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[[ | {{short description|Empire in Southern India (14th–17th century)}} | ||
{{About|the historical empire|the abandoned city|Vijayanagara|the neighbourhood in Bangalore|Vijayanagar, Bangalore}} | |||
{{Redirect|Vijayanagar|other uses|Vijaynagar (disambiguation){{!}}Vijaynagar}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}} | |||
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} | |||
{{Infobox country | |||
| conventional_long_name = Vijayanagara Empire | |||
| common_name = Vijayanagara Empire | |||
| native_name = <!--Please do not add "[[WP:INDICSCRIPT]]"--> | |||
| image_flag = | |||
| flag_caption = | |||
| image_coat = | |||
| symbol_type = | |||
| status = Empire | |||
| government_type = Monarchy | |||
| year_start = 1336 | |||
| year_end = 1646 | |||
| event1 = Earliest records | |||
| date_event1 = 1343 | |||
| p1 = Hoysala Empire | |||
| p2 = Kakatiya dynasty | |||
| p3 = Yadava dynasty | |||
| p4 = Kampili kingdom | |||
| p5 = Madurai Sultanate | |||
| p6 = Pandya dynasty | |||
| p7 = Musunuri Nayakas | |||
| p8 = Reddi Kingdom | |||
| s1 = Wadiyar dynasty | |||
| s2 = Nayakas of Keladi | |||
| s3 = Thanjavur Nayak kingdom | |||
| s4 = Madurai Nayak dynasty | |||
| s5 = Nayakas of Chitradurga | |||
| s6 = Adil Shahi dynasty | |||
| s7 = Qutb Shahi dynasty | |||
| s8 = Nayaks of Gingee | |||
| image_map = Vijayanagara-empire-map.svg | |||
| image_map_caption = Extent of Vijayanagara Empire, around 1520 CE | |||
| capital = [[Vijayanagara]] (1336–1565) | |||
[[Penukonda]] (1565–1592) | |||
[[Chandragiri]] (1592–1604) | |||
[[Vellore]] (1604–1646)<ref name=capitals>{{cite book |last=Howes |first=Jennifer |title=The Courts of Pre-colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship |publisher=Psychology Press |date=1998 |page=43 |isbn=978-07-0071-585-5}}</ref> | |||
| common_languages = [[Kannada]]<br/>[[Telugu language|Telugu]]<br/>[[Sanskrit]]<ref name="Bridges2016">{{cite book|last1=Bridges|first1=Elizabeth J.|chapter=Vijayanagara Empire|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire|editor-last1=Dalziel|editor-first1=N. |editor-last2=MacKenzie|editor-first2=J. M.|year=2016|pages=1–5|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe424|isbn=9781118455074}}</ref> <!-- Languages discussed in the body of the article. Do not add other languages without adding them to the body first, along with reliable sources --> | |||
| religion = [[Hinduism]] | |||
| currency = [[Vijayanagara coinage|Varaha]] | |||
| leader1 = [[Harihara Raya I|Harihara I]] | |||
| leader2 = [[Sriranga III]] | |||
| year_leader1 = 1336{{endash}}1356 | |||
| year_leader2 = 1642{{endash}}1646 | |||
| title_leader = [[Monarch|King]] | |||
| today = India | |||
| demonym = | |||
| area_km2 = | |||
| area_rank = | |||
| GDP_PPP = | |||
| GDP_PPP_year = | |||
| HDI = | |||
| HDI_year = | |||
}} | |||
== | The '''Vijayanagara Empire'''<!--Please do not add "WP:INDICSCRIPT"--> (also called the '''Karnata Kingdom{{sfn|Stein|1989|p=1}}''')<!--Dear Fellow Editor. "Karnata Kingdom" is not a typo here but the correct spelling. Do not change the spelling to "Karnataka Kingdom."--> coverered much of the region of [[South India]], controlling the lands of the modern states of [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], [[Goa]] and some parts of [[Telangana]] and [[Maharashtra]]. It was established in 1336 by the brothers [[Harihara I]] and [[Bukka Raya I]] of the [[Sangama dynasty]], members of a pastoralist [[Herder|cowherd]] community that claimed [[Yadava]] lineage.{{sfn|Dhere|2011|p=243}}{{sfn|Sewell|2011|p=22, 23, 420}}{{refn|group=note|name="Dhere2011p243"}} The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off [[Islamic invasions of India|Perso-Turkic Islamic invasions]] by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it subjugated almost all of South India's ruling families and pushed the sultans of the Deccan beyond the [[Tungabhadra River|Tungabhadra]]-[[Krishna River|Krishna]] river [[doab]] region, in addition to annexing [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapati Kingdom]] ([[Odisha]]) till [[Krishna river]], thus becoming a notable power.<ref name="notable">{{harvnb|Stein|1989|p=xi}}</ref> It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in the [[Battle of Talikota]] in 1565 by the combined armies of the [[Deccan sultanates]]. The empire is named after its capital city of [[Vijayanagara]], whose ruins surround present day [[Hampi]], now a [[World Heritage Site]] in [[Karnataka]], India. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as [[Domingo Paes]], [[Fernão Nunes]], and [[Niccolò de' Conti]]. These travelogues, [[contemporary literature]] and [[epigraphy]] in the local languages, and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have provided ample information about the history and power of the empire. | ||
'' | The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the [[Vijayanagara architecture]] style. This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the construction of [[Hindu temples]]. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as [[water resource management|water management]] systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and [[Sanskrit]] with topics such as [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]], [[medicine]], [[fiction]], [[musicology]], [[historiography]] and [[Theatre|theater]] gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, [[Carnatic music]], evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting [[Hinduism]] as a unifying factor. | ||
{{Vijayanagara_empire}} | |||
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center | |||
| header = Vijaynagara ruins, 19th century | |||
| image1 = Ruins of Bala Krishna Temple Vijayanagara Hampi 1868 Edmund Lyon photo.jpg| caption1 = Krishna temple in 1868 | |||
| image2 = Ruins of Vijianuggur, the Volkonda Ramachandra temple in Hampi, Vijayanagara, 1868 photo.jpg| caption2 = Rama temple in 1868 | |||
| image3 = Interior of Vitthala temple mandapa in Hampi, Vijayanagara 1880 photo.jpg| caption3 = Vitthala temple in 1880 | |||
| image4 = Hampi King's Balance Vitthala temple street entrance near river 1856 photo.jpg| caption4 = King's balance in 1858 | |||
}} | |||
==Alternative names== | |||
''Karnata Rajya'' (Karnata Kingdom) was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire, used in some inscriptions<ref name="reviver1">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=268}}</ref> and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King [[Krishnadevaraya]] and Telugu work ''Vasu Charitamu''.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=14}} According to historians including Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat, B. A. Saletore, P. B. Desai, and Ram Sharma, "although Robert Sewell mentioned in the body of the text that the empire was called Karnataka, he chose Vijayanagar in the title because he knew Kannada and Telugu groups would fight if he called it Karnataka." As per the historical records exist from the inscriptions available in historical ruins of the empire, it was called ''Karnataka Samrajya'' (translated in English to ''Karnataka Empire'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/karnataka-a-name-centuries-in-the-making-stamped-in-73-101636224147642.html |title=Karnataka: A name centuries in the making, stamped in '73 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date= 7 November 2021|accessdate=2022-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fountainink.in/qna/when-the-south-was-one |title=When the south was one |publisher=Fountain Ink |date= |accessdate=2022-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/book-review-hampi-by-pierre-sylvain-filliozat-and-vasundhara-kavali-filliozat-is-more-than-a-coffee-table-book-on-the-vijayanagar-empire/article38185980.ece#! | title=Book Review: 'Hampi' by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat and Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat is more than a coffee-table book on the Vijayanagar Empire | date=9 January 2022 }}</ref> | |||
' | Europeans referred to the Vijayanagara Empire as "The Kingdom of Narasinga",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/472791/narasinga-kingdom.html |title=The Narasinga Kingdom |publisher=Deccan Herald |date= 21 April 2015|accessdate= 14 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/andrea-corsali.-lesploratore-amico-di-leonardo-da-vinci-scomparso-in-oriente |title=Andrea Corsali. L'esploratore Amico Di Leonardo Da Vinci, Scomparso In Oriente | publisher=GINGKO EDIZIONI |date= 21 April 2015|accessdate=14 March 2023 |quote=... Il regno di Paleacate confina per terra ferma col re di Narsinga, ch’è gentile e principal re di tutta l’India, ed è il più ricco signore che sia di questa banda fino al mar, Batticala, Onor e Brazabor; e lassando il paese de Malabari, ch’è giunto con la marina, s’estende per terra ferma fino al sino Gangetico, dove è il signor de Coromandel, e Paleacate, di là dal capo di Commari, detto Pelura anticamente. ...}}</ref> a name derived from "Narasimha" by the Portuguese.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.notesonindianhistory.com/2013/10/vijayanagara-city-of-victory.html |title=The Rayas of Vijayanagar |publisher=Notes on Indian History |date= 7 October 2013|accessdate= 14 March 2023}}</ref> It is not clear whether the name was derived from [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]] or [[Narasimha Raya II]]. | ||
==History== | |||
===Background and origin theories=== | |||
{{Main|Origin of the Vijayanagara Empire|Medieval City of Vijayanagara}} | |||
Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan – the [[Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri|Yadava Empire]] of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of [[Warangal]], and the [[Pandyan Empire]] of [[Madurai]] – were repeatedly raided and attacked by [[Muslim]]s from the north. By 1336 the upper Deccan region (modern-day [[Maharashtra]] and [[Telangana]]) had been defeated by armies of Sultan [[Alauddin Khalji]] and [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate]].{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=216}}<ref name="invade">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Part II, p. 22}}</ref> | |||
'''Aravidu''' ( | Further south in the Deccan region, [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysala]] commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the [[Yadava Empire]] in {{CE|1294}}.{{sfn|Stein|1989|pp=18–19}}<ref name=gilmartin300/> He created the [[Kampili kingdom]] near [[Gulbarga]] and [[Tungabhadra River]] in the northeastern parts of present-day [[Karnataka]] state.<ref name=talbot281>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Talbot|title=Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C&pg=PA281 |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803123-9|pages=281–282}}</ref> The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and upon their defeat, the populace committed a ''[[jauhar]]'' (ritual mass suicide) in {{Circa|1327–28}}.<ref name="Storm2015p311">{{cite book|author=Mary Storm|title=Head and Heart: Valour and Self-Sacrifice in the Art of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0sJcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT311 |year=2015|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-32556-7|page=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Kanhaiya L |last=Srivastava|title=The position of Hindus under the Delhi Sultanate, 1206-1526|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cMgAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|page=202|isbn=9788121502245}}</ref> The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in {{CE|1336}} as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India.<ref name=gilmartin300>{{cite book|first1=David |last1=Gilmartin|first2=Bruce B. |last2=Lawrence|title=Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZhT5Ilq5kAC&pg=PA321|year=2000|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-3099-9|pages=300–306, 321–322}}</ref><ref name="resist">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, pp. 22–24}}</ref> | ||
* | |||
* | Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara empire.<ref name="debates">{{harvnb|Jackson|2016|pp=43–44}}</ref> One is that [[Harihara I]] and [[Bukka I]], the founders of the empire, were [[Kannadiga]]s and commanders in the army of the [[Hoysala Empire]] stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India.<ref name="Kannadaempire">Historians such as [[P. B. Desai]], [[Henry Heras]], [[B.A. Saletore]], [[G. S. Gai]], William Coelho and [[Suryanath U. Kamath|Kamath]] in {{harv|Kamath|2001|pp=157–160}}</ref>{{sfn|Karmarkar|1947|p=30}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=188}}{{sfn|Rice|2001|p=345}} Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were [[Telugu people|Telugu]] people, first associated with the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Kingdom]], who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been captured by the army of [[Ulugh Khan]] at [[Warangal]].<ref name="telguorigin">{{harvnb|Sewell|1901}}; {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955}}; N. Ventakaramanayya; B. Suryanarayana Rao in {{harv|Kamath|2001|pp=157–160}}.</ref> According to tradition, based on a Telugu-narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by [[Vidyaranya]], a saint at the [[Sringeri]] monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India,{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=216}}{{sfn|Kamath|2001|p=160}} but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain.{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=87}} | ||
* | |||
===Early years=== | |||
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, [[Harihara I]] gained control over most of the area south of the [[Tungabhadra River]] and earned the title of "master of the eastern and western seas" (''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara''). By 1374 [[Bukka Raya I]], successor to Harihara I, defeated the chiefdom of [[Arcot]], the [[Reddi kingdom|Reddys]] of Kondavidu, and the [[Madurai Sultanate|Sultan of Madurai]], and had gained control over [[Goa]] in the west and the Tungabhadra-[[Krishna River]] [[doab]] in the north.<ref name="femalepoet">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=162}}</ref><ref name="vijayama1">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=317}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |pages=103–106}}</ref> The original capital of the empire was in the [[principality]] of [[Anegondi]] on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's Karnataka. It was moved to Vijayanagara during Bukka Raya I's reign because it was easier to defend against the Muslim armies, who were persistently attacking from the northern lands.<ref name="newcapital">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Part II, p. 24}}</ref> | |||
With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, [[Harihara II]], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and South India was controlled by the Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name="umbrella">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=242}}</ref> The next ruler, [[Deva Raya I]], was successful against the [[Gajapatis]] of [[Odisha]] and undertook works of fortification and irrigation.<ref name="aqueduct">From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=243}}).</ref> Firuz Bahmani of [[Bahmani Sultanate]] entered into a treaty with Deva Raya I in 1407 that required the latter to pay Bahmani an annual tribute of "100,000 huns, five maunds of pearls and fifty elephants". The Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute. Such wars for tribute payment by Vijayanagara were repeated in the 15th century.{{sfn| Eaton|2006|pp=89–90 with footnote 28}} | |||
{{South Asia in 1400}} | |||
[[Deva Raya II]] (eulogized in contemporary literature as ''Gajabetekara'')<ref name="hunter">Also deciphered as ''Gajaventekara'', a metaphor for "great hunter of his enemies", or "hunter of elephants" {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=163}}.</ref> succeeded to the throne in 1424. He was possibly the most successful of the [[Sangama Dynasty]] rulers.<ref name="hunter1">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=244}}</ref> He quelled rebelling feudal lords and the [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]] and [[Venad (historical region)|Quilon]] in the south. He invaded [[Sri Lanka]] and became overlord of the kings of [[Burma]] at [[Pegu]] and [[Tanintharyi Division|Tanasserim]].<ref name="Burma">From the notes of Persian [[Abd al-Razzaq Samarqandi|Abdur Razzak]]. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=245}}</ref><ref name="Burma1">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=164}}</ref> By 1436 the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were successfully dealt with and had to accept Vijayanagara overlordship.<ref name="kondavidu">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 31}}</ref> After a few years of tranquility, wars broke out with the Bahamani Sultanate in 1443 with some successes and some reversals. The Persian visitor [[Firishta]] attributes Deva Raya II's war preparations, which included augmenting his armies with Muslim archers and cavalry, to be the cause of the conflict. Contemporary Persian ambassador [[Abd al-Razzaq Samarqandi|Abdur Razzak]] attributes the war to the Bahamani Sultan capitalizing on the confusion caused by an internal revolt within the Vijayanagara Empire, including an attempt to assassinate the Raya by his brother.<ref name="Abdur">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 2}}</ref> | |||
[[File:View of tower and mantapa at the Raghunatha temple in Hampi.JPG|thumb|left|View of tower and mantapa at Ragunatha temple in [[Hampi]]]] | |||
Deva Raya II was succeeded by his elder son [[Mallikarjuna Raya]] in 1446. The Gajapati king removed the Vijayanagara control over the Tamil country by occupying the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry, Kondaveedu, [[Kanchipuram]], and [[Tiruchirapalli]]. These defeats reduced the Vijayanagara Empire's prestige, described by an inscription which described the Gajapati king as "a yawning lion to the sheep of the Karnatak King".<ref name="Mallik">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 33}}</ref> Mallikarjuna's successor [[Virupaksha Raya II]] led a life of pleasure perusing wine and women leading to the loss of Goa and much of Karnataka to the Bahmani Sultanate. His governor Saluva Narasimha reduced the loss of territory by holding almost all of coastal Andhra Pradesh south of the Krishna river, Chittoor, the two Arcots and Kolar. Saluva Narashimha defeated the Gajapatis and held Udayagiri, drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore, and took procession of [[Machilipatnam]] and [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kondaveedu]]. He later defeated Bahmani forces and recovered most of the empire's earlier losses.<ref name="Machili">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 34}}</ref> | |||
[[File:THRONE PLATFORM(Mahanavami Dibba)-Dr. Murali Mohan Gurram (8).jpg|thumb|"Throne platform" or "Victory Platform" or "Mahanavami Dibba" or "Dussera Dibba". This surviving structure is in the Royal Enclosure.]] | |||
After the death of Virupaksha Raya II in 1485, [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya|Saluva Narasimha]] led a coup that ended the dynastic rule while continuing to defend the empire from raids by the Sultanates created from the continuing disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in its north.{{sfn| Eaton|2006|pp=86–87}} Saluva Narasimha left his two adolescent sons under the care of general [[Tuluva Narasa Nayaka]] who ably defended the kingdom from their traditional enemies, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan. He also subdued rebelling chiefs of the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya territories. Despite many attempts by nobles and members of the royal family to overthrow him, Narasa Nayaka retained control as a regent king till 1503.<ref name="Chera">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 35–36}}</ref> | |||
In 1503, Narasa Nayaka's son Vira Narasimha had prince Immadi Narasimha of the [[Saluva dynasty]] assassinated and took over the rule in a coup thus becoming the first of the [[Tuluva dynasty]] rulers. This did not go well with the nobles who revolted. Seeing internal troubles grow, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan began to encroach on the empire even as the governors of Ummattur, [[Adoni]], and [[Talakad]] colluded to capture the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region from the empire.<ref name="Adoni">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 36}}</ref> The empire came under the rule of [[Krishnadevaraya|Krishna Deva Raya]] in 1509, another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka.<ref name="great">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=250}}</ref> Initially Krishnadevaraya faced a many obstacles including dissatisfied nobles, the rebellious chief of Ummattur in the south, a resurgent Gajapati kingdom under King Prataparudra, a growing threat from the newly formed Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur under Yusuf Adil Khan and Portuguese interest in controlling the west coast.<ref name="Zamorin">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 37}}</ref> Not one to be unnerved by these pressures he strengthened and consolidated the empire, one victory at a time. He was an astute king who hired both Hindus and Muslims into his army.{{sfn| Eaton|2006|pp=87–88}} In the following decades, the empire covered Southern India and successfully defeated invasions from the five established [[Deccan Sultanates]] to its north.<ref name="civilization">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=239}}</ref><ref name="civilization1">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=159}}</ref> | |||
===Empire's peak=== | |||
{{Main|Battle of Raichur}} | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| align = right | |||
| image1 = Garuda Temple, Maha Mandapa and Eastern Gopura, Vitthala Temple Complex 1856 photo.jpg | |||
| width1 = 165 | |||
| alt1 = | |||
| caption1 = | |||
| image2 = The elegant stone chariot.jpg | |||
| width2 = 180 | |||
| alt2 = | |||
| caption2 = | |||
| footer = The Garuda stone chariot and Vitthala temple gopuram in 1856 (left) and 2016. | |||
}} | |||
The empire reached its peak during the rule of [[Krishna Deva Raya]] when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.{{sfn| Eaton|2006|pp=88–89}} The empire gained territory formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan, such as Raichur and Gulbarga from the Bahamani Sultanate, territories in the eastern Deccan from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shahi of Golkonda, and [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] region from the Gajapatis of [[Odisha]]. This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan.<ref name="richcity">The notes of Portuguese Barbosa confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city. {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=186}}</ref><ref name="Golkonda">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 37–39}}</ref> Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of King Krishnadevaraya.<ref name="dibba">{{Harvard citation|Dallapiccola|2001|p=66}}</ref> | |||
Krishna Deva Raya was succeeded by his younger half-brother [[Achyuta Deva Raya]] in 1529. When Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542, [[Sadashiva Raya]], the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya, was appointed king, and [[Rama Raya (statesman)|Rama Raya]], Krishna Deva Raya's son-in-law, becoming the caretaker.{{sfn|Eaton|2006|p=79}} When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne, Rama Raya made him a virtual prisoner and became the de facto ruler.{{sfn|Eaton|2006|p=92}} He hired Muslim generals in his army from his previous diplomatic connections with the Sultanates and called himself "Sultan of the World".{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=93–101}} He was keen interfering in the internal affairs of the various Sultanates and on playing off the Muslim powers against one another, while making himself the ruler of the most powerful and influential regional power. This worked for a while but eventually made him very unpopular among his people and the Muslim rulers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pillai|first=Manu S.|title=Rebel Sultans:The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji|publisher=Juggernaut Books|year=2020|isbn=9789353451066|location=New Delhi|pages=116–118}}</ref> He made a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to stop the supply of horses to Bijapur, then defeated the Bijapur ruler and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmednagar.<ref name="horses">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 43}}</ref> | |||
===Defeat and decline=== | |||
[[File:Battle of Talikota (formatted).jpg|thumb|400px|Panorama of the [[Battle of Talikota]] (1565). In the right panel, [[Hussain Nizam Shah I|Husain Shah]] (riding a horse) orders the decapitation of [[Rama Raya (statesman)|Rama Raya]] (reigned 1542–65), the defeated ruler of Vijaianagara. ''Ta'rif-i Husain Shahi'' (Chronicle of Husain Shah).]] | |||
Eventually the [[Deccan sultanates]] to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Rama Raya's army in January 1565 in the [[Battle of Talikota]].{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=96–98}} Regarding the Vijayanagara defeat in battle, Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies, though numerically disadvantaged, were better equipped and trained. Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery. The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them a greater reach, and their archers used metal cross bows which enabled them to reach longer distance targets. In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended on slow moving war elephants, a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter reach javelines, and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range. Despite these disadvantages, Kamath, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals (identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath) switched sides and joined forces with the Sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of the Sultanates. The generals captured Rama Raya and beheaded him, and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=191}}{{sfn|Eaton|2006|p=98}}{{sfn|Kamath|2001|pp=172–173}} Rama Raya's beheading created confusion and havoc in the [[Vijayanagara army]], which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army plundered [[Hampi (town)|Hampi]] and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today.{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=98–101}} | |||
After Rama Raya's death, [[Tirumala Deva Raya]] started the [[Aravidu dynasty]], founded a new capital of [[Penukonda]] to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=100–101}} Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur sultanate]] and others.{{sfn|Kamath|2001|p=174}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Historical_Dictionary_of_the_Tamils/ALUvDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Tamils&printsec=frontcover|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0|pages=11–12}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=101–115}} During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara, including the [[Nayakas of Chitradurga]], [[Keladi Nayaka]], [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore Kingdom]], [[Nayaks of Gingee|Nayak Kingdom of Gingee]], [[Thanjavur Nayaks|Nayaks of Tanjore]], and [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty|Nayaks of Madurai]].{{sfn|Kamath|2001|pp=220, 226, 234}} | |||
==Governance== | |||
[[File:Mahanavami Dibba1.jpg|thumb|Tourists on top of Mahanavami Platform in Royal Enclosure.]] | |||
[[File:Hampi group of monuments-Hampi-Karnataka-DSC 7874.jpg|thumb|Corridor at Temple from Vijayanagara capital [[Hampi]].]] | |||
[[File:Kannada inscription (1509 AD) of Krishnadeva Raya at entrance to mantapa of Virupaksha temple in Hampi.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=|Kannada inscription of King Krishnadeva Raya, dated 1509, at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi, describing his coronation and the construction of the large open mantapa]] | |||
The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms.<ref>(K.M. Panikkar in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=174}})</ref> The King, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, [[Military of Vijayanagara|military]], and ally formed the seven critical elements that influenced every aspect of governance.<ref name="varna">''Svamin'', ''Amatya'', ''Janapada'', ''Durga'', ''Kosa'', ''Daiufa'', ''Mitra'' respectively.{{Cite book|last=Mahalingam|first=T.V|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.500515/page/n3/mode/2up|title=Administration and social life under Vijayanagara|publisher=Madras University Historical Series, No. 15. University of Madras|year=1940|pages=9,101,160,239,244,246,260}}</ref> The King was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers (''Pradhana'') headed by the prime minister (''Mahapradhana''). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary (''Karyakartha'' or ''Rayaswami'') and the imperial officers (''Adhikari''). All high-ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training.<ref>From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak and research by B.A. Saletore {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=175}}</ref> A secretariat near the king's palace employed [[scribes]] and officers to maintain records made official by using a [[wax seal]] imprinted with the ring of the king.<ref>From the notes of Nuniz {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=175}}</ref> At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords (''Gowdas'') supervised accountants (''Karanikas'' or ''Karnam'') and guards (''Kavalu''). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments (''Niyogas''), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=286}} | |||
The empire was divided into five main provinces (''Rajya''), each under a commander (''Dandanayaka'' or ''Dandanatha'') and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes.<ref>From the notes of Duarte Barbosa {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=176}}. However, the kingdom may have had nine provinces ([[T. V. Mahalingam]] in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=176}})</ref> A ''Rajya'' was divided into regions (''[[Vishaya]]'', ''Vente'' or ''Kottam'') and further divided into counties (''Sime'' or ''Nadu''), themselves subdivided into municipalities (''Kampana'' or ''Sthala''). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to the empire, while some areas, such as [[Keladi (India)|Keladi]] and [[Madurai]], came under the direct supervision of a commander.{{sfn|Kamath|2001|pp=176–177}} | |||
On the battlefield, the king's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small-scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long-range artillery, which were commonly manned by foreign gunners.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=287}} Army troops were of two types: the king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King [[Krishnadevaraya]]'s personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen, and over 900 elephants. The whole army was claimed to number over 1.1 million soldiers, with up to 2 million having been recorded, along with a navy led by a ''Navigadaprabhu'' (commander of the navy).<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzaq and Paes {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=176}}</ref> The army recruited from all classes of society, supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers, and consisted of archers and [[musket]]eers wearing quilted [[tunic]]s, shieldmen with swords and [[poignard]]s in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that armour was not necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.<ref>From the notes of Nuniz {{harv|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=288}}</ref> | |||
The capital city was dependent on water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing [[surface-water hydrology|surface water]] distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India.{{sfn|Davison-Jenkins|2001|p=89}} Contemporary records and notes of foreign travellers describe huge tanks constructed by labourers.<ref>From the notes of Domingo Paes and Nuniz {{harv|Davison-Jenkins|2001|p=98}}</ref> Excavations uncovered the remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and [[siphon]]s to [[Water transportation|transport water]] through pipelines.{{sfn|Davison-Jenkins|2001|p=90}} In the fertile agricultural areas near the [[Tungabhadra River]], canals were dug to guide the river water into [[irrigation tank]]s. These canals had [[sluice]]s that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas, the administration encouraged digging wells, which were monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.{{sfn|Davison-Jenkins|2001|pp=88–99}} | |||
==Economy== | |||
[[File:Hampi marketplace.jpg|thumb |alt=Medieval City of Vijayanagara|''[[Medieval City of Vijayanagara]]'', a reconstructed ancient market place and plantation at the royal center [[Hampi]] ]] | |||
The economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture. [[Rice]], [[Sorghum]] (''jowar''), cotton, and [[Pulse (legume)|pulse legumes]] grew in semi-arid regions, while sugarcane, and wheat thrived in rainy areas. [[Betel|Betel leaves]], [[areca]] (for chewing), and coconut were the principal cash crops, and large-scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as [[turmeric]], pepper, [[cardamom]], and [[ginger]] grew in the remote [[Malnad]] hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of [[stone masonry|masons]], [[sculpture|sculptors]], and other skilled artisans.<ref>From the notes of Duarte Barbosa. {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=181}}</ref> | |||
[[File:Hampi aug09 56.jpg|thumb|left|Paddy fields in Vijayanagara capital Hampi]] | |||
According to Abdur Razzak, much of the empire was fertile and well cultivated.<ref name="ports"/> Most of the growers were [[tenant farmer]]s and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment.<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak in {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=298}}</ref> Salt production and the manufacture of [[Salt pan (evaporation)|salt pans]] were controlled by similar means. The making of [[ghee]] (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable.<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak in {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=299}}</ref> Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, [[semi-precious stone]]s, ivory, rhino horn, [[ebony]], [[amber]], coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The ports of [[Mangalore]], [[Honavar]], [[Bhatkal]], [[Barkur]], [[Cochin]], [[Kannur|Cannanore]], [[Machilipatnam]], and [[Dharmadam]] were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers.<ref name="ports">From the notes of Abdur Razzak in {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=304}}</ref> | |||
[[File:A_view_of_Hampi_from_Anjaneyadri_parvat.jpg|thumb|Paddy fields in Vijayanagara capital at Hampi]] | |||
When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities ([[Arabs]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Gujar Khan|Guzerates]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorassanians]]) settled in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], drawn by the thriving trade business.<ref name="ports"/> Ship building prospered and [[keel]]ed ships between 1000 and 1200 ''bahares'' ([[Tonnage|burden]]) were built without decks by sewing the entire [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the [[Red Sea]] ports of [[Aden]] and [[Mecca]] with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as [[Venice]]. The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, [[cinnamon]], cardamom, [[Prunus cerasifera|myrobalan]], [[Tamarind|tamarind timber]], [[Golden Shower Tree|anafistula]], precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, [[musk]], [[ambergris]], [[rhubarb]], [[aloe]], cotton cloth and [[porcelain]].<ref name="ports"/> Cotton yarn was shipped to [[Burma]] and [[indigo]] to [[Persia]]. Chief imports from [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] were [[copper]], quicksilver ([[mercury (element)|mercury]]), [[vermilion]], coral, [[saffron]], coloured velvets, [[rose water]], knives, colored [[camlet]]s, gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip to the capital. [[Silk]] arrived from China and sugar from [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=304–305}} | |||
[[File:15th century aqua duct to Mahanavami platform Pushkarani step well, Hampi Hindu monuments Karnataka 1.jpg|thumb|Raised water-channel or aqueduct for city.]] | |||
[[File:Elephant's stable or Gajashaale.JPG|thumb|left|''Gajashaala'' or elephant's stable, built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their [[war elephants]]]] | |||
East coast trade routes were busy, with goods arriving from [[Golkonda]] where rice, [[millet]], [[pulses]] and tobacco were grown on a large scale. Dye crops of indigo and [[chay root]] were produced for the weaving industry. A mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=305}} The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons, plain [[Calico (fabric)|calico]] and [[muslin]] (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to [[Java]] and the [[Far East]]. Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and [[Pulicat]] in printed. The main imports on the east coast were [[non-ferrous metal]]s, [[camphor]], porcelain, silk and luxury goods.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=306}} | |||
[[Navaratri|Mahanavami]] festival marked the beginning of a financial year from when the state treasury accounted for and reconciled all outstanding dues within nine days. At this time, an updated annual assessment record of provincial dues, which included rents and taxes, paid on a monthly basis by each governor was created under royal decree.<ref name="varna" /> | |||
Temples were taxed for land ownership to cover military expenses. In the Telugu districts the temple tax was called ''Srotriyas'', in the Tamil speaking districts it was called as ''Jodi''. Taxes such as ''Durgavarthana'', ''Dannayivarthana'' and ''Kavali Kanike'' were collected towards protection of movable and immovable wealth from robbery and invasions. ''Jeevadhanam'' was collected for cattle graze on non-private lands. Popular temple destinations charged visitor fees called ''Perayam'' or ''Kanike''. Residential property taxes were called ''Illari''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reddy|first=Soma|title=Taxation of Hindu Temples in the Telugu districts of the Vijayanagara Empire (1978)|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=39|pages=503–508|jstor=44139388}}</ref> | |||
==Culture== | |||
===Social life=== | |||
[[File:Evidence of Vijaynagar pomp.jpg|thumb|alt=A stone depiction of four horizontal rows: the top row contains dancers, the second row contains warriors, the third contains horses and their trainers, and the bottom row depicts elephants.|Horizontal friezes in relief on the outer wall enclosure of Hazara Rama temple, depicting life in the empire]] | |||
{{Further|Society of Vijayanagara empire}} | |||
The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific ''Varnasramadharma'' (''lit'', "helpers of the four classes and four stages"). According to Talbot, caste was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage (''Gotra'') and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes and caste clusters ("Jati").<ref>{{harvnb|Sinopoli|2003|pp=98–99}}</ref> According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same.<ref name="cabal">{{harvnb|Vanina|2012|pp=129–130}}</ref> Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within a family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community.<ref name="breakthrough">{{harvnb|Vanina|2012|pp=131–132}}</ref> | |||
Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities. This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits.<ref name="trade">{{harvnb|Sinopoli|2003|pp=98, 21–22}}</ref> According to Talbot, terminology such as ''Setti'' was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while ''Boya'' identified herders of all types.<ref name="Boya">{{harvnb|Sinopoli|2003|p=99}}</ref> [[Artisan]]s consisted of blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brasssmiths and carpenters. These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes, especially when it came to social privileges. Conquests led to large-scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of a place. The ''Tottiyans'' were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status (''[[Polygar|poligars]]''), ''[[Saurashtra people|Saurashtra]]ns'' were traders who came from present-day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits, the ''[[Reddys]]'' were agriculturists and the ''Uppilia'' were [[salt farm]]ers.<ref name="Uppilia">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, pp. 155–156}}</ref> | |||
According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler [[Domingo Paes]] observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in the military.<ref name="priest">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 156}}</ref> The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order.<ref name="intellectual">({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=289}})</ref> Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes, kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities. They ascended the social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living, ethics and practices. In South India they were loosely called the ''Nayakas''.<ref name="pasture">{{harvnb|Vanina|2012|p=140}}</ref> | |||
[[File:Vijayanagar snakestone.jpg|thumb |alt=Nāga|''[[Nāga]]'', snake worship in Hampi]] | |||
Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as ''Satikal'' (Sati stone) or ''Sati-virakal'' (Sati hero stone).{{sfn|Verghese|2001|p=41}} There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion, marital affection, martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders.<ref name="Hawley1994p150">{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_VbHItKQjYC|title=Sati, the Blessing and the Curse: The Burning of Wives in India|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-19-536022-6|pages=150–151}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindsey|first=Harlan, Professor of Religious Studies|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives |publisher=University of California Press|year=2018|isbn=9780520301757|page=200}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=H.G|first=Rekha|date=2019|title=Sati Memorial Stones of Vijayanagara Period - A Study |url=https://journals.eduindex.org/index.php/hrj/article/view/15081|journal=History Research Journal |volume=5|issue=6 |page=210}}</ref> | |||
The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in the previous centuries, such as [[Lingayatism]], provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time [[South India]]n women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts.<ref name="finearts">B.A. Saletore in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=179}}</ref> [[Tirumalamba|Tirumalamba Devi]] who wrote ''Varadambika Parinayam'' and [[Gangadevi]] the author of ''Madhuravijayam'' were among the notable women poets of the Sanskrit language.<ref name="femalepoet"/> Early Telugu women poets such as [[Timmakka|Tallapaka Timmakka]] and [[Molla (poet)|Atukuri Molla]] became popular. Further south the provincial [[Nayaks of Tanjore]] patronised several women poets. The [[Devadasi system]], as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of [[harem]]s among men of the royalty and the existence of [[seraglio]] is well known from records.<ref name="prostitute">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=180}}</ref> | |||
Well-to-do men wore the ''Petha'' or ''Kulavi'', a tall [[turban]] made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of [[anklet]]s, bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of [[rose water]], [[civetone|civet musk]], [[musk]], or [[sandalwood]].<ref name="prostitute"/> In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery. Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light.<ref name="sundry">From the writings of Portuguese [[Domingo Paes]] ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=296}})</ref> | |||
[[File:Ceiling paintings depicting scenes from Hindu mythology at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi 3.JPG|thumb|right|Painted ceiling from the Virupaksha temple depicting Hindu mythology, 14th century]] | |||
Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records.{{sfn|Kamath|2001|p=179}} Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=296}} Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as [[cock fight]], [[ram fight]] and female wrestling.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=296}} Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community-based gaming activities. Engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction. Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified.{{sfn|Mack|2001|p=39}} | |||
[[Dowry]] was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families. When a sister of [[Adil Shah|Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur]] was married to [[Nizam Shahi|Nizam Shah]] of [[Ahmednagar]], the town of [[Sholapur]] was given to the bride by her family.<ref name="dowry">{{Cite book|last=Babu|first=Dr.M.Bosu|title=Material Background to the Vijayanagara Empire (A Study with Special reference To Southern Āndhradēśa From A.D. 1300 To 1500)|publisher=K.Y.Publications|year=2018|isbn=978-9387769427|page=189}}</ref> Ayyangar notes that when the Gajapati King of Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious [[Krishnadevaraya|King Krishnadevaraya]] he included several villages as dowry.<ref name="kalinga">{{Cite book|last=Ayyangar|first=Krishnaswami|title=Sources of Vijayanagar History|publisher=Alpha Editions|year=2019|isbn=978-9353605902|page=116}}</ref> Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well. The practice of putting a price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic [[Mahr]] system.<ref name="mahr">{{Cite book|last=Dr.B. S. Chandrababu|first=and Dr.L. Thilagavathi|title=Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam|year=2009|isbn=9788189909970|page=266}}</ref> To oppose this influence, in the year 1553, the [[Brahmin]] community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the ''[[kanyadan]]a'' within the community. According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment. There is a mention of ''Streedhana'' ("woman's wealth") in an inscription and that the villagers should not give away land as dowry. These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts.<ref name="streedhan">{{Cite book|last=Mahalingam|first=T.V|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.500515/page/n3/mode/2up|title=Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagar|publisher=University of Madras Historical Series No.15|year=1940|location=Madras|pages=255–256}}</ref> | |||
===Religion=== | |||
{{Main|Haridasa}} | |||
[[File:Karnataka Hampi IMG 0730.jpg|thumb |alt=Virupaksha Temple, Hampi|''[[Virupaksha Temple, Hampi]]'']] | |||
The Vijayanagara kings [[Religious tolerance|were tolerant of all religions and sects]], as writings by foreign visitors show.<ref name="democracy">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=178}}</ref> The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' (''literally'', "protector of cows and Brahmins") that testified to their intention of protecting [[Hinduism]], and yet at the same time adopted [[Islamicate]] court ceremonies, dress, and political language, as reflected in the title ''Hindu-rāya-suratrāṇa'' (''lit'', "[[sultan]] among Hindu kings").<ref name="islamicate">{{cite journal|title=Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara|first=Phillip B.|last=Wagoner|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|date=November 1996|volume=55|issue=4|pages=851–880|doi=10.2307/2646526|jstor=2646526|s2cid=163090404 }}</ref> The empire's founders, the Sangama brothers (Harihara I and Bukka Raya I) came from a pastoral cowherd background, possibly the [[Kuruba]] people, that claimed Yadava lineage.{{sfn|Dhere|2011|p=243}}{{sfn|Sewell|2011|p=22, 23, 420}}{{refn|group=note|name="Dhere2011p243"}} The founders of the empire were devout [[Shaiva]]s (worshippers of the [[Hindu god]] [[Shiva]]) but made grants to [[Vishnu]] temples. Their patron saint [[Vidyaranya]] was from the [[Advaita]] order at [[Sringeri]]. The ''[[Varaha]]'' (the boar [[avatar]] of Vishnu) was the [[emblem]] of the empire.<ref name="emb">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=177}}</ref> Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later [[Saluva]] and [[Tuluva]] kings were [[Vaishnava]] (followers of Vishnu) by faith, but also worshipped [[Venkateshwara]] (Vishnu) at [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupati]] as well as [[Virupaksha Temple, Hampi|Virupaksha]] (Shiva) at Hampi. A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, refers to Virupaksha as ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<ref name="devata">{{harvnb|Wagoner|2001|p=14}}</ref> The kings patronised the saints of the [[dvaita]] order (philosophy of dualism) of [[Madhvacharya]] at [[Udupi]].<ref name="patron">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=177–178}}</ref> Endowments were made to temples in the form of land, cash, produce, jewellery and constructions.<ref name="endow">{{Cite journal|last=Naik, Reddy|first=Krishna, Ramajulu|title=Impact of endowments on society during the Vijayanagara period: A study of the Rayalaseema region, 1336–1556|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year=2007|volume=68|pages=286–294|jstor=44147838}}</ref> | |||
The [[Bhakti]] (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known [[Haridasa]]s (devotee saints) of that time. Like the [[Virashaiva]] movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas represented two groups, the ''[[Vyasakuta]]'' and ''[[Dasakuta]]'', the former being required to be proficient in the [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]] and other [[Darshanas]], while the ''Dasakuta'' merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (''Devaranamas'' and ''Kirthanas''). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as [[Naraharitirtha]], [[Jayatirtha]], [[Sripadaraya]], [[Vyasatirtha]], [[Vadirajatirtha]] and others.{{sfn|Shiva Prakash|1997|pp=192, 194–196}} Vyasatirtha, the ''guru'' (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, [[Purandaradasa]] (''Pitamaha'' or "Father of Carnatic music"{{sfn|Iyer|2006|p=93}}{{sfn|Narayan|2010|loc=Introduction, p. 3}}) and [[Kanakadasa]]{{sfn|Shiva Prakash|1997|p=196}} earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya.{{sfn|Shiva Prakash|1997|p=195}}{{sfn|Kamath|2001|p=178}}{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=324}} The king considered the saint his ''[[Kuladevata]]'' (family deity) and honoured him in his writings.<ref>{{cite book |first=Madhubala|last=Sinha|title=Encyclopaedia of South Indian Literature – Volume 2|year=2009|publisher=Anmol Publications, 2009, New Delhi|isbn=9788126137404|page=271}}</ref> During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, [[Annamacharya]] composed hundreds of ''Kirthanas'' in [[Telugu Language|Telugu]] at [[Tirumala - Tirupati|Tirupati]] in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]].{{sfn|Kamath|2001|p=185}} | |||
[[File:Ugranarasimha statue at Hampi.JPG|thumb |upright=0.75 |alt=Narasimha|''Ugra'' ''[[Narasimha]]'' monolith at Hampi]] | |||
The defeat of the [[Jainism|Jain]] [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism.<ref name="jain">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=112, 132}}</ref> Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Kamath|1y=2001|1pp=197|2a1=Bang|2a2=Kolodziejczyk|2y=2012|2pp=D23}} | |||
[[Islamic]] contact with South India began as early as the seventh century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and [[Arab]] lands. [[Jumu'ah|Jumma]] [[Masjid]]s existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century<ref name="jumma">From the notes of Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=396}})</ref> and many mosques flourished on the [[Malabar coast]] by the early 14th century.<ref name="jumma1">From the notes of [[Ibn Battuta|Ibn Batuta]] ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=396}})</ref> Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as [[Mappilla]]s (''Moplahs'') and were actively involved in [[horse trading]] and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. In the early 15th century, [[Deva Raya]] built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne.{{sfn|Rice|2001|p=479}} | |||
The introduction of [[Christianity]] began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plates]] inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of [[Christianity in India|Christians in South India]] in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries.<ref name="mission">From the notes of Jordanus in 1320–21 ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=397}})</ref> The arrival of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by [[Francis Xavier|Saint Xavier]] (1545) and later the presence of [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]] settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doss|first=M. Christhu|date=1 November 2018|title=Indian Christians and The Making of Composite Culture in South India|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0262728018798982|journal=South Asia Research|language=en|volume=38|issue=3|pages=247–267|doi=10.1177/0262728018798982|s2cid=149596320|issn=0262-7280}}</ref> | |||
===Epigraphs, sources and monetization=== | |||
[[File:Ornate pillared mantapa at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi.jpg|thumb|upright|Ornate pillars, Virupaksha temple [[Hampi]]]] | |||
[[File:Hazara Ramachandra Temple-.JPG|thumb|Wall panel relief in Hazare Rama Temple at [[Hampi]]]] | |||
Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls, boundary of properties and open places for public display. Another form of documentation was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping. Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation, a panegyric of the king or local ruler, the name of the donor, nature of the endowment (generally either cash or produce), the manner in which the grant would be used, obligations of the donee, share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations. Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival, and retribution or a curse on those who do not honor the grant.<ref name="grant">{{harvnb|Mack|2002|pp=77–78}}</ref> | |||
Most Vijayanagara empire inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada, Telugu and Tamil, and a few in Sanskrit.<ref name="language">{{harvnb|Mack|2002|p=79}}</ref> According to [[Suryanath U. Kamath]] about 7000 stone inscriptions, half of which are in Kannada, and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit, have been recovered.<ref name="recover">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=10, 157}}</ref> Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century.<ref name="bilingual">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapar|2003|pp=393–395}}</ref> According to Mack, the majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty (from 1503 to 1565) with the Saluva dynasty (from 1485 to 1503) inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire. The Sangama dynasty (from 1336 to 1485) which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period.<ref name="inscribed">{{harvnb|Mack|2002|pp=81–82}}</ref> Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium, the majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649. Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity. The Vijayanagara empire was originally founded in Karnataka, with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire. After its defeat to the Sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara, the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh, creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language.<ref name="solidarity">{{harvnb|Talbot|2002|pp=25–28}}</ref> | |||
In addition to epigraphs and coins, the sources of Vijayanagara history (its origin, social and political life and eventual defeat) are the accounts of foreign travelers and contemporary literary sources in Sanskrit, Kannada, Persian and Telugu. The Portuguese visitors to the empire were Domingo Paes (1522), [[Fernão Nunes]] (1537),<ref name="portuguese">{{harvnb|Davison-Jenkins|2001|p=63,72,98,99}}</ref> [[Duarte Barbosa]] (1516) and Barradas (1616), and Athanasius Nikitin (1470) came from Russia.<ref name="other-portuguese">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Introductory p. ix,x}}</ref> [[Niccolò de' Conti]] (1420),<ref name="nicoli">{{harvnb|Sattar|Sharma|Pokharia|2010|p=245}}</ref> [[Ludovico di Varthema]] (1505), Caesar Fredericci (1567) and Filippo Sassetti (1585)<ref name="Ramaraya">{{harvnb|Savile|1996|p=858}}</ref>{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=304–305}} were travelers from Italy and Abdur Razzak (1443)<ref name="persian">{{harvnb|Sinopoli|Morrison|2001|p=101,104}}</ref> visited from Persia. Contemporary Muslim writers who were either under the patronage of rival kingdoms (the Sultanates) or were visitors to Vijayanagara and accomplished valuable works are [[Ziauddin Barani]] (''Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi'', 1357), Isamy (''Fatuhat us salatin''), Syed Ali Tabatabai (''Burhan-i-Maisar'', 1596), Nisammuddin Bakshi, [[Firishta]] (''Tarik-i-Firishta'') and Rafiuddin Shirazi (''Tazkirat ul Mulk'', 1611).<ref name="Barani">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Introductory ix, part II, p. 9}}</ref> Among writings by native authors, the important Sanskrit works that shed light on the empire are ''Vidyaranya Kalajnana'', Dindima's ''Ramabhyudayam'' on the life of King Saluva Narasimha, Dindima II's ''Achyutabhyudayam'' and Tirumalamba's ''Varadambika Parinayam''. Among Kannada literary works, ''Kumara Ramana Kathe'' by Nanjunda Kavi, ''[[Mohanatarangini]]'' by [[Kanakadasa]], ''Keladiripavijayam'' by Linganna and the recently discovered ''Krishnadevarayana Dinachari'' are useful sources, and among Telugu works, Srinatha's ''Kashikanda'', Mallayya and Singayya's ''Varahapuranamu'', Vishvanatha Nayani's ''Rayavachakamu'', Nandi Timmanna's ''Parijathapaharanamu'', Durjati's ''Krishnaraja Vijayamu'', Peddanna's ''Manucharitamu'' and King Krishnadevaraya's ''[[Amuktamalyada]]'' are important sources of information.<ref name="sources">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=157–158}}</ref><ref name="nativeworks">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Introductory p. ix}}</ref> | |||
The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold ''Varaha'' (or ''Hun/Honnu'', ''Gadyana'') weighted 50.65 {{endash}} 53 grains. The ''Partab'' or ''Pratapa'' was valued at half a ''Varaha'', the ''Fanam'', ''Phanam'' or ''Hana'', an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the ''Varaha''. A ''Tar'' made of pure silver was a sixth of a ''Phanam'' and a ''Chital'' made of brass was a third of the ''Tar''. ''Haga'', ''Visa'' and ''Kasu'' were also coins of lower denominations.<ref name="Varaha">{{harvnb|Sinopoli|2003|p=105}}</ref><ref name="hana">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=176}}</ref> | |||
===Literature=== | |||
{{Main|Vijayanagara literature|Vijayanagara literature in Kannada}} | |||
During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, ''Prabandha'' (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu, the latter gained even more cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings, especially Krishnadevaraya.<ref name="courtlang">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagaraj|2003|p=378}}</ref><ref name="courtlang1">{{Blockquote|text=Royal patronage was also directed to the support of literature in several languages: Sanskrit (the pan-Indian literary language), Kannada (the language of the Vijayanagara home base in Karnataka), and Telugu (the language of Andhra). Works in all three languages were produced by poets assembled at the courts of the Vijayanagara kings|author=|title=|source=}}{{Blockquote|text=The Telugu language became particularly prominent in the ruling circles by the early 16th century, because of the large number of warrior lords who were either from Andhra or had served the kingdom there|author=|title=|source={{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=74–75}}}}</ref> | |||
Most [[Sanskrit]] works were commentaries either on the [[Vedas]] or on the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] epics, written by well known figures such as [[Sayana]]charya (who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called ''Vedartha Prakasha'' whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856), and [[Vidyaranya]] that extolled the superiority of the [[Advaita]] philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=321}} Other writers were famous [[Dvaita]] saints of the [[Udupi]] order such as [[Jayatirtha]] (earning the title ''Tikacharya'' for his polemical writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and [[Vadirajatirtha]] and [[Sripadaraya]] both of whom criticized the beliefs of [[Adi Sankara]].{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=324}} Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as ''Jambavati Kalyana'' by King Krishnadevaraya,{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=14}} and ''[[Madura Vijayam]]'' (also known as ''Veerakamparaya Charita'') by Princess [[Gangadevi]], a daughter-in-law of King [[Bukka I]], dwells on the conquest of the [[Madurai Sultanate]] by the Vijayanagara empire.<ref name="MaduraVijayamPDF">{{cite book|last1=Devi|first1=Ganga|title=Madhura Vijaya (or Veerakamparaya Charita): An Historical Kavya|date=1924|publisher=Sridhara Power Press|location=Trivandrum, British India|editor1-last=Sastri|editor1-first=G Harihara|editor2-last=Sastri|editor2-first=V Srinivasa|url=https://archive.org/details/madhura_vijaya|access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref> | |||
[[File:Poetic Kannada inscription of Manjaraja dated 1398 CE at Vindyagiri hill in Shravanabelagola.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (c.1398)]] | |||
The [[Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empire|Kannada poets and scholars of the empire]] produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava [[Bhakti]] movement heralded by the [[Haridasa]]s (devotees of Vishnu), [[Brahmin]]ical and Veerashaiva ([[Lingayatism]]) literature. The ''[[Haridasa]]'' poets celebrated their devotion through songs called ''Devaranama'' (lyrical poems) in the native meters of ''Sangatya'' (quatrain), ''Suladi'' (beat based), ''Ugabhoga'' (melody based) and ''Mundige'' (cryptic).<ref>Ayyappapanicker in {{Harvard citation|Shiva Prakash|1997|pp=164, 193–194, 203}}</ref> Their inspirations were the teachings of [[Madhvacharya]] and [[Vyasatirtha]]. [[Purandaradasa]] and [[Kanakadasa]] are considered the foremost among many ''Dasas'' (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=365}} [[Kumara Vyasa]], the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote ''Gadugina Bharata'', a translation of the epic ''Mahabharata''. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=364}} [[Chamarasa]] was a famous Veerashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His ''Prabhulinga Leele'', later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint [[Allama Prabhu]] (the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord [[Ganapathi]] while [[Parvati]] took the form of a princess of Banavasi).{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=363}}{{sfn|Rice|2001|p=68}} | |||
At this peak of [[Telugu people|Telugu]] literature, the most famous writing in the ''Prabandha'' style was ''Manucharitamu''. King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the ''[[Amuktamalyada]]'',<ref>During the rule of Krishnadevaraya, encouragement was given to the creation of original ''Prabandhas'' (stories) from [[Puranic]] themes {{harv|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=372}}</ref> a story of the wedding of the god [[Vishnu]] to [[Andal]], the Tamil [[Alvars|Alvar]] saint poet and the daughter of [[Periyalvar]] at [[Srirangam]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rao|first1=Pappu Venugopala|title=A masterpiece in Telugu literature|url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/a-masterpiece-in-telugu-literature/article478881.ece|access-date=9 June 2016|issue=Chennai|work=The Hindu|date=22 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Krishnadevaraya |date=2010 |editor1-last=Reddy |editor1-first=Srinivas |title=Giver of the Worn Garland: Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-8184753059 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0eTDF3uLVgC&pg=PT1 |access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Krishnadevaraya |date=1907 |title=Amuktamalyada |publisher=Telugu Collection for the British Library |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/amuktamalyada00krissher |access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref> In his court were eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars (''[[Ashtadiggajas]]'') of the literary assembly. The most famous among them were [[Allasani Peddana]] who held the honorific ''Andhrakavitapitamaha'' (''lit'', "father of Telugu poetry") and [[Tenali Ramakrishna]], the court jester who authored several notable works.<ref>{{harv|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=372}}</ref> The other six poets were [[Nandi Thimmana]] (Mukku Timmana), [[Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu|Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra]], [[Madayyagari Mallana]], [[Ramarajabhushanudu|Bhattu Murthi]] (Ramaraja Bhushana), [[Pingali Surana]], and [[Dhurjati]]. [[Srinatha]], who wrote books such as ''Marutratcharitamu'' and ''Salivahana-sapta-sati'', was patronised by King Devaraya II and enjoyed the same status as important ministers in the court.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=370}} | |||
Most [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature from this period came from Tamil-speaking regions, which were ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention to the cultivation of Tamil literature. Some poets were also patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. [[Svarupananda Desikar]] wrote an anthology of 2824 verses, ''Sivaprakasap-perundirattu'', on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, [[Tattuvarayar]], wrote a shorter anthology, ''Kurundirattu'', that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose ''Irusamaya Vilakkam'' was an exposition of the two Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=347}} | |||
Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya's ''Sangitsara'', [[Praudha Raya]]'s ''Ratiratnapradipika'', Sayana's ''Ayurveda Sudhanidhi'' and [[Lakshmana Pandita]]'s ''Vaidyarajavallabham''.{{sfn|Durga Prasad|1988|pp=268–270}} The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] flourished during this period with scholars such as [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]], who made important contributions to trigonometry and calculus, and [[Nilakantha Somayaji]], who postulated on the orbitals of planets.<ref>{{cite book |title=History of Science and Philosophy of Science: A Historical Perspective of the Evolution of Ideas in Science |editor-first=Pradip Kumar |editor-last=Sengupta |first=Subhash |last=Kak |year=2010 |page=91 |series=vol. XIII, part 6 |publisher=Pearson Longman |isbn=978-81-317-1930-5}}</ref> | |||
===Architecture=== | |||
{{Main|Vijayanagara architecture|Vijayanagara|Hampi||List of Vijayanagara era temples in Karnataka}} | |||
[[File:The Stone Chariot,Hampi.jpg|thumb |alt=Temple car|''[[Temple car]]'' at the Vittala temple in Hampi]] | |||
Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic [[Percy Brown (scholar)|Percy Brown]] is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]], [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysala]], [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.<ref>{{harv|Kamath|2001|p=182}}.</ref> Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate [[Column|pillared]] ''Kalyanamantapa'' (marriage hall), ''Vasanthamantapa'' (open pillared halls) and the ''Rayagopura'' (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at [[Vijayanagara]] is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="heritage">{{cite news|title=Group of Monuments at Hampi-Cultural Sites|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241|work=UNESCO |access-date=27 April 2021|location=World Heritage Centre, Paris, France|date=1986}}</ref> | |||
In the 14th century, the kings continued to build [[vesara]] or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style [[gopura]]s to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of [[Bukka]] and the Hazare Rama temple of [[Deva Raya]] are examples of Deccan architecture.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=9}} The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work.<ref name="pillar">Nilakanta Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagar style in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=183}}</ref> At [[Hampi (town)|Hampi]], the ''Vitthala'' and ''Hazara Ramaswamy'' temples are examples of their pillared ''Kalyanamantapa'' style.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Hampi Travel Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXyAst-aRoC |date=2003 |publisher=Eicher Goodearth supported by Department of Tourism, Government of India |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-87780-17-5 |lccn=2003334582 |page=77}}</ref> A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the [[Chalukya dynasty]].{{sfn|Kamath|2001|p=184}} The ''Vitthala'' temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the [[Tuluva]] kings.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=9}} | |||
[[File:An aerial view of Madurai city from atop of Meenakshi Amman temple.jpg|thumb |upright=1.35 |alt=Meenakshi Temple, Madurai|Aerial view of the ''[[Meenakshi Temple, Madurai]]''. The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks rulers under the Vijayanagar Empire]] | |||
Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large [[Monolithic architecture|monoliths]] such as the ''Sasivekaalu'' ([[mustard seed|mustard]]) [[Ganesha]] and ''Kadalekaalu'' ([[Peanut|ground nut]]) Ganesha at Hampi, the [[Gommateshwara]] ([[Bahubali]]) monoliths in [[Karkala]] and [[Venur]], and the [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] bull in [[Lepakshi]]. The Vijayanagara temples of [[Someshwara Temple, Kolar|Kolar]], [[Kanakachalapathi Temple, Kanakagiri|Kanakagiri]], [[Sringeri]] and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of [[Tadpatri]], Lepakshi, [[Ahobilam]], [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] and [[Srikalahasti]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]; and the temples of [[Vellore]], [[Kumbakonam]], [[Kanchi]] and [[Srirangam]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the [[Dashavatara]] and ''Girijakalyana'' (marriage of [[Parvati]], Shiva's consort) in the [[Virupaksha Temple, Hampi|Virupaksha Temple]] at [[Hampi]], the ''Shivapurana'' murals (tales of Shiva) at the [[Virabhadra]] temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on [[relief]]s in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in India.{{sfn|Kamath|2001|p=184}} | |||
An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many [[arch]]es, [[dome]]s and [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] that show these influences. The concentration of structures like [[Chhatri|pavilions]], [[stable]]s and [[tower]]s suggests they were for use by royalty.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=10}} The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been [[Mughal architecture|Muslim architects]]. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.{{sfn|Philon|2001|p=87}} The "Great Platform" (''Mahanavami Dibba'') has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.{{sfn|Dallapiccola|2001|p=69}} | |||
== List of rulers == | |||
The Vijayanagara Empire was ruled by four different dynasties for about 310 years.{{sfn|Dhere|2011|p=243}} | |||
{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable" | |||
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:5%;"|Serial no. | |||
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"| Regnal names | |||
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"| Reign (CE) | |||
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:7%;"| Notes | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" |'''[[Sangama dynasty]] rulers (1336 to 1485 CE)''' | |||
|- | |||
|1 | |||
|[[Harihara I]] | |||
|1336–1356 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|2 | |||
|[[Bukka Raya I]] | |||
|1356–1377 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|3 | |||
|[[Harihara II]] | |||
|1377–1404 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|4 | |||
|[[Virupaksha Raya]] | |||
|1404–1405 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|5 | |||
|[[Bukka Raya II]] | |||
|1405–1406 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|6 | |||
|[[Deva Raya]] | |||
|1406–1422 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|7 | |||
|[[Ramachandra Raya]] | |||
|1422 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|8 | |||
|[[Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya]] | |||
|1422–1424 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|9 | |||
|[[Deva Raya II]] | |||
|1424–1446 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|10 | |||
|[[Mallikarjuna Raya]] | |||
|1446–1465 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|11 | |||
|[[Virupaksha Raya II]] | |||
|1465–1485 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|12 | |||
|[[Praudha Raya]] | |||
|1485 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" |'''[[Saluva dynasty]] rulers (1485 to 1505 CE)''' | |||
|- | |||
|13 | |||
|[[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]] | |||
|1485–1491 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|14 | |||
|[[Thimma Bhupala]] | |||
|1491 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|15 | |||
|[[Narasimha Raya II]] | |||
|1491–1505 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" |'''[[Tuluva dynasty]] rulers (1491 to 1570 CE)''' | |||
|- | |||
|16 | |||
|[[Tuluva Narasa Nayaka]] | |||
|1491–1503 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|17 | |||
|[[Viranarasimha Raya]] | |||
|1503–1509 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|18 | |||
|[[Krishnadevaraya]] | |||
|1509–1529 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|19 | |||
|[[Achyuta Deva Raya]] | |||
|1529–1542 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|20 | |||
|[[Sadasiva Raya]] | |||
|1542–1570 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" |'''[[Aravidu dynasty]] rulers (1542 to 1652 CE)''' | |||
|- | |||
|21 | |||
|[[Rama Raya (statesman)|Rama Raya]] | |||
|1542–1565 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|22 | |||
|[[Tirumala Deva Raya]] | |||
|1565–1572 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|23 | |||
|[[Sriranga Deva Raya]] | |||
|1572–1586 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|24 | |||
|[[Venkatapati Deva Raya]] | |||
|1586–1614 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|25 | |||
|[[Sriranga II]] | |||
|1614–1617 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|26 | |||
|[[Rama Deva Raya]] | |||
|1617–1632 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|27 | |||
|[[Peda Venkata Raya]] | |||
|1632–1642 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|28 | |||
|[[Sriranga III]] | |||
|1642–1646/1652 | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
==Travellers== | |||
[[File:Sultan of Delhi (top) and King of Vijayanagar (bottom) in the Catalan Atlas of 1375.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Tughlaq dynasty|Sultan of Delhi]] (top, flag: [[File:Sultan of Delhi Flag according to the Catalan Atlas (1375).png|15px]]) and King of Vijayanagara (bottom, with "Christian" flag: [[File:Flag of the Kigdom of Colombo, Catalan Atlas 1375.png|15px]]), named as "[[Kollam|King of Colombo]]" after the city of [[Kollam]]. His caption reads: ''Here rules the king of [[Kollam|Colombo]], a Christian.'' He was mistakenly identified as Christian because of the Christian mission established in Kollam by [[Jordanus]] since 1329.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liščák |first1=Vladimír |title=Mapa mondi (Catalan Atlas of 1375), Majorcan cartographic school, and 14th century Asia |journal=International Cartographic Association |date=2017 |page=5 |url=https://www.proc-int-cartogr-assoc.net/1/69/2018/ica-proc-1-69-2018.pdf}}</ref><ref>Several of the location names too are accurate, in {{cite book |title=Cartography between Christian Europe and the Arabic-Islamic World, 1100–1500: Divergent Traditions |date=17 June 2021 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-44603-8 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eq0zEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |language=en}}</ref> Detail of the [[Catalan Atlas]] of 1375.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massing |first1=Jean Michel |last2=Albuquerque |first2=Luís de |last3=Brown |first3=Jonathan |last4=González |first4=J. J. Martín |title=Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration |date=1 January 1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-05167-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMK-Ba0-RG4C&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref>]] | |||
In the memoirs of [[Niccolò de' Conti]], an [[Italy|Italian]] merchant and traveller who visited Hampi about 1420, the city had an estimated circumference of {{convert|60|miles|km}} and it enclosed agriculture and settlements in its fortifications. In 1442, [[Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī|Abdul Razzaq]], who visited from [[Persia]], described it as a city with seven layers of forts, with outer layers for agriculture, crafts and residence, the inner third to seventh layers very crowded with shops and bazaars (markets).<ref>{{cite book|author=Carla M. Sinopoli|title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA146|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44074-5|pages=146–149}}</ref> | |||
In 1520, [[Domingo Paes]], a Portuguese traveller, visited Vijayanagara as a part of trade contingent from Portuguese Goa. He wrote his memoir as ''Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga'', in which he stated Vijayanagara was "as large as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight ... the best provided city in the world".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Arnold P. Kaminsky|author2=Roger D. Long|title=Nationalism and Imperialism in South and Southeast Asia: Essays Presented to Damodar R.SarDesai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-99743-0|page=66}}</ref><ref name=Raychaudhuri122>{{cite book|author1=Tapan Raychaudhuri|author2=Irfan Habib|author3=Dharma Kumar|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, C.1200-c.1750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA122 |year=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22692-9|page=122}}</ref> According to Paes, "there are many groves within it, in the gardens of the houses, many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes ...".<ref name=Raychaudhuri122/> | |||
[[Cesare Federici]], an [[Italy|Italian]] merchant and traveller, visited a few decades after the 1565 defeat and collapse of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to Sinopoli, Johansen, and Morrison, Federici described it as a very different city. He wrote, "the citie of Bezeneger (Hampi-Vijayanagara) is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses stand still, but emptie, and there is dwelling in them nothing, as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Carla Sinopoli|author2=Peter Johansen|author3=Kathleen Morrison|editor=Steven E. Falconer and Charles L. Redman|title=Polities and Power: Archaeological Perspectives on the Landscapes of Early States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YkYdxK29RHkC&pg=PA37|year=2009|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-2603-1|page=37}}</ref> | |||
The historian [[Will Durant]], in his ''Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization'' recites the story of [[Vijayanagara]] and calls its conquest and destruction a discouraging tale. He writes, "its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious thing, whose delicate complex of order and liberty, culture and peace" may at any time be overthrown by war and ferocious violence.<ref>{{cite book|author=Will Durant|author-link=Will Durant|title=Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ru4LPyMAxxkC&pg=PT579 |year=2011| publisher=Simon and Schuster| isbn=978-1-4516-4668-9| page=579}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|[[Hampi (town)|Hampi]]'s history, ruins and temples made it an early site for offbeat tourism in the 1960s and after. Tourists would gather on its hills and midst its ruins, to hold parties and spiritual retreats, and these have been called "Hampi Hippies" and Hampi as the "lost city" in some publications.<ref name="Aitken1999p219">{{cite book|author=Bill Aitken|title=Divining the Deccan: A Motorbike to the Heart of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUJuAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564711-2|pages=219–221}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=David Hatcher Childress|title=Lost Cities of China, Central Asia, and India: A Traveler's Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBAeAAAAMAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Adventures |isbn=978-0-932813-00-8|pages=186–187}}</ref>}} | |||
== Fictional representations == | |||
* [[Vijayanagar]] is a key inspiration for the fictional city and empire of Bisnaga in [[Salman Rushdie]]'s novel ''[[Victory City (novel)|Victory City]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Salman Rushdie's new novel is an ode to storytelling and freedom |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/culture/2023/02/08/salman-rushdies-new-novel-is-an-ode-to-storytelling-and-freedom |access-date=2023-02-11 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> | |||
==See also== | |||
{{Portal|India|History}} | |||
* [[History of India]] | |||
* [[History of South India]] | |||
* [[Vijayanagara military]] | |||
* [[Political history of medieval Karnataka]] | |||
*[[Taxation in medieval India]] | |||
{{clear}} | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{reflist|group=note|refs= | |||
<ref group=note name="Dhere2011p243">{{harvnb|Dhere|2011|p=243}}: "We can deduce that Sangam must have become a Yadava through his pastoralist, cowherd community.",</ref> | |||
}} | |||
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
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{{refend}} | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
{{Wikiquote}}{{EB1911 Poster|Vijayanagar}} | |||
* | * {{Commons category-inline|Vijayanagara Empire}} | ||
{{Karnataka topics}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
[[Category: | [[Category:Vijayanagara Empire| ]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:States and territories established in 1336]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1646]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Medieval Karnataka]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Historical Hindu kingdoms]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:History of Karnataka]] | ||
[[Category:Former empires]] | |||