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In 1868, the [[Bombay Presidency]] assigned ''Narayan Jagannath Vaidya'' to replace the [[Abjad]] used in Sindhi, with the ''[[Khudabadi script]]''. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the [[Muslim]] majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve [[Martial Law]]s were imposed by the British authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sindhi.htm |title=Sindhi alphabets, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com }}</ref> | In 1868, the [[Bombay Presidency]] assigned ''Narayan Jagannath Vaidya'' to replace the [[Abjad]] used in Sindhi, with the ''[[Khudabadi script]]''. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the [[Muslim]] majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve [[Martial Law]]s were imposed by the British authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sindhi.htm |title=Sindhi alphabets, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com }}</ref> | ||
The evolution of Sindhi from Middle Indo-Aryan is marked by several notable sound changes: | |||
* The emergence of implosives from both geminate and initial stops (for example, g- and -gg transforming into ɠ), which is a distinctive feature in New Indo-Aryan languages. | |||
* The shortening of geminates, as seen in the transformation of MIA akkhi to Sindhi akhi, meaning "eye". | |||
* Voicing of consonants following nasal sounds, exemplified by MIA danta becoming Sindhi ɗ̣andu, meaning "tooth." | |||
* Debuccalisation where intervocalic -s- changes to -h-, a change shared with Saraiki and certain Punjabi dialects. | |||
* Intervocalic -l- shifts to -r- (likely through an intermediate retroflex -ḷ-), while -ll- simplifies to -l- and -ḍ- becomes -ṛ-. | |||
* The fronting of r occurs when it moves from medial clusters to the beginning of words, as illustrated by OIA dīrgha evolving into Sindhi ḍrigho, meaning "long". | |||
Moreover, Sindhi maintains certain retentions that set it apart from other New Indo-Aryan languages: | |||
* Preservation of MIA -ṇ-. | |||
* Retention of final short vowels -a, -i, -u, along with the insertion of these vowels into loanwords. | |||
* Long vowels before geminates are retained, which is more archaic compared to languages like Prakrit. | |||
* Clusters of stop + r are kept but undergo retroflexion, such as tr- becoming ṭr-. | |||
* The retention of the consonant v- is also noted. | |||
=== Early Sindhi (–16th century) === | |||
Early literary evidence of Sindhi is limited. The earliest documentation of Sindhi as a distinct language appears in a translation of the Qur’an, which dates back to 883 CE. Additionally, Isma'ili religious texts and poetry in India from the 11th century CE utilised a language closely related to both Sindhi and Gujarati. During this period, Sindhi had not yet been clearly recognised as an independent literary language. Much of the literature from this era consists of ginans, which are devotional hymns. | |||
Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to experience significant interaction with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE. Consequently, Arabic records reference the language of Sindh on various occasions. The following excerpts are translated from "[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]]" by [[Henry Miers Elliot]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Elliot |first1=Henry Miers |editor1-last=Dawson |editor1-first=John |title=The History Of India As Told By Its Own Historians |date=1867–1877 |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.448955}}</ref> | |||
{{Blockquote | |||
|text=The language of Sind is different than that of India. Sind is the country which is nearer the domains of the Moslims, India is farther from them. | |||
|author=[[al-Masudi]] ({{circa|lk=no|896}}–956 CE) | |||
|source=''[[The Meadows of Gold]]'' | |||
}} | |||
{{Blockquote | |||
|text=The language of [[Mansura, Sindh|Mansúra]], [[Multan|Multán]], and those parts is Arabic and Sindian. In [[Makran|Makrán]] they use Persian and Makranic. | |||
|author=[[Ibn Hawqal]] | |||
|source=''[[Surat Al-Ard]]'' (977 CE) | |||
}} | |||
=== Medieval Sindhi (16th–19th centuries) === | |||
Medieval Sindhi literature is predominantly religious, featuring a blend of Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry within the devotional bhakti tradition. This poetry typically follows the bayt format, showcasing significant influences from Arabic and Persian literary traditions. The earliest known Sindhi poet associated with the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551), followed by notable poets such as Shah Inat Rizvi (c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets exhibited a mystical inclination that deeply impacted Sindhi poetry throughout this period. | |||
Additionally, Medieval Sindhi literature is rich in folktales, which were adapted into verse by numerous bards over time, likely existing in oral form long before their first literary records. Notable romantic epics among these tales include Sassui Punnhun, Sohni Mahiwal, Momal Rano, Noori Jam Tamachi, and Lilan Chanesar, among others. | |||
The most celebrated poet in Sindhi history is Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752). His verses, which reflect primarily Sufi themes, also narrate traditional Sindhi folktales and explore aspects of the cultural history of Sindh. His works were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. | |||
The first documented Sindhi translation of the Quran was completed by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The earliest printed version was produced by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867. | |||
=== British India (1843–1947) === | |||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! <small>[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]</small> | ! <small>[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]</small> | ||
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|m}} {{lang|sd| | | style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|m}} {{lang|sd|म}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|mʱ}} {{lang|sd|म्ह}}}} | ||
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|n}} {{lang|sd| | | style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|n}} {{lang|sd|न}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|nʱ}} {{lang|sd|न्ह}}}} | ||
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɳ}} {{lang|sd| | | style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɳ}} {{lang|sd|ण}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|ɳʱ}} {{lang|sd|ڻھ}}}} | ||
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɲ}} {{lang|sd| | | style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɲ}} {{lang|sd|ञ}}}}<br /> | ||
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ŋ}} {{lang|sd| | | style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ŋ}} {{lang|sd|ङ}}}}<br /> | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>[[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br/>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]</small> | ! <small>[[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br/>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]</small> | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|p}} {{lang|sd|پ}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|pʰ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|p}} {{lang|sd|پ प}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|pʰ}} {{lang|sd|फ}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|b}} {{lang|sd|ब}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|bʱ}} {{lang|sd|भ}}}} | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|t̪|t}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|t̪|t}} {{lang|sd|त}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|tʰ}} {{lang|sd|थ}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|d̪|d}} {{lang|sd|द}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|dʱ}} {{lang|sd|ध}}}} | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʈ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʈ}} {{lang|sd|ट}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|ʈʰ}} {{lang|sd|ठ}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɖ}} {{lang|sd|ڊ ड}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|ɖʱ}} {{lang|sd|ढ}}}} | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|tɕ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|tɕ}} {{lang|sd|च}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|tɕʰ}} {{lang|sd|छ}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|dʑ}} {{lang|sd|ज}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|dʑʱ}} {{lang|sd|झ}}}} | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|k}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|k}} {{lang|sd|क}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|kʰ}} {{lang|sd|ख}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɡ}} {{lang|sd|ग}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|ɡʱ}} {{lang|sd|घ}}}} | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>[[Implosive consonant|Implosive]]</small> | ! <small>[[Implosive consonant|Implosive]]</small> | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɓ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɓ}} {{lang|sd|ॿ}}}} | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɗ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɗ}} {{lang|sd|ॾ}}}} | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʄ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʄ}} {{lang|sd|ॼ}}}} | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɠ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɠ}} {{lang|sd|ॻ}}}} | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]</small> | ! <small>[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]</small> | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|f}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|f}} {{lang|sd|फ़}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"| | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|s}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|s}} {{lang|sd|स}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|z}} {{lang|sd|ज़}}}} | ||
|style="width:20px; border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʂ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="width:20px; border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʂ}} {{lang|sd|ष}}}}|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"| | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|x}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|x}} {{lang|sd|ख़}}}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɣ}} {{lang|sd|ग़}}}} | ||
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|h}} {{lang|sd| | | style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|h}} {{lang|sd|ह}}}}|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"| | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]</small> | ! <small>[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]</small> | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʋ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ʋ}} {{lang|sd|व}}}}<br /> | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|l̪|l}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|l̪|l}} {{lang|sd|ल}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|lʱ}} {{lang|sd|لھ}}}} | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|j}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|j}} {{lang|sd|य}}}}<br /> | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
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! <small>[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]</small> | ! <small>[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]</small> | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|r}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|r}} {{lang|sd|र}}}}<br /> | ||
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɽ}} {{lang|sd| | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{nobreak|{{IPAlink|ɽ}} {{lang|sd|ड़}}}}<br />{{nobreak|{{IPA|ɽʱ}} {{lang|sd|ढ़}}}} | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||