four Northeast Indian states share the border with Myanmar: [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Mizoram]], and [[Manipur]]. Both national governments agreed to conduct a joint survey before erecting the fence. The Indian Home Ministry and its Myanmar counterpart completed the study within six months and, in March 2003 began erecting a fence along the border.<ref name= Khaund>{{cite web
}}</ref> and in 2007 a violent boundary dispute arose among the locals regarding the ownership of nine border pillars in Manipur.<ref>{{cite web  
|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs3/BNI2004-10-15b.htm
|last= Khaund
|first= Surajit
|title= India-Burma border fencing delays due to protest by local communities
|date= 15 October 2004
|publisher= Burma News International
|access-date=2007-10-10
}}</ref>
 
In 2004, fencing work in the state of Manipur along the border was stalled due to protests raised by the local [[Kuki people|Kuki]] and [[Naga people|Naga]] communities. According to them, a huge stretch of land would become Myanmar's territory and foster unrest among people living on both sides of the border. The protests from people living in the Moreh, Chorokhunou, and Molchan areas forced the Home Ministry to refer the matter to the Manipur government.<ref name= Khaund/> This fence will divide many ethnic communities, including the [[Mizo people|Mizo]], Nagas, [[Chin people|Chins]], and Kukis whose lands straddle the regions between the two states- it is thus a highly sensitive issue.<ref name=Bhonsle/> In 2007 it was reported that in the state of Manipur, a boundary dispute arose with ownership of nine border pillars being disputed.<ref>{{cite web
  |url=https://www.indoburmanews.net/archives-1/2007/september/new-effort-india-myanmar-to-begin-talks  
  |url=https://www.indoburmanews.net/archives-1/2007/september/new-effort-india-myanmar-to-begin-talks  
  |title=New effort: India-Myanmar to begin talks  
  |title=New effort: India-Myanmar to begin talks  
Line 53: Line 79:
  |publisher=[[Times of India]]  
  |publisher=[[Times of India]]  
  |access-date=2007-10-10  
  |access-date=2007-10-10  
  }}</ref>
|archive-date=2018-12-25
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225045950/https://www.indoburmanews.net/archives-1/2007/september/new-effort-india-myanmar-to-begin-talks%20%20
|url-status=live
  }}</ref> India has similar fence on borders with [[India–Pakistan border|Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh–India border#Barrier|Bangladesh]].<ref name=borff1>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/1643-km-indo-myanmar-border-to-be-fenced-a-patrol-track-to-be-built-amit-shah-101707231177832.html 1643 km Indo-Myanmar border to be fenced, a patrol track to be built: Amit Shah], Hindustan Times, 6 Feb 2024.</ref>


The Indo-Myanmar Border Force (IMBF) is a proposed and soon-to-be-composed{{when|date=September 2020}} force of 29 battalions - 25 battalions from [[Assam Rifles]] and 4 battalions from [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]] - to guard the {{convert|1,643|km|adj=on}} long Indo-Myanmar border. IMBF will remain under ITBP and will patrol the border to the zero line (as of January 2018).<ref name=imbf>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/home-ministry-looks-to-form-29-battalion-indo-myanmar-border-force/story-iImWizVCRAtDYGIonj2OML.html Home ministry looks to form 29-battalion Indo-Myanmar border force], Hindustan Times, 18 Jan 2018.</ref>
===Border crossings===


==Border bazaars ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Category !! State !! Border Crossing !! Details
|-
| rowspan="2" | International <br>(Integrated immigration and customs check post (ICP), open to all international travelers with valid passports and visa) || [[Manipur]] || [[Moreh, India|Moreh]] (India) – [[Tamu, Myanmar|Tamu]] (Myanmar) || Lies on the [[India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway]] (IMT Highway).<ref>{{cite web |title=India Myanmar Borders |url=https://www.myanmartours.net/india-myanmar-borders.html |website=Myanmar Tours |access-date=22 September 2020 |archive-date=1 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001213633/https://www.myanmartours.net/india-myanmar-borders.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Travel from India to Myanmar by Road- Detailed Guide on Border Crossing |url=https://thevagabong.com/india-myanmar-road-border-crossing/ |website=The Vagabong |date=30 April 2020 |access-date=22 September 2020 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028110057/https://thevagabong.com/india-myanmar-road-border-crossing/ |url-status=live }}</ref>


See [[Borders of India#Haat|Haats on India-Myanmar border]].
|-
| [[Mizoram]] || [[Zochachhuah|Zochawchhuah]] (India) – Zorinpui (Myanmar) || Lies on [[Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project]]. It is {{convert|287|km|abbr=on}} away from [[Sittwe Port]] and {{convert|90|km|abbr=on}} from [[Lawngtlai]] (Mizoram) on Aizawl-Saiha National Highway [[National Highway 2 (India)|NH-2]] which continues further to [[Dabaka]] in [[Assam]] via the {{convert|850|km|abbr=on}} route part of the larger [[North–South and East–West Corridor#East-West Corridor|East-West Corridor]] connecting [[North East India]] with the rest of India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.arakanrivers.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Kaladan-Mov.png |title=Multi-modal route map |access-date=2017-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822053547/http://www.arakanrivers.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Kaladan-Mov.png |archive-date=2017-08-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=de10>[http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-opens-two-border-crossing-points-with-myanmar-bangladesh-4869496/ India opens two border crossing points with Myanmar, Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303082454/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-opens-two-border-crossing-points-with-myanmar-bangladesh-4869496/ |date=2019-03-03 }}, [[Indian Express]], 1 Oct 2017.</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | Local FMR crossing only || rowspan="2" | [[Arunachal Pradesh]] || [[Diphu Pass]] || Lies 30&nbsp;km east of [[Dong, Arunachal Pradesh]], and north of Pangsau Pass.


==Border crossings==
|-
[[File:Indo-Burmese Border.jpg|thumb|right|The Rickhawdar (right)-Zokhawthar (left) border crossing]]
| [[Nampong]]-[[Pangsau Pass]] (India) near [[Lake of No Return]] (Myanmar)|| Via [[National Highway 315 (India)|NH-315]] ([[Ledo Road]]), which is part of [[Stilwell Road]].


===Designated immigration and customs crossings===
|-
| rowspan="1" | Manipur || [[Behiang]] to [[Khenman]] || Provides access to [[Tedim Township|Tedim]] in Myanmar.<ref name=ted1>{{cite web|url=http://www.idsa.in/strategicanalysis/36_5/TedimRoadTheStrategicRoadonaFrontier_PumKhanPau|title=Tedim Road—The Strategic Road on a Frontier: A Historical Analysis - Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses|website=www.idsa.in|access-date=2020-09-22|archive-date=2020-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826124405/https://idsa.in/strategicanalysis/36_5/TedimRoadTheStrategicRoadonaFrontier_PumKhanPau|url-status=live}}</ref>


* [[Moreh, India]] to [[Tamu, Myanmar]] in Manipur.<ref>{{cite web |title=India Myanmar Borders |url=https://www.myanmartours.net/india-myanmar-borders.html |website=Myanmar Tours |access-date=22 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Travel from India to Myanmar by Road- Detailed Guide on Border Crossing |url=https://thevagabong.com/india-myanmar-road-border-crossing/ |website=The Vagabong |access-date=22 September 2020}}</ref>
|-
* Zorinpui International border crossing in Mizoram.<ref name=de10/>
| rowspan="1" | Mizoram || [[Zokhawthar]] (India) to [[Khawmawi]]-[[Rikhawdar]] (Myanmar) || Via [[Harhva river]] bridge; local and informal use.
|}


===Other local border crossings===
[[File:Indo-Burmese Border.jpg|thumb|right|Rickhawdar (left;Myanmar)- Zokhawthar (right;India) border crossing]]


The India–Myanmar border has a ''Free Movement Regime'' (FMR) which allows tribes living along the border to travel {{convert|16|km|abbr=on}} across either side of the border without visa restrictions.<ref name=IMB1>{{cite web|url=http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/IndiaMyanmarBorderProblems_pdas_151113|title=India-Myanmar Border Problems: Fencing not the only solution - Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses|website=www.idsa.in}}</ref> There are over 250 villages with over 300,000 people living within {{convert|10|km}} of the border who frequently cross the border through 150 small and large formal and informal border crossings.<ref name=Stat>{{cite web|url=http://www.thestatesman.com/mobi/news/north-east-page/straddling-different-boundaries/113033.html|title=Northeast India {{!}} Straddling Different Boundaries|website=The Statesman}}</ref>
===Border force===
{{anchor | Force }}


==== [[Arunachal Pradesh]] State ====
The Indo-Myanmar Border Force (IMBF) is a proposed and soon-to-be-composed{{when|date=September 2020}} force of 29 battalions - 25 battalions from [[Assam Rifles]] and 4 battalions from [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]] - to guard the {{convert|1,643|km|adj=on}} long Indo-Myanmar border. IMBF will remain under ITBP and will patrol the border to the zero line (as of January 2018).<ref name=imbf>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/home-ministry-looks-to-form-29-battalion-indo-myanmar-border-force/story-iImWizVCRAtDYGIonj2OML.html Home ministry looks to form 29-battalion Indo-Myanmar border force] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109013141/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/home-ministry-looks-to-form-29-battalion-indo-myanmar-border-force/story-iImWizVCRAtDYGIonj2OML.html |date=2020-11-09 }}, Hindustan Times, 18 Jan 2018.</ref>
* [[Diphu Pass]] to Myanmar in [[Arunachal Pradesh]].
* [[Nampong]] to [[Pangsau Pass]] near [[Lake of No Return]] on Myanmar side, via [[National Highway 153 (India)]] ([[Ledo Road]] which is part of [[Stilwell Road]])


==== [[Manipur]] State ====
===Border markets ===
* [[Behiang]] to [[Khenman]] via Tedim Road.<ref name=ted1>{{cite web|url=http://www.idsa.in/strategicanalysis/36_5/TedimRoadTheStrategicRoadonaFrontier_PumKhanPau|title=Tedim Road—The Strategic Road on a Frontier: A Historical Analysis - Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses|website=www.idsa.in}}</ref>
* [[Moreh, India]] to [[Tamu, Myanmar]], has an integrated immigration check post with customs.


==== [[Mizoram]] State ====
See [[Borders of India#Haat|Haats on India-Myanmar border]].
* Zorinpui, on [[Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project]], is {{convert|287|km|abbr=on}} away from [[Sittwe Port]] and {{convert|90|km|abbr=on}} from Aizawl-Saiha National Highway ([[National Highway 54 (India)]] (NH-54)) at [[Lawngtlai]] in [[Mizoram]]. NH-54 continues further to [[Dabaka]] in [[Assam]] via the {{convert|850|km|abbr=on}} long NH-54. NH-54  is part of the larger [[North–South and East–West Corridor#East-West Corridor|East-West Corridor]] connecting [[North East India]] with the rest of [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.arakanrivers.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Kaladan-Mov.png |title=Multi-modal route map |access-date=2017-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822053547/http://www.arakanrivers.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Kaladan-Mov.png |archive-date=2017-08-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is a designated customs and immigration post, open to all categories of international travellers with valid travel document and visa.<ref name=de10>[http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-opens-two-border-crossing-points-with-myanmar-bangladesh-4869496/ India opens two border crossing points with Myanmar, Bangladesh], [[Indian Express]], 1 Oct 2017.</ref>
* [[Zokhawthar]] to [[Khawmawi]] and [[Rikhawdar]] via the bridge over the [[Harhva river]].


== Maritime boundaries ==
== Maritime boundaries ==
{{ anchor | Maritime | EEZ }}
{{ anchor | Maritime | EEZ }}
{{ see also | Exclusive economic zone of India | Exclusive economic zone of Myanmar}}<!-- CAUTION: As per wiki guidelines Retain the redlink to encourage creation of articles. Meanwhile, nearest approximation has been added as "see also", do not pipe to these "see also" articles, instead create the articles even if its a short one liner. Once all the redlink articles has been created, please remove this comment. Thank you. -->
{{see also|Exclusive economic zone of India|Exclusive economic zone of Myanmar}}<!-- CAUTION: As per wiki guidelines Retain the redlink to encourage creation of articles. Meanwhile, nearest approximation has been added as "see also", do not pipe to these "see also" articles, instead create the articles even if its a short one liner. Once all the redlink articles has been created, please remove this comment. Thank you. -->


India and Myanmar have maritime [[exclusive economic zone]]s in each other's vicinity. [[Landfall Island]], India's northernmost Island in [[Andaman and Nicobar]] is 40 kilometres (22 nmi) south of [[Coco Islands]] belonging to Myanmar.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=Andaman+and+Nicobar+Command|title=Andaman and Nicobar Command – Google Search|website=www.google.com|language=en|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref>
India and Myanmar have maritime [[exclusive economic zone]]s in each other's vicinity. [[Landfall Island]], India's northernmost Island in [[Andaman and Nicobar]] is {{Convert|40|km}} south of [[Coco Islands]] belonging to Myanmar.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=Andaman+and+Nicobar+Command|title=Andaman and Nicobar Command – Google Search|website=www.google.com|language=en|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[India–Myanmar relations]]
* [[India–Myanmar relations]]
* [[Bangladesh–Myanmar border]]


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 08:14, 24 February 2026


Map of the India-Myanmar border (the areas marked "Pakistan" are part of present-day Bangladesh)

The India–Myanmar border is the international border between India and Myanmar (formerly Burma). The 1,643 kilometres (1,021 mi) long border runs from the tripoint with China in the north to the tripoint with Bangladesh in the south.[1] Geographically, the Indo-Burman Ranges stand as a physical barrier between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian Massif.

History[edit | edit source]

Early history[edit | edit source]

See also: History of Myanmar, Names of Myanmar, and Buddhism in Myanmar

Various empires and states of India and Burma, as Indianised Hindu-Buddhist mandala of Greater India and Indosphere, have had changing borders going back several centuries.

19–20th century: British colonial period[edit | edit source]

The first formation of the Indo-Burmese border during the British Raj was through the First Anglo-Burmese War, which resulted in the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826. The Burmese relinquished control over Assam, Manipur, Rakhine (Arakan), and the Tanintharyi coast, thereby delimiting much of the modern boundary in general terms.[2][3] In 1834 the Kabaw Valley areas was returned to Burma and a modified boundary delimited the region called the 'Pemberton Line' after a British boundary commissioner, Robert Boileau Pemberton.[4] In 1837 the Patkai Hills were unilaterally designated as the northern boundary.[4]

Large swathes of Burma were annexed to the British Empire following the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852–53.[4][5] The remainder of Burma was conquered in 1885 and incorporated into British India as a province.[6][7][8]

The Pemberton Line was first refined in 1881.[4] In 1894 a boundary between Manipur and the Chin Hills (recognised as part of Burma) was delimited, and the existing Pemberton boundary modified again in 1896.[4] Further boundary modifications were made in 1901, 1921 and 1922.[4]

In 1937 the British government split Burma from India and made it a separate colony.[9] In 1947 India gained independence, however the country was partitioned into two states (India and Pakistan), with the southernmost section of the Burma-India border becoming that between Burma and East Pakistan (modern Bangladesh).[4] Burma gained independence in 1948.[4] On 10 March 1967 Burma and India signed a boundary treaty which delimited their common frontier in detail.[4] Security along the border has often been poor, owing to ongoing conflicts in north-east India and western Myanmar.[10]

Post-independence of India and Myanmar[edit | edit source]

1948–2024: FMR (Free Movement Regime)[edit | edit source]

The India–Myanmar border previously had a Free Movement Regime (FMR), allowing border tribes to travel visa-free up to 16 km (9.9 mi) across,[11][12] which was terminated by Indian government in February 2024 due to 2023–2025 Manipur violence and rampant illegal cross-border activities.[13] This facilitated movement for over 300,000 people in border villages, rooted in historical economic and cultural ties acknowledged by both nations through reciprocal passport rule amendments in 1948–50, permitting travel within 40 km (25 mi) with short stays.[11][12] Initially unrestricted, India introduced a permit system in 1968 due to insurgencies, and later, in 2004, limited the travel distance to 16 km (9.9 mi) and designated three crossing points due to rising drug and arms trafficking.[11] A formal Land Border Crossing Agreement in 2018 required border passes for residents within 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) with a 14-day stay limit. Amidst the violence, insurgency and rampant illegal cross-border activities, the Indian government terminated the FMR in February 2024, facing opposition from Mizoram government and some civil society groups.[13][14]

Border[edit | edit source]

Description[edit | edit source]

The trijunction of India, China and Myanmar is not yet agreed among the three nations. The de facto tripoint is located just north of the Diphu Pass in Kibithu sector.[4] From here the border proceeds to the south-west through the Mishmi Hills, except for an Indian protrusion at the Chaukan Pass entailing Vijaynagar valley, then continuing through the Patkai and Kassom Ranges. At the south-east corner of Manipur it turns sharply westwards along various rivers for a period over to the Tiau River. It then follows this river southwards for a long stretch down to the Chin Hills, before turning west and proceeding to the Bangladeshi tripoint via a series of irregular lines.[4]

Barrier[edit | edit source]

Main article: North-East India security fence
See also: India's border barriers with neighbouring countries

The India–Myanmar barrier, a border barrier along 1,624-kilometre (1,009 mi)-long border under-construction by India, aims to seal the border, curtail cross-border crime, including goods, arms and counterfeit currency smuggling, drug trafficking,[15] and insurgency.[16][17] Four Northeast Indian states share the border with Myanmar, i.e. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Manipur. Both national governments agreed to conduct a joint survey before erecting the fence. The Indian Home Ministry and its Myanmar counterpart completed the study within six months and in March 2003 began erecting a fence along the border.[18] In 2024, India approved ₹30,000 crore (US$4.2 billion) for the construction of border fence along the Myanmar border.[19] Of the total, 1,624-kilometre (1,009 mi) length, only 30 km was fenced by September 2024, remaining was being expedited.[19] BRO will complete this work over 10 years by 2035-36.[20]

Issues have been raised that many local ethnic communities, such as the Kuki, Naga, Mizo, and Chins whose lands straddle the regions between the two countries, will be divided by this fence.[18][17] However, the Indian security forces justify the need for the fence by blaming the porous border as a national security threat.[21] For example, during two-year period between 2001 and 2003 alone 200 security personnel and civilians died in the militancy-related violence in the region,[21] and in 2007 a violent boundary dispute arose among the locals regarding the ownership of nine border pillars in Manipur.[22] India has similar fence on borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh.[23]

Border crossings[edit | edit source]

Category State Border Crossing Details
International
(Integrated immigration and customs check post (ICP), open to all international travelers with valid passports and visa)		 Manipur Moreh (India) – Tamu (Myanmar) Lies on the India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway (IMT Highway).[24][25]
Mizoram Zochawchhuah (India) – Zorinpui (Myanmar) Lies on Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project. It is 287 km (178 mi) away from Sittwe Port and 90 km (56 mi) from Lawngtlai (Mizoram) on Aizawl-Saiha National Highway NH-2 which continues further to Dabaka in Assam via the 850 km (530 mi) route part of the larger East-West Corridor connecting North East India with the rest of India.[26][27]
Local FMR crossing only Arunachal Pradesh Diphu Pass Lies 30 km east of Dong, Arunachal Pradesh, and north of Pangsau Pass.
Nampong-Pangsau Pass (India) near Lake of No Return (Myanmar) Via NH-315 (Ledo Road), which is part of Stilwell Road.
Manipur Behiang to Khenman Provides access to Tedim in Myanmar.[28]
Mizoram Zokhawthar (India) to Khawmawi-Rikhawdar (Myanmar) Via Harhva river bridge; local and informal use.
Rickhawdar (left;Myanmar)- Zokhawthar (right;India) border crossing

Border force[edit | edit source]

The Indo-Myanmar Border Force (IMBF) is a proposed and soon-to-be-composed[when?] force of 29 battalions - 25 battalions from Assam Rifles and 4 battalions from Indo-Tibetan Border Police - to guard the 1,643-kilometre (1,021 mi) long Indo-Myanmar border. IMBF will remain under ITBP and will patrol the border to the zero line (as of January 2018).[29]

Border markets[edit | edit source]

See Haats on India-Myanmar border.

Maritime boundaries[edit | edit source]

See also: Exclusive economic zone of India and Exclusive economic zone of Myanmar

India and Myanmar have maritime exclusive economic zones in each other's vicinity. Landfall Island, India's northernmost Island in Andaman and Nicobar is 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Coco Islands belonging to Myanmar.[30]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ "Burma". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  2. ↑ Phayre, Arthur Purves (1883). History of Burma. London: Trübner & Company.
  3. ↑ Thant, Myint-U (2001). The Making of Modern Burma. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-79914-0.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 "International Boundary Study No. 80 Burma – India Boundary" (PDF). US Department of State. 15 May 1968. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  5. ↑ D.G.E.Hall (1960). Burma (PDF). Hutchinson University Library. pp. 109–113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-05-19.
  6. ↑ Raugh, Jr., Harold E. (2004). The Victorians at War, 1815-1914: An Encyclopedia of British Military History. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 9781576079263.
  7. ↑ Thant, Myint-U (2001). The Making of Modern Burma. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18. ISBN 0-521-79914-7.
  8. ↑ Webster, Anthony (1998). Gentlemen Capitalists: British Imperialism in South East Asia, 1770–1890. I.B.Tauris. pp. 142–145. ISBN 978-1-86064-171-8.
  9. ↑ Kamalakaran, Ajay (2024-01-13). "Why Burma was separated from British India". Scroll.in. Retrieved 2025-12-10.
  10. ↑ Das, Pushpita (15 November 2013). "India-Myanmar Border Problems: Fencing not the only solution". IDSA. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Gurudas Das; N. Bijoy Singh; C. Joshua Thomas, eds. (2005), Indo-Myanmar Border Trade: Status, Problems, and Potentials, Akansha Publishing House, ISBN 9788183700078, p. 45-46.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Pushpita Das, Free Movement Regime: A Unique Feature of the India-Myanmar Border, Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, 17 January 2024.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Harsh V. Pant, Sreeparna Banerjee, Fencing frontiers with Myanmar: The benefits and challenges of FMR along India-Myanmar border, Observer Research Foundation, 8 January 2024.
  14. ↑ Baruah, Sukrita (Jan 16, 2024). "States, civil society restive as Centre plans to scrap Free Movement Regime with Myanmar". The Indian Express. Retrieved Feb 2, 2024.
  15. ↑ "Challenges To India's National Security: The Illicit Flow Of Drugs From Myanmar To India-Pre And Post Myanmar Coup Of 2021 – CENJOWS". cenjows.in. Retrieved 2024-02-11.
  16. ↑ "India-Myanmar border: Escalating human trafficking concerns". orfonline.org. Retrieved 2024-02-11.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Bhonsle, Col. Rahul K. (July 28, 2007). "India's 'Look Myanmar' Policy". Boloji.com. Archived from the original on July 28, 2012. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Khaund, Surajit (15 October 2004). "India-Burma border fencing delays due to protest by local communities". Burma News International. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Government sanctions ₹31,000 crore to fence Myanmar border, The Hindu, 16 Sept 2024.
  20. ↑ Linking frontiers with the nation, The Statesman, 5 Nov 2025.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "India, Burma to fence the border". Mizzima News. May 17, 2003. Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
  22. ↑ "New effort: India-Myanmar to begin talks". Times of India. September 2, 2007. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
  23. ↑ 1643 km Indo-Myanmar border to be fenced, a patrol track to be built: Amit Shah, Hindustan Times, 6 Feb 2024.
  24. ↑ "India Myanmar Borders". Myanmar Tours. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  25. ↑ "Travel from India to Myanmar by Road- Detailed Guide on Border Crossing". The Vagabong. 30 April 2020. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  26. ↑ "Multi-modal route map". Archived from the original on 2017-08-22. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
  27. ↑ India opens two border crossing points with Myanmar, Bangladesh Archived 2019-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Indian Express, 1 Oct 2017.
  28. ↑ "Tedim Road—The Strategic Road on a Frontier: A Historical Analysis - Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses". www.idsa.in. Archived from the original on 2020-08-26. Retrieved 2020-09-22.
  29. ↑ Home ministry looks to form 29-battalion Indo-Myanmar border force Archived 2020-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, Hindustan Times, 18 Jan 2018.
  30. ↑ "Andaman and Nicobar Command – Google Search". www.google.com. Retrieved 27 December 2017.

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