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| {{Short description|Chola emperor from 1014–1044}}
| | #REDIRECT [[Rajendra I]] |
| {{redirect|Rajendra Chola|a son of Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Chola II}}
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
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| {{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}{{Infobox royalty
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| | name = Rajendra I
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| | native_name = Please do not add "WP:INDICSCRIPT"
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| | native_name_lang =
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| | title = Parakesari, Yuddhamalla, Mummudi, Gangai Kondan, Kadaram Kondan, Jayasimha Kula Kaalan
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| | image = Rajendra Chola (cropped).JPG
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| | caption = Sculpture of Lord Chandikeswara ([[Ariyalur district|Ariyalur District]])
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| | succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
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| | reign = 1014 CE – 1044 CE<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref>
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| | predecessor = [[Rajaraja Chola|Rajaraja I]]
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| | successor = [[Rajadhiraja Chola I|Rajadhiraja I]]
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| | birth_name = Madhurantaka
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| | birth_date = 971 CE
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| | birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern day [[Tamil Nadu]], India)
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| | death_date = 1044 CE (aged 73)
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| | death_place = [[Brahmadesam, Cheyyar|Brahmadesam]], [[Chola Empire]]
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| (modern day [[Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu]], India)<ref name="Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri 19">{{cite book|title=Sri Brihadisvara: The Great Temple of Thānjavūr|author=Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri|page=19|publisher=Nile Books, 1998}}</ref>
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| | date of burial = End of 1044 CE
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| | place of burial = Brahmadesam, Tamil Nadu,
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| India<ref name="Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri 19">{{cite book|title=Sri Brihadisvara: The Great Temple of Thānjavūr|author=Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri|page=19|publisher=Nile Books, 1998}}</ref>
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| | spouse = * Tribhuvana (Vanavan Mahadevi)
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| *Puteri Onangki
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| * Mukkokilan
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| * Panchavan Mahadevi
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| *Viramahadevi
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| | issue = * Rajarajan
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| *[[Rajadhiraja Chola I|Rajadhiraja I]]
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| * [[Manukula Kesari]]
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| * Sanga varman
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| *[[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]]
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| * Rajamahendran
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| *[[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]]
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| *Arulmoli Nangaiyar Piranar
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| *Ammangadevi
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| | father = [[Rajaraja Chola|Rajaraja I]]
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| | mother = Vanavan Mahadevi ''alias'' Tribhuvana Mahadevi
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| | signature = Gangaikondacholan.JPG
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| | religion = [[Hinduism]]<ref>''The Imperial Pandyas: Mathematics Reconstructs the Chronology'', N. Sethuraman, 1978, p. 5, "Calendar System alone must be employed to fix the accession date of a Hindu king Rajendra Chola".</ref>
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| | succession2 = Co-Regent of the [[Chola Empire]]
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| | reign2 = 1012 CE – 1014 CE
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| | cor-type2 = Emperor
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| | coronation2 = [[Rajaraja I]]
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| | successor2 = [[Rajadhiraja Chola I|Rajadhiraja I]]
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| | succession4 = King of [[Maya Rata|Dakkinadesa]] <br/>
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| King of [[Ruhuna]]
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| | reign4 = 1017 CE – 1044 CE
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| | predecessor4 = [[Kassapa VI]]
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| | successor4 = [[Rajadhiraja Chola I|Rajadhiraja I]]
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| | dynasty = [[Chola]]
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| {{Infobox military person
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| | embed = yes
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| | branch = {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola military|Chola Army]]
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| <br /> {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola Navy]]
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| | branch_label = Service
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| | serviceyears = 992 – 1044 CE
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| | serviceyears_label =
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| | rank = [[Field marshal|Senathipathi]] (992 – 1014 CE) <br />
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| [[Commander-in-chief|Chakravarti]] (1014 – 1044 CE)
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| }} | | }} |
| }}
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| {{Chola history}}
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| '''Rajendra Chola I <!--Please do not add "WP:INDICSCRIPT"-->''' ({{IPAc-en|r|ə|ʒ||eɪ|n|ə|d|r|ə}}; [[Middle Tamil]]: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; [[Classical Sanskrit]]: Rājēndradēva Cōla; [[Old Malay]]: ''Raja Suran<ref name="TasaiDjamari2005">{{cite book |author1=S. Amran Tasai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YcVkAAAAMAAJ&q=Rajendra+Chola+zulkarnain |title=Sejarah Melayu: sebagai karya sastra dan karya sejarah : sebuah antologi |author2=Djamari |author3=Budiono Isas |publisher=Pusat Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan Nasional |year=2005 |isbn=978-979-685-524-7 |page=67}}</ref><ref name="Miksic20132">{{cite book |author=John N. Miksic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&dq=chola+zulkarnain&pg=PA147 |title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300_1800 |date=30 September 2013 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971-69-574-3 |pages=147– |author1-link=John N. Miksic}}</ref>''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as '''Rajendra the Great,''' and also known as '''Gangaikonda Chola''' (Middle Tamil: ''Kaṅkaikoṇṭa Cōḻaṉ''; {{lit|Bringer of the Ganges|i=yes}}), and '''Kadaram Kondan''' (Middle Tamil: Kaṭāram koṇṭāṉ ; {{lit|Conqueror of [[Kedah]] |i=yes}}) was a [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Emperor who reigned between 1014 and 1044 CE. He is considered the most significant ruler in early eleventh century South Asia for his role in patronising the arts, encouraging trade and expanding the Chola Empire to is greatest extent .<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC|title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2003|isbn=978-0-14-302989-2|location=New Delhi|pages=364–365|language=|orig-year=2002}}</ref>{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=194-195}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=228}}
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| Born in [[Thanjavur]] to [[Rajaraja I]] and his queen Vanavan Mahadevi, Rajendra first assumed royal power as co-regent with his father in 1012 until the later's death in 1014, after which he ascended the Chola throne in his own right. During his reign, the Chola Empire was the largest and most significant political, military, and economic force is in the [[Indian subcontinent]], and extended its reach via trade and conquest across the [[Indian Ocean]], making Rajendra one of only a handful of Indian monarchs to have conquered territory beyond South Asia. His early years were marked by his involvement in the [[Chola military|Chola Army]], where he fought in several campaigns against the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]] as well as the rulers of [[Anuradhapura]], earning him his first victories. He was also responsible for putting down rebellions in the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandiya]] vassal states, and in [[Sri Lanka]]. As Emperor, he completed the conquest of Anuradhapura and brought a large portion of Sri Lanka under imperial rule.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=May 1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/politics-of-plunder-the-cholas-in-eleventhcentury-ceylon/926938631DA4BF69B0DED43421E08658 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |s2cid=154741845 |issn=1752-0401}}</ref> Rajendra further expanded Chola rule by defeating the kingdoms of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] and [[Bengal|Vengai]], and subduing the islands of [[Lakshadweep|Laccadives]] and the [[Maldives]], which he renamed ''Munnir Palantivu Pannirayiram'', meaning "Twelve Thousand Islands and the Ocean Where Three Waters Meet." These islands were later used as strategic naval bases. During his [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I|Southeast Asia campaign]], he annexed [[Srivijaya]], [[Kedah]], [[Tambralinga]] and [[Pegu]], achieving imperial dominance during his reign and cementing the Chola's continued influence in Southeast Asia.
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| Rajendra conducted an ongoing war of attrition against the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]], resulting in him capturing a great deal of booty that he used to build the city of [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Gangaikondacholapuram]], which would remain the capital of the Chola Empire and one of the great centres of trade and commerce in South Asia for several centuries.<ref name=":2" /> The city was remarkable for its magnificent artificial lake, extensive fortifications, including moats that surrounded the imperial palace, and the splendid [[Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Brihadisvara Temple]]. Rajendra was a devout man and a follower of [[Shaivism]] (a sect of [[Hinduism]], though he was also welcoming of Buddhism and built several [[stupa| stupas]] across Southeast Asia and South India.
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| One of the most enduring legacies of Rajendra's reign was the emergence of new forms of trade. Thanks in part due to his domination of the [[Strait of Malacca]] and several other coastal areas a commercial system called "emporia" emerged,<ref>{{Cite book |title= Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa|chapter=10 Rajendra Chola's Naval Expedition and the Chola Trade with Southeast and East Asia |year=2009 |pages=168–177 |doi=10.1355/9789812309389-015 |isbn=9789812309389 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1355/9789812309389-015/pdf}}</ref> which refers to the practice of exporting goods according to their demand. This new system made trade within the Empire considerably more profitable, creating a cyclic effect where the highly lucrative trade networks engendered a larger and more powerful military which in turn facilitated the further widening of those networks. In this, the [[Khmer Empire]] was a major ally and trading partner and helped the Cholas stretch their networks as fas as [[Song dynasty|Song China]] - a link which allowed Rajendra to incorporate Chinese vessels into the Chola military. These massive networks also extended west, where the Cholas engaged in the spice trade with [[Arab world|Arabia]], [[North Africa]], [[Anatolia]], and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]].
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| Rajendra was succeeded by his son [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja I]] who ruled from 1044 to 1054.{{sfn|Karashima|2014|p=370}}
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| ==Early life and ascension==
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| [[File:Rajendra Chola, Gangaikondasolapuram.jpg|thumb|Depiction of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]] Praising Lord Chandikeswara.]]
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| The exact birth date of Rajendra I is unknown. It is suspected that he was born around 971 CE.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Kramrisch|first1=Stella|last2=Boner|first2=Alice|last3=Sarma|first3=Sadasiva Rath|last4=Das|first4=Rajendra Prasad|date=1975|title=New Light on the Sun Temple of Konarka|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3250236|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=4|pages=306|doi=10.2307/3250236|jstor=3250236 |issn=0004-3648}}</ref> He was the son of [[Rajaraja Chola|Rajaraja I]] and queen Vanavan Mahadevi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār. He had a younger brother named [[Araiyan Rajarajan]], who was a commanding general of a Chola army. (He must have had at least three sisters, the younger Kundavai, the queen of Chalukya-Vimaladitya, and a daughter called Mahadevi.) Other major members of the royal household included queen mothers Dantisakti Vitanki alias Lokamahadevi and [[Kundavai Pirāttiyār|Kundavai]], the elder sister of Rajaraja. The nakshatra of Rajendra's birth was [[Thiruvathira]]i (Ardra).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=186-187}}
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| Rajendra was declared heir apparent and formally associated with his father in the administration of the Chola Empire in the final years of his rule (1012–1014).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=194-195}} In 1018, Rajendra (the Parakesari) appointed his son Rajadhiraja (the Rajakesari) as heir apparent or Co-Regent to the Chola throne (Ruled Pandya dynasty from 1018 to 1044).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=195-196}}
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| ==Ruling career==
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| {{more citations needed|section|date=June 2022}}
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| Rajendra Cholan I commenced his war expeditions in the Indian mainland when he was yet a co-regent of his father, with the capture of [[Maruthuvakudi|Aduthurai]] in central Tamil Nadu, [[Vanavasi]] of west Tamil Nadu, in one expedition in 1012. He thereafter directed his attention on Kollipaakkai of north Andhra Pradesh, and captured same in 1013. The above two expeditions were carried out by Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father Rajaraja Chola I. In 1014 he led an expedition against the Irrataipaadi Elaraillakam the north Karnataka and south Maharashtra, and captured its capital city the Mannaikadakkam the Maleked, also on behalf of his father, which met this reverse after its initial capture by Rajaraja Cholan in 1006. With the death of Rajaraja Cholan I in 1014 CE, and with the ascension of Rajendra Cholan I in the same year as the next emperor of the Chola empire, there was a lapse of two years in the latter continuing with his war expeditions. In 1016 he first sent an expedition overseas to Sri Lanka and brought the entire Anuradhapura Kindom under his control.<ref name=":4" /> This was followed by an expedition to east Kerala in 1017 and captured the Kudamalai Nadu.
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| Rajendra's forces crossed the seas again, in the year 1018, and captured the Pal Palanthivam the many islands of Maldives and Lakshadweep. This was followed by the capture of Sandimaaththivu the Kavaratti island overseas west of Kerala, also in 1018. In 1019 Rajendra Cholans sent another expedition against the Irrataipaadi Elaraiillakam the north Karnataka and south Maharashtra – now with its new capital at Kalyani, in the northmost Karnataka which the Cholas lost again but re-captured after a battle at Musangi of east Karnataka. Rajendra Cholan I with his capture of many regions in the Indian mainland after a lapse of two years he became more ambitious in conquering the northern and north-western regions of India. He commenced his war expedition in this direction in the year 1021 with his capture of Sakkarakkoattam the south Chhattisgarh. From here he split his forces in to two and sent one in the direction of Ganges river in the north and the other in the north-western direction while he stationed himself at Sakkarakkoattam until the two expeditions were complete.
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| The second expedition went towards river Ganges in the north from Sakkarakkoattam and captured the regions of Odda Vishayam of Odisha, Kosala Naadu the north Chhattisgarh, Thandabuththi in north Odisha, Thakkana Laadam in south Jharkhand, Vangala desam the Bangladesh, Uttara Laadam of north Jharkhand and reached the great river Ganges. The Chola Indian Mainland expedition ended in 1022 and details of the countries conquered by his forces in this single expedition was included in his Meikeerthi's from the year 1023. With the return of the Chola forces of Rajendra to the Chola capital, from their victorious expedition to Uttarapatha and Gangetic region countries in 1022, the Royal Guru of Rajendra Cholan I the Isaana Pandithar built a temple at Kulampandel in Tamil Nadu named as Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer temple. With his return Rajendra Cholan I claimed a new title as "Gangaikondaan" and gave the title "Gangaikonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Gangai) to his younger brother who led the Gangetic expedition. Rajendra Cholan I commenced the construction of a new city named the "Gangaikonda Cholapuram", with a new Siva Temple named "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem", and a big 'temple water tank' named the "Chola Gangam" where the holy water brought in from the Ganges River was mixed. The Essalam Copper Plates of Rajendra Cholan I specifically state that with the conquest of the Gangetic region, it was Rajendra Cholan I who constructed the new city the Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the great Gangaikonda Choleswarer temple, and the sacred Cholagangam Tank at the Udaiyar Palaiyam region of Ariyalur district. In this great temple "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem" he built, the presiding deity of the Karuvarai (Sanctum Sanctorium) was known as the "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer" also known as "Peruvudaiyar" - the God Siva in the form of Lingam, the biggest Lingam among the Siva Temples both in India and Worldover, having a height of 13 ft and 20 ft in circumference.
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| The ''[[praśasti]]'' mentions Rajendra's Conquests:<ref>{{cite web |last=Kamalakkannan |first=S. |title=Valanchulivanar, varalaaru aivum aivu varlarum |url=http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=304 |access-date=18 August 2020 |publisher=varalaaru.com}}</ref>
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| The ''[[praśasti]]'' mentions Rajendra's Conquests:
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| {{blockquote|On the third Regnal year of Rajendra Chola – the conqueror of the East country, Ganges and Kadaram; this stone inscription was made to record the tax exemption grant given by Rajendra, the one who surrendered to [[Shiva]].<ref name=http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=304/> }}
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| The "Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem" Siva temple – of Erumbur in Cuddalore district (present Kadambavanesvara temple near Erumbur) was built in commemoration of the victory of the forces of Rajendra Chola I over Sri Vijaya and many regions of Sumatra of Indonesia. The "Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem" Siva temple – of Kudimallur in Vellore district (present Bhumisvara temple near Kalavai) was built in commemoration of the victory of the forces of Rajendra Chola I over Kadarem and many regions of Malaysia.
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| His far overseas war expedition commenced in the year 1023 with a large fleet of ships with Chola warriors directed first to Sri Vijaya the Palembang of south Sumatra of Indonesia which was captured. Thereafter they captured the Malaiyur of south Sumatra adjacent to Sri Vijaya. From there the fleet crossed the seas and captured the Mevilibangham the Bangha Island adjacent to south Sumatra and then they moved to Pannai of east Sumatra in the mainland, followed by Ilamuridesam of north Sumatra. The forces now crossed to Malaysia and captured Vallaipandur of north-east Malaysia, followed by Kadarem of north-west and west Malaysia. From here they went further north and captured the Ilankasokam of south-east Thailand adjacent to Kadarem and followed by Mathamalingam of east Thailand, and Thalaitakkolam of south-west Thailand. From here the fleet went on sea homeward, and on their way captured the Manakkavaarem in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They further travelled by sea and captured the Maapapaalam the seaport city of the present south Myanmar, and returned to the Chola country. The Chola south-east Asian expedition ended in 1024 and details of the countries conquered by his forces in this single expedition was included in his MeikeerthAn early silver kasu of Rajendra Ii's from the year 1025. With the victory of Rajendra Cholan I over Sri Vijaya(m) of Sumatra, Indonesia in 1023, he built a Siva Temple at Erumbur in Tamil Nadu, and named it as Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem.[[File:Chola Kings. Rajaraja I. 985-1014 CE Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Chola, conqueror of the Gangas in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.jpg|thumb|left|250x250px|Coin of Rajendra containing [[Devanagari script]].]]
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| With his triumph over the Kadaram, Rajendra Cholan I assumed another new title as "Kadaremkondaan", and one of his grandsons who led the Kadarem expedition was given the title "Kadaremkonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Kadarem), and a region of the present Kudimallur in Tamil Nadu was named as the "Kadaremkonda Cholapuram". There are villages in present-day Tamil Nadu still bearing names as Kadaramkondaan at Thiruvaarur and Ariyalur regions (present Gedaramkondan in Ariyalur), and as Kadaramkonda Cholapuram (present Narasingpuram). With the victories of Rajendra Cholan I over Kadaram in Malaysia in 1023, he built a Siva Temple in north Tamil Nadu and named it as Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem.
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| It was with their triumphs in the wars in the Indian mainland, and near overseas, they built the former two "magnificient & gigantic temples completely out of Granite stone" as living monuments of their great valour and superior status in this region, which are included in the present day UNESCO World Heritage Series. The latter two were built in commemoration of their triumphs far overseas, and as monuments of their great achievements in South-East Asia and the superior status of the Medieval Chola Empire in the World History of that period (1025 CE).
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| == Rajendra Chola's Conquest Chronology ==
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| !Year
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| !Conquest
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| !Result
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| | colspan="3" |
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| === Chola Territories c. 1030 CE ===
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| [[File:Rajendra map new.svg|center|frameless|450x450px|Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 CE]]
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| |-
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| |992–1008 CE
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| |[[Chalukya–Chola wars]]
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| |Cholas annexed several territories of the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]]
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| |993–1017 CE
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| |[[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura|conquest of the Sri Lanka]]
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| |Cholas annexed entire [[Sri Lanka]], [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]] king [[Kassapa VI]] becomes his puppet ruler
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| |-
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| |1018–1019 CE
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| |conquest of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera Kingdom]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya Kingdom]]
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| |Cholas annexed the Cheras and Pandyas
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| |-
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| |1019 CE
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| |[[Chola expedition to North India|conquest of the Kalinga]]
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| |Cholas annexed [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]
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| |1020 CE
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| |[[Chalukya–Chola wars|Battle of Musangi]]
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| |Cholas raid and demolish [[Malkheda]] and annexed most of [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]] territory.
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| |1023 CE
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| |[[Chola expedition to North India|conquest of the Ganges]]
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| |Cholas annexed [[Bengal|Vangadesam]] (Bengal) and [[Odisha|Odda]] (Odisha)
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| |-
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| |1023–1025 CE
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| |[[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I|conquest of Pegu]]
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| |Cholas annexed the city of [[Bago, Myanmar|Pegu]] ([[Myanmar]])
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| |1025 CE
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| |[[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|conquest of the Srivijaya Empire]]
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| |[[Srivijaya]] and surrounding kingdoms become a subodorate of the Cholas
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| |1025 CE
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| |[[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|conquest of Keddah]]
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| |Cholas annexed Kadaram ([[Kedah|Keddah]])
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| |}
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| == Battles in Southern India ==
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| ===Early campaigns===
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| Rajendra led campaigns from 1002 CE. These include the conquest of the [[Rashtrakutas]] and the campaigns against the [[Western Chalukyas]]. He conquered the Chalukyan territories of Yedatore (a large part of the [[Raichur]] district between the [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and the [[Tungabhadra]]), [[Banavasi]] in the north-west of [[Mysore]] and capital [[Manyakheta]]. Rajendra erected a [[Shiva|Siva]] temple at [[Bhatkal]]. He also conquered Kollipakkai, located to the north of [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] in present-day [[Telangana]]. An excerpt from an inscription in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] from [[Kolar]] states:
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| {{blockquote|In the eighth year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who, while the goddess of Fortune, having become constant, increased, and while the goddess of the great Earth, the goddess of victory in battle and the matchless goddess of Fame, having become his great queens, rejoiced-that in his extended lifetime, conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi shut in by a fence of continuous forests; Kollipakkai, whose walls were surrounded by sulli trees; Mannaikkadakkam whose fortification was unapproachable.<ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 32">Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 32</ref>}}In 1018/19 CE, Rajendra marched into the [[Pandya]] and [[Chera Perumal]] kingdoms and conquered the two countries.<ref name="sastri165">See Sastri, K. A. N., ''A History of South India'', p165</ref> Rajendra appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the title ''Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya'' with [[Madurai]] as the headquarters (in-charge both Pandya and Chera/Kerala countries).
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| === Chola–Chalukya wars ===
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| {{Main|Chalukya–Chola wars}}
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| [[File:Rajendra Chola in Battle, Kolaramma Temple - Edited.jpg|thumb|200px|Rajendra Chola in Battle, Kolaramma Temple, [[Kolar]]<ref name="Rice-X">{{cite book |last1=Rice |first1=Benjamin Lewis |url=https://archive.org/stream/epigraphiacarnat10myso#page/n7/mode/2up |title=Epigraphia Carnatica: Volume X: Inscriptions in the Kolar District |date=1994 |publisher=Department of Archeology, Mysore State |location=Mangalore, British India |access-date=4 August 2015}}</ref>|left]]Rajendra fought several battles with the Western Chalukyas. From 992 CE to 1008 CE during the reign of Rajaraja I, Rajendra raided and annexed several towns such as Rattepadi, Banavasi and Toanur.
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| In 1015 CE, Jayasimha II became the king of [[Western Chalukyas]]. He tried to recover the losses suffered by his predecessor [[Satyashraya]], who fled his capital and was later restored to the throne by Raja Raja I as a tribute-paying subordinate. Initially, Jayasimha II was successful as Rajendra was busy with his campaigns in Sri Lanka.<ref name="sastri166">See Sastri, K. A. N., ''A History of South India'', p166</ref> In 1021 CE, after the demise of the [[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern Chalukyan]] king Vimaladitya of [[Vengi]], Jayasimha supported the claim of Vijayaditya VII to the throne against the claims of [[Rajaraja Narendra]]. [[Rajaraja Narendra]] was the son of Vimaladitya and Chola princess Kundavai.<ref name="sastri166" /> Rajendra helped his nephew Rajaraja defeat Vijayaditya.<ref name="Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 70">''Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 70''</ref>
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| Rajendra fought Jayasimha in the battle of Maski.<ref name="sastri166" /> He led an army of 900,000 and defeating [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]] at the Battle of Maski (1019 CE – 1020 CE). On the Eastern Front, Rajendra Chola led [[Rajaraja Chola I]]'s army in Vengi and expelled the rulers in battle. Vengi was later the site of the coronation of Rajendra Chola's nephew following his victories in the [[Chola expedition to North India]].
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| == Conquest of Anuradhapura ==
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| {{Main|Chola conquest of Anuradhapura}}
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| [[File:Spiritual 16.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Koneswaram Temple|Koneswaram temple]] in [[Trincomalee]] was expanded by Rajendra. ]]
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| === Conquest of Anuradhapura ===
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| Under his father Rajaraja I, Rajendra anong with Chola commander [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan]] commanded an army that invaded the island of [[Sri Lanka]]. The capital city of [[Anuradhapura]] was sacked by the Chola army.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=411}} The capital was at [[Polonnaruwa]] which was renamed "Jananathamangalam", a title of Rajaraja. The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a [[Shiva]] temple called Rajarajeshvara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatittha (modern Mantota, Mannar), which was renamed Rajaraja-pura.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}} Chola occupied territories in the island were named Mummudicholamandalam after Mummudi Chola or Rajaraja I, the father of Rajendra.{{sfn|Karashima|2014|p=132}}
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| Rajendra's father [[Raja Raja Chola I|Rajaraja I]] annexed the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|KIngdom of Anuradhapura]] in northern Sri Lanka during his reign. Rajendra invaded the [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa]] in the south in 1017 CE.<ref name="Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59">''Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59''</ref> Chola raids were launched southward from [[Rajarata]] into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire.{{sfn|Sastri|1935|p=199–200}} As per the Sinhalese chronicle ''[[Mahavamsa]]'', the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18.{{sfn|Sastri|1935|p=199–200}} But the south of the island, which lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Ceylon began to reach a point of diminishing returns.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=416}} According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}}{{sfn|Sastri|1935|p=199–200}}
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| === Aftermath ===
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| Eleven years after the conquest of Rohana, Prince Kassapa, son of Mahinda, hid in Rohana, where Chola forces vainly searched for him. Soon after the death of his father Kassapa assumed the [[Sinhalese monarchy|monarchy]] as [[Kassapa VI]] (also known as Vikramabahu) and "ruled" in Rohana for several years (c. 1029–1040) while attempting to organize a campaign of liberation and unification. Taking advantage of uprisings in the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] kingdom and [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera]] kingdoms, Kassapa VI massacred the Chola garrisons in Rohana and drove the 95,000 strong Chola army to Pulatthinagara. But he died before he could consolidate his power, and a series of ephemeral aspirants to the throne subsequently appeared and disappeared in Rohana without dislodging the Cholas from the north.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}} Kassapa VI's mysterious death in 1040, however, brought an end to the war. His successor [[Mahalana-Kitti]] (1040–1042) tried to lead an unsuccessful revolt against the Cholas.
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| [[File:Seal of the Chola King Rajendra I (reigned 1012-1044) LACMA M.87.272.5.jpg|thumb|Seal of the Rajendra I]]
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| [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu]] I (1055–1110), descended from, or at least claimed to be descended from the [[House of Lambakanna II|Sinhalese royal house]]. He had defeated his most powerful rivals in Rohana and was anxious to take on the Cholas, by the age of seventeen.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}} The crisis in the country left a scattering of turbulent chiefs and intractable rebels whose allegiance, if any, was at best opportunistic which proved a problem to both sides in the conflict, frustrating both the Sinhalese kings and the Cholas. Vijayabahu, from his base in Rohana, faced a similar difficulty; he had to contend with the hostility of local chiefs who regarded him as a greater threat to their independence than the Cholas were.
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| For that reason, the Cholas occasionally succeeded in recruiting nominal support from rebel chiefs in Rohana, as a result Vijayabahu had difficulty consolidating a firm territorial base from which to launch a decisive campaign against the Cholas. On the other hand, the Cholas were unable to eliminate similar opposition to themselves in the north. Gradually the wider conflict developed into a prolonged, back and forth struggle of raids and counter-raids, with the forces of Vijayabahu advancing upon Polonnaruva and then falling back to fortresses in [[Dakkhinadesa]] and Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}}
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| == Conquest of the Ganges ==
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| {{Main|Chola expedition to North India}}[[File:Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|left|250x250px|[[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] was built by Rajendra Chola to celebrate his success in the Ganges Expedition]]
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| === Conflict with the Palas ===
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| * [[Chola expedition to North India|Chola expedition to the North India]]
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| In 1019 CE, Rajendra's forces marched through [[Odisha|Kalinga]] towards the river Ganga. In Kalinga the Chola forces defeated Indraratha the ruler of the Somavamsi Dynasty.<ref>Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (2000) [1935]. The Cōlas. Madras: University of Madras. p.208</ref> Rajendra Chola took help of the Paramaras and the Kalachuris with whom Indraratha had a bitter enmity and Rajendra Chola took advantage of this situation. Indraratha was defeated against the combined armies and probably was killed. Within years of this event, Yayati II, the next Somavamshi ruler restored order in the Odra region and was successful in coming out of the influence of Rajendra Chola I. The Chola army eventually reached the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] kingdom of Bengal where they defeated [[Mahipala]]. The Chola army also defeated the last ruler of the [[Kamboja Pala dynasty]] Dharmapala of Dandabhukti.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.281</ref><ref>West Bengal District Gazetteers: Nadīa p.63</ref> The Chola army went on to raid [[Bangladesh|East Bengal]] and defeated [[Govindachandra (Gahadavala dynasty)|Govindachandra]] of the [[Chandra dynasty]] and invaded [[Bastar state|Bastar]] region.<ref>The Cambridge Shorter History of India p.145</ref><ref>Dimensions of Human Cultures in Central India by Professor S.K. Tiwari p.161</ref>
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| The Tamil ''[[praśasti]]'' of Rajendra Chola I reads: {{blockquote|(He seized) Śakkarakkōţţam, whose warriors were brave; Madura-maṇḍalam destroyed in a trice, the prosperous city of Nāmaṇaik-kōṇam with its dense groves. Pañcap-paḷḷi whose warriors (bore) cruel bows, Māśunideśa with its green fields; a large heap of family-treasures with many (other) treasures (which he carried away), after having conquered Indraratha of the ancient race of the moon, together with (his) family, in a fight which took place at Ādinagar, (a city) whose fame knew no decline; Oḍḍa-[[viṣaya]] which was difficult of approach on account of its dense forest defence; the good Kōśalai-nāḍu where Brahmins assembled; Taṇḍabutti in whose gardens bees abounded, (land which he acquired) after having destroyed Dharmapāla (in) a hot battle; Takkaṇalāḍam, whose fame reached (all) directions, (and which he occupied) after having forcibly attacked Raṇaśura; Vangāḷa-deśā, where the rain water never stopped, (and from which) Gōvindacandra fled, having descended (from his) male elephant; elephants of rare strength, women and treasure, (which he seized) after having been pleased to put to flight in a hot battlefield the strong Mahipāla by the sound of a conch from the deep sea; Uttiralāḍam (on the shore of) the expansive ocean (producing) pearls; and the Gangā whose waters bearing flagrant flowers dashed against the bathing places (''tirtha'')<ref name="sastrip207">[[#Sastri|Sastri]], p 207</ref>}}
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| === Gangaikondacholapuram ===
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| To celebrate his victory in the Ganges, Rajendra constructed a new capital at [[Gangaikondacholapuram]] and built the [[Brihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Gangaikonda Choleeswarar Temple]] similar to the [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]] at Thanjavur. There have been general disagreement among historians on the nature of the expedition. Early scholars such as [[V. Venkayya]] interpreted Rajendra Chola's campaign to "bring the waters of the Ganges into Chola territory" as a pilgrimage to the Ganges River.<ref name="sastrip209">[[Chola expedition to North India#Sastri|Sastri]], p 209</ref> However, this theory has been refuted by later historians, most notable among them being [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]].<ref name="sastrip2102">[[Chola expedition to North India#Sastri|Sastri]], p 210</ref> That the campaign was military in nature is suggested by the last line of the Thiruvalangadu plates which state that the king erected a ''Ganga-jalamayam jayasthambham'' or a "liquid pillar of victory" in the form of the Cholaganga tank.<ref name="sastrip2102" />
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| The Chola expedition to the Ganges had a long-lasting influence. According to R. D. Banerji, a [[Kannadiga]] chief who accompanied Araiyan Rajarajan on his campaign settled down in Bengal and founded the [[Sena Dynasty]].<ref name="sastrip2102"/> It is believed that the Karnata people of [[History of Mithila|Mithila]], too, might have descended from soldiers in the Chola army.<ref name="sastrip2102" /> The ''Siddhantasaravali'' of Trilocana Sivacharya claims that a large number of [[Saivite]] [[Brahmins]] from Bengal were taken to the Chola country where they were granted lands by Rajendra Chola I. They, eventually, settled down in [[Kanchipuram]] and the [[Cauvery Delta]] forming the [[Sivacharya]] community.<ref name="sastrip2102" />
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| == Southeast Asia Campaign ==
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| {{Main|Chola invasion of Srivijaya|South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I}}
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| [[File:Charter issued by king Rājendra Chola I Or. 1687.pdf|left|thumb|250x250px|[[Charter]] issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a [[Vihāra|Buddhist Vihara]] in [[Srivijaya|Sriwijaya]].]]
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| === Invasion of Srivijaya ===
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| [[Srivijaya]] was a kingdom centered on [[Palembang]] in [[Sumatra]], ruled by the [[Sailendra dynasty]]. During the reign of Mara Vijayatungavarman, Srivijaya had cordial relations with the Chola Empire during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I; Mara Vijayatungavarman built a [[Chudamani Vihara]] at [[Nagapattinam]]. Mara was succeeded by [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]].
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| [[Suryavarman I|Khmer Emperor Suryavarman I]] made war on the kingdom of [[Tambralinga]] (in the Malay Peninsula). Suryavarman I requested aid from Rajendra.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers</ref><ref>Munoz, Paul Michel. ''Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula'' p. 158-159</ref> After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from Srivijaya, which was granted by Sangrama.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336" /><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">*Majumdar, R. C. (1961). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249234 "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Chola"], ''Artibus Asiae'' '''24''' (3/4), pp. 338–342. Artibus Asiae Publishers.</ref> This eventually led to the Chola expedition against the Srivijiya Empire. This alliance somewhat also had a religious nuance, since both the Chola Empire and the [[Khmer Empire]] were [[Hindu]] [[Shivaist]], while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhist]]. King [[Suryavarman I]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the [[Chola dynasty]] against [[Tambralinga]] kingdom.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-3362">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers</ref> After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the [[Srivijaya]] king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-3362" /><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-3422">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref> This eventually led to the [[Chola Empire]] coming into conflict with the [[Srivijaya]] Empire.
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| The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both [[piracy]] and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Craig A. Lockard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOfjaW7C3AsC&dq=Chola+piracy&pg=PA367 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |date=27 December 2006 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=0618386114 |page=367 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref> While [[Srivijaya]] that controlled two major naval choke points; [[Malacca Strait|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait]]; at that time was a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. Malacca strait's northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on Peninsula side and from [[Pannai]] on the [[Sumatra]]n side, while [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] ([[Melayu Kingdom|Jamb]].)
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| === Other Campaigns in Southeast Asia ===
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| In 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the [[Indian Ocean]] and invaded Srivijaya, attacking several places in [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]].<ref name="Coedes">{{cite book |last=Coedès |first=George |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |others=trans. Susan Brown Cowing |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1 |editor=Walter F. Vella |pages=142–143 |author-link=George Coedès}}</ref> The Chola sacked [[Kedah|Kadaram]] (the capital) and [[Pannai]] in Sumatra and [[Melayu Kingdom|Malaiyur]] in the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Rajendra also invaded [[Tambralinga]] and the [[Gangga Nagara]] Kingdom in modern Malaysia and south Thailand.<ref name="Civilization p.866">The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World by Lincoln Paine p.866</ref><ref>Andaya, Leonard Y. ''Leaves of the Same Tree: Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka'' p.35</ref><ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41">''Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41''</ref> The Chola forces captured the last ruler of the [[Sailendra Dynasty]] [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]].<ref>Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay. Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia p. 230</ref> The Chola invasion was the end of Srivijaya.<ref name="ReferenceA">Abshire, Jean. ''The History of Singapore'' p. 17</ref><ref name="Between 2 Oceans p.16">Murfett, Malcolm H.; Miksic, John; Farell, Brian; Chiang, Ming Shun. ''Between Two Oceans: A Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971'' p. 16</ref> Srivijaya's maritime power declined under Chola attack.<ref name="Southeast Asia p.43">Sar Desai, D. R. ''Southeast Asia: Past and Present'' p.43</ref> After this the Chola Empire conquered large portions of Srivijaya, including its ports of [[Nakhon Si Thammarat|Ligor]], [[Kedah]], and [[Temasek|Tumasik]] (now [[Singapore]]).<ref name="Southeast Asia p.43" /><ref>Munoz, p. 161</ref> The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] merchant associations such as the [[Manigramam]], [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole]], and [[Ainnurruvar]] into [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Sen, Tansen. ''Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400'' p. 159</ref><ref>Findlay, Ronald; O'Rourke, Kevin H. ''Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium'' p. 69</ref><ref>Wink, André. ''Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the expansion of Islam 7th-11 centuries'' p. 325</ref><ref>Sen, Sailendra Nath. ''Ancient Indian History and Civilization'' p. 564</ref> For the next century, Tamil trading companies from southern India dominated [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="Between 2 Oceans p.16" /> The expedition of Rajendra Chola It is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval [[Malay people|Malay]] chronicle ''Sejarah Melaya'', and Malay princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, such as [[Raja Chulan]] of [[Perak]].<ref>Gunn, Geoffrey C. ''History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800'' p. 43</ref><ref>Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay. ''Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia'' p. 71</ref><ref>Sen, Tansen. ''Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations'' p. 226</ref><ref>Kalyanaraman, A. ''Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans'' p.158</ref><ref>Singam, S. Durai Raja. ''India and Malaya Through the Ages''</ref> One record of Rajendra Chola describes him as the King of [[Lamuri]] in north Sumatra.<ref>Wink, André. ''Al-Hind: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest'' p. 326</ref> The Chola invasion led to the fall of the [[Sailendra Dynasty]] of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with the return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar [[Atiśa]] from Sumatra to India in 1025.<ref>Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana by Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91</ref>
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| Despite the devastation, [[Srivijaya]] mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over [[Srivijaya]], since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the [[Srivijaya]]n hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like [[Kahuripan]] and its successor, [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] in [[Java]] based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.<ref name="Munoz 163">{{cite book |last=Munoz |first=Paul Michel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula |publisher=Editions Didier Millet |year=2006 |isbn=981-4155-67-5 |location=Singapore |pages=163}}</ref> Although the invasion was not followed by direct [[Chola]]n occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. [[Tamil people|Tamil]] traders encroached on the [[Srivijaya]]n realm traditionally controlled by [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]] traders and the [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds' influence increased on the [[Malay Peninsula]] and north coast of [[Sumatra]].<ref name="Munoz 163" />
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| === Aftermath ===
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| With the growing presence of [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds in the region, relations improved between [[Srivijaya]] and the [[Chola]]s. [[Chola]] nobles were accepted in [[Srivijaya]] court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a [[Srivijaya]]n ambassador to the Imperial Court of China. The prince who was the nephew of [[Rajendra Chola]] later was enthroned in 1070 CE as [[Kulothunga Chola I]]. Later during the Kedah rebellion, [[Srivijaya]] asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE, [[Virarajendra Chola]] launched a naval raid to help [[Srivijaya]] reclaim [[Kedah]].<ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305">Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.305</ref> [[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]] reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the [[Srivijaya]]n Maharaja and Kedah accepted the [[Srivijaya]]n sovereignty.<ref name="Munoz">{{cite book |last=Munoz |first=Paul Michel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula |publisher=Editions Didier Millet |year=2006 |isbn=981-4155-67-5 |location=Singapore}}</ref><ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305" />
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| == Death ==
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| [[File:A 11th century relief with woman praying to Shiva Linga Shaivism.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|Rajendra Praying to a [[Lingam|Shiva Lingam]]]]
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| Rajendra I died in 1044 AD at the village of Brahmadesam, present-day [[Tiruvannamalai district|tiruvannamalai]] district in [[Tamil Nadu]]. This information is recorded in an inscription by his son, [[Rajadhiraja Chola I|Rajadhiraja I]] which states that Rajendra's queen Viramahadevi committed [[Sati (practice)|sati]] upon her husband's death and her remains were interred in the same tomb at Brahmadesam. It adds that the queen's brother, Madhuranthaka Parakesari Velan,<ref>{{cite book|author=Place Names Society of India|title=Studies in Indian place names, Volume 6|publisher=Published on behalf of the Place Names Society of India by Geetha Book House, 1984|editor=Madhav N. Katti|page=89}}</ref> who was a general in Rajendra's army, constructed a watershed at the same place in memory of his sister.<ref name="Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri 19">{{cite book|title=Sri Brihadisvara: The Great Temple of Thānjavūr|author=Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri|page=19|publisher=Nile Books, 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Place Names Society of India|title=Studies in Indian place names, Volume 6|publisher=Published on behalf of the Place Names Society of India by Geetha Book House, 1984 - India|editor=Madhav N. Katti|page=89}}</ref>
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| ==Personal life and family==
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| [[File:Domlur chola stone art 10th century,bangalore.jpg|thumb|200px|Sculpture of Rajendra with [[Middle Tamil]] Inscriptions ]]
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| The Siddanta Saravali of Trilochana Sivacharya states that Rajendra was a poet and he composed hymns in praise of god Shiva. A commentary on the same work states that Rajendra brought a number of [[Saivas]] from the banks of the river Ganges and settled them in [[Kanchi]] and the Chola country.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|author=R. S. Sharma, K. M. Shrimali|title=A Comprehensive history of India: A.D. 985-1206, Volume 4, Part 1, A comprehensive history of India, K. K. Dasgupta|publisher=People's Publishing House, 1992|page=14}}</ref>
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| === Titles ===
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| * After his successful campaign to [[Ganges]] river in north India he got the title ''Gangaikonda Chola'' (The Chola who took the Ganges river). And after his successful Southeast Asian campaign he got the title "Kadaram Kondan" (He who took [[Kedah]] in Malaysia).<ref name="kulke170">Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to .Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.170</ref>
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| * He inherited the title ''Mummudi Cholan'' (Chola with three crowns) from his father with ''Mummudi'', a title used by [[Tamil people|Tamil]] kings who ruled the three kingdoms of [[Cholas]], [[Pandyas]] and [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]].<ref>Temples of South India by V.V. Subba Reddy p.118</ref> To commemorate his conquests, Rajendra assumed other titles such as ''Mudigonda Cholan'' and ''Irattapadikonda Cholan''.
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| * Rajendra I bore the title Chalukya-Chudamani, that is ''Crest Jewel of the Chalukyas''.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|author=N. Subrahmanian|title=Tamil Epigraphy: A Survey|publisher=Ennes Publications, 1980|page=128}}</ref>
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| === Family ===
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| Rajendra I had many queens including Tribhuvana or Vanavan Mahadevi, Mukkokilan, Panchavan Mahadevi, Puteri Onangki and Viramahadevi, last of whom committed [[Sati (practice)|sati]] upon her husband's death (1044 AD).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=228}} He had 7 sons, namely Rajarajan, [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]], [[Manukula Kesari]], Sanga varman, [[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]], Rajamahendran and [[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]]. Rajarajan was the eldest of the seven but he died as a pre-teen. [[Manukula Kesari]] died in 1021 CE during the war with western chalukyas. Arulmoli Nangaiyar Piranar and Ammangadevi (queen of Eastern Chalukya Rajaraja I and the mother of [[Kulottunga I]]) are the two known daughters of king Rajendra.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=228}}
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| == Issues ==
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| {| class="sortable wikitable"
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| ! class="unsortable" |Notes
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| |-
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| |Rajarajan
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| |Mukkokilan Adigal
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| |988 C.E.
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| |Unknown
| |
| |
| |
| |-
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| |[[Rajadhiraja Chola I|Rajadhiraja I]]
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| |Mukkokilan Adigal
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| |994 C.E.
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| |1052 C.E. (aged 58)
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| |Chola Emperor from 1044 C.E. to 1052 C.E.; Died in the [[Battle of Koppam]] against the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]]
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| |-
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| |[[Manukula Kesari]]
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| |Tiribhuvana( Vanavan mahadevi)
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| |994 C.E
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| |1021 C.E. (aged 27)
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| |Chola Governor of the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] from 1018 C.E. to 1021 C.E.
| |
| |-
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| |Sanga varman
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| |Panchavan mahadevi
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| |995 C.E
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| |1059 C.E. (aged 64)
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| |Chola Governor of the [[Sri Lanka|Mummudichola Mandalam]] (Polonnaruwa)from 1024 C.E. to 1059 C.E.
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| |-
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| |[[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]]
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| |Mukkokilan Adigal
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| |997 C.E
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| |1064 C.E. (aged 67)
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| |Chola Emperor from 1052 C.E. to 1064 C.E.; Retains his father's possessions.
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Rajamahendra Chola|Rajamahendra]]
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| |Unknown
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| |1000 C.E.
| |
| |1060 C.E
| |
| (Aged 60)
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| |Co-Regent of the Chola Empire under his brother Rajendra II from 1056 C.E. to 1060 C.E.
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]]
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| |Mukkokilan Adigal
| |
| |1002 C.E
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| |1070 C.E. (aged 68)
| |
| |Chola Emperor from 1065 C.E. to 1070 C.E. and King of Kadaram([[Kedah]]) from 1067 C.E. to 1070 C.E; Put down several rebellions in Kadaram and [[Sri Lanka]] but lost over [[Srivijaya]].
| |
| |-
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| |Arulmoli Nangaiyar Piranar
| |
| |Unknown
| |
| |Unknown
| |
| |Unknown
| |
| |Queen of kodumbalur king Elangovel tirichirapalli
| |
| |-
| |
| |Ammangadevi
| |
| |Unknown
| |
| |Unknown
| |
| |Unknown
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| |Queen Consort of [[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern Chalukya]] King [[Rajaraja Narendra]]; Mother of Chola Emperor [[Kulottunga I]].
| |
| |}
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|
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| ==Work and legacy==
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| {{See also|List of Chola Temples in Bangalore}}
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|
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| === Temples ===
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| [[File:Gangaikonda CholaPuram 1.JPG|left|thumb|333x333px|[[Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Brihadisvara Temple]] at [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] was modeled after the [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]] in [[Thanjavur]]. ]]
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| [[File:Padur kalai amman temple.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|[[Pathirakali Amman Temple]]]]
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| Rajendra had built several Important sites.{{sfnp|Vasudevan|2003|pp=21-24|ps=}}Rajendra built [[Gangaikondacholapuram]], to commemorate his victory over the [[Pala Dynasty]]. The name means ''The town of the Ganga Bringer (water from Ganga) or who defeated (the kings near) Ganga''. This contained an artificial lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. The city seems to had two fortifications, one inner and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The remains of the outer fortification can be seen as a mound running all around the palace.
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|
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| Rajendra established Gangaikonda Cholapuram as his capital from the medieval Chola capital of [[Thanjavur]], which would go on to become the capital for the next 250 years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA674 |title=Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]: 5,000 Years of Religious History |date=15 January 2014 |isbn=9781610690263}}</ref> Rajendra I built the entire capital with several temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in Tamil Vastu and Agama [[sastra]] texts.{{sfn|S.R. Balasubrahmanyam|1975|pp=241-249}} These included a [[Ayyappan|Dharma Sasta]], Vishnu and other temples. However, all of these were destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries except the Brihadishvara temple. The other Chola landmarks are evidenced by soil covered mounds and excavated broken pillar stumps and brick walls found over an area of several kilometers from the surviving temple.{{sfn|S.R. Balasubrahmanyam|1975|pp=241-249}}<ref name="V">{{Cite book |last=S. |first=Vasanthi |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of south-east Asian Studies |year=2009 |isbn=978-981-230-938-9 |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |location=Singapore |pages=96–100 |chapter=Excavation at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the imperial capital of Rajendra Chola, and its significance |editor-last2=K. |editor-first2=Kesavapany |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&pg=PA96}}</ref>
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|
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| Rajendra states Dehejia, must have involved the same craftsmen used by his father and transferred them from Thanjavur.<ref name="Vijay">{{cite book |last=Dehejia |first=Vidya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23F7vTn3hBMC&pg=PA80 |title=Art of the Imperial Cholas |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780231515245 |pages=79–81}}</ref> Most or all of the Chola kings from Rajendra I had their coronation at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Archaeological excavations have revealed fort walls and palace remains a few kilometers from this temple
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|
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| Rajendra has also build a royal [[palace]] of burnt brick. The ceilings were covered with flat tiles of small size, laid in a number of courses, in fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made of polished wood, supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived to this day. Iron nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site. There is a tunnel that links the palace and the temple inner first prakaara (north).
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|
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| Rajendra also expanded the He also expanded the [[Koneswaram temple]] in [[Trincomalee]]. The temple to [[Bhadrakali]] is located further along in the complex inland along Konesar Road, benefitted from Rajendra Chola I.<ref name="Rajendra I 20072">An inscription of the Cola king, Rajendra I (1012–1044 A.D.) was found recently at the goddess Kali's Temple in Trincomalee, detailing his expansion of the shrine. Indrapala, Karthigesu (2007). The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils in Sri Lanka C. 300 B.C. to C. 1200 A.D. Colombo: Vijitha Yapa. {{ISBN|978-955-1266-72-1}}.</ref> The Kali temple is mentioned in the book ''Birds of Prey'' (1997) by [[Wilbur Smith]], set in the 1660s. The ''Thirukonasala Mahatyam'', describing the origins of the world, Lanka and Koneswaram based on puranic legends is now lost. The historical literature ''[[Mattakallappu Manmiyam]]'' (''Batticaloa Manmiyam'') that chronicles the [[History of Eastern Tamils|history]] of Tamil settlement in Batticaloa, follows the ''Dakshina Kailasa Puranam'' and ''Dakshina Kailasa Manmiam'' in describing Koneswaram as one of the nine most important and sacred sites in the world for all Hindus.<ref name="CSHindu2">{{cite book |last1=Sivaratnam |first1=C |title=An outline of the cultural history and principles of Hinduism |publisher=Stangard Printers |year=1964 |edition=1 |location=Colombo |oclc=12240260 |quote=Koneswaram temple. Tiru-Kona-malai, sacred mountain of Kona or Koneser, Iswara or Siva. The date of building the original temple is given as 1580 B.C., according to a Tamil poem by Kavi Raja Virothayan translated into English in 1831 by Simon Cassie Chitty...}}</ref>
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|
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| Rajendra also expanded the [[Pathirakali Amman Temple]] also in Trincomalee. It attracted a lot of pilgrims during his reign.
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|
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| Rajendra developed highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of ''devadana'' and ''bramadeya'' lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra built a huge tank named Cholagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory.
| |
|
| |
| Rajendra developed highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of {{transliteration|sa|devadana}} and {{transliteration|sa|bramadeya}} lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra built a huge tank named Cholagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory.
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|
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| [[Ottakoothar|Ottakoothar's]] ''Vikrama Cholan Ula'' mentions Rajendra's conquests:{{blockquote|The king Rajendra Chola, generous as Karpaga tree that gives whatever one wants, went with his aramy, conquered and ruled and protected the land,
| |
| where Ganges flows and Kadaram. He belongs to the lineage of Vikrama <ref name="https://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0415_01.pdf"> p 9</ref>|author=Ottakoothar|source=Vikrama Cholan Ula, verse 18}}
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|
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| The Malay-language ''[[Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain]]'' was written about [[Alexander the Great in legend|Alexander the Great]] as [[Dhul-Qarnayn]] and from it the ancestry of several southeast Asian royal families is traced to Iskandar Zulkarnain,<ref name="(Malaysia)1999">{{cite book|author=Balai Seni Lukis Negara (Malaysia)|title=Seni dan nasionalisme: dulu & kini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZL-fAAAAMAAJ&q=Rajendra+Chola+zulkarnain|year=1999|publisher=Balai Seni Lukis Negara|isbn=9789839572278}}</ref> through Rajendra Chola (Raja Suran, Raja Chola) in the ''[[Malay Annals]]'', such as the [[Sumatra]]n [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]] royalty.<ref name="Miksic2013">{{cite book|author=John N. Miksic|author1-link=John N. Miksic|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300_1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&q=chola+zulkarnain&pg=PA147|date=30 September 2013|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-574-3|pages=147–}}</ref><ref name="Vienne2015">{{cite book|author=Marie-Sybille de Vienne|title=Brunei: From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfpIBwAAQBAJ&q=chola+zulkarnain&pg=PA47|date=9 March 2015|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-818-8|pages=47–}}</ref>
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|
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| === Inscriptions ===
| |
| [[File:Chola inscription from the rock-cut cave temple at Thirunanthikarai.jpg|thumb|266x266px|Inscriptions dating to Rajendra's 18th regional year (c.1032 CE). [[Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu]], India]]
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| [[File:Domlur Chola Temple.jpg|thumbnail|200px| Tamil Inscription at [[Domlur Chokkanathaswamy temple|Chokkanathaswamy temple]] [[Bangalore, Karnataka]], India]]
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| Throughout his reign and conquests, There have been several inscriptions of Rajendra found.
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|
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| An inscription of the king from the Adhipuriswara temple in [[Chengalpattu]] district gives his natal star as Tiruvadarai. Donations were made to the temple to celebrate the king's birthday in the month of Maargali.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|title=Middle Chola Temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I, A.D. 985-1070|publisher=Thomson Press (India), 1975 - Hindu temples - 424 pages|page=301}}</ref>
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|
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| Another inscription from the Umamahesvara temple in Konerirajapuram, [[Thanjavur]] district refers to the donations by Alvar Parantakan Kundavai-Pirattiyar during the third year of the king's reign.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|title=Middle Chola Temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I, A.D. 985-1070|publisher=Thomson Press (India), 1975|page=269}}</ref>
| |
|
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| === Officials and feudatories ===
| |
| Rajendra (the Parakesari) appointed his son Rajadhiraja (the Rajakesari) as heir apparent to the Chola throne in 1018 AD.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=195-196}} Large military expeditions, like the Pandya and Chalukya wars, were carried out by Rajadhiraja.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=226-227}} The prominent feudatories or officials of the time were,
| |
| * Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=226-227}}
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| * Yadava Bhima "Uttama Chola" Miladudaiyar{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=226-227}}
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| * Gangaikonda Chola Miladudaiyar{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=226-227}}
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| * [[Krishnan Raman|Dandanayakan Narakkan Krishnan Raman]]{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=226-227}}
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| * Marayan Arumoli "Uttama Chola" Brahmamarayan{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=226-227}}
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| * Talaigrama Indaladeva{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=226-227}}
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|
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| ==Popular culture==
| |
| *India's merchant navy training ship ''TS Rajendra'' was named in his honour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=104162|title=Press release, President address|work=Government of India|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref>
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| *The state government of Maharashtra proposed to dedicate Rajendra Chola's portrait to [[Mazgaon Docks]]<ref>{{cite news|date=2016-09-29|title=Rajendra Chola: Maharashtra to dedicate Tamil emperor Rajendra Chola's portrait to Mazgon Docks|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Maharashtra-to-dedicate-Tamil-emperor-Rajendra-Cholas-portrait-to-Mazgon-Docks/articleshow/54574985.cms|access-date=2018-01-11}}</ref>
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| *The video game ''[[Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition#Expansions|Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition: Dynasties of India]]'' contains a five-chapter campaign titled ''Rajendra''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ageofempires.com/games/aoeiide/dynasties-of-india/|title=Age of Empires II HD: Dynasties of India}}</ref>
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|
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| === Literature ===
| |
| *''Vengayin Maindhan'' by [[Akilan]] covers the life and achievements of Rajendra Chola
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| *''Gangapuri Kavalan'' by [[Vembu Vikiraman]] in which Rajendra Chola is the protagonist
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| *''Mannan Magal'' by [[Sandilyan]] set in the period of Rajendra Chola
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| *''Gangai Konda Cholan'' by Balakumaran
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| *''Ulagam Vendra Cholan'' by Bharathika which covers the war history and lifetime achievements
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|
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| == Gallery ==
| |
| <gallery>
| |
| File:11th century Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple, dedicated to Shiva, built by the Chola king Rajendra I Tamil Nadu India (56).jpg|Sculptures of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]] at [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]]
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| File:11th century Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple, dedicated to Shiva, built by the Chola king Rajendra I Tamil Nadu India (68).jpg|Entrance of Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple
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| File:Maligai-Medu.jpg|Ruins of Rajendra's Palace
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| File:11th century Bhaktavatsala temple, Cheranmahadevi Tamil Nadu India - 9.jpg|[[Bhaktavatsala Perumal temple, Thirunindravur|Bhaktavatsala temple]]
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| File:11th century Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple, dedicated to Shiva, built by the Chola king Rajendra I Tamil Nadu India (98).jpg|alt=|Sculptures at Gangaikonda Cholapuram
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| </gallery>
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|
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| ==See also==
| |
| * [[Chola Empire]]
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| * [[Chola Navy]]
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| * [[List of Indian monarchs]]
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| * [[History of South India]]
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| * [[List of Tamil monarchs]]
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|
| |
| ==References==
| |
| {{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
| |
|
| |
| ==Bibliography==
| |
| {{refbegin}}
| |
| * {{Cite book|last=Karashima|first=Noboru|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ|title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-809977-2|location=New Delhi}}
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| *{{Cite book|author=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-iZTQwAACAAJ|title=The Colas|publisher=University of Madras|year=1955|edition=2nd revised}}
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| {{refend}}
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|
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| ==Further reading==
| |
| * {{cite book |author=Schmidt, Karl Ludwig |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History (Sources and Studies in World History) |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |location=Armonk, N.Y. |year=1997 |isbn=1-56324-334-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/atlassurveyofsou0000schm }}
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| * R. Hall, Kenneth (October 1975). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3632140 Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I], ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''18''' (3), pp. 318–336. [[Brill Publishers]]
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| * Śrīnidhiḥ: perspectives in Indian archaeology, art, and culture by K. R. Srinivasan, K. V. Raman
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|
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| {{commons category}}
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|
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| {{S-start}}
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| {{Succession box|title=[[Chola|Chola dynasty]]|before=[[Rajaraja Chola I]]|after=[[Rajadhiraja Chola]] |years=1012–1044 CE}}
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| {{s-end}}
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|
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Chola, Rajendra, I}}
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| [[Category:Chola kings|Rajendra I]]
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| [[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
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| [[Category:1040s deaths]]
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| [[Category:11th-century Indian monarchs]]
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| [[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
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| [[Category:Indian military leaders]]
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| [[Category:971 births]]
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