Niyoga (Sanskrit: नियोग) was a Hindu practice, primarily followed during the ancient period. It permitted either the husband or the wife who had no child by their spouse to procreate a child with another woman or a man.[1]Niyoga forbidden in the Kali age by Brhaspati and other smrti writers.[2]It has been held that niyoga has nothing to do with polyandry.[3]Sir Henry Maine thinks that the Niyoga is of later date than the Levirate, but J. D. Mayne justified in regarding the Levirate as merely an enlarged form of the Niyoga, which came into effect after a man's death.[4]The Niyoga system, which enabled a woman to choose and invite a male with the desirable seed, and bear children.[5]We conclude that niyoga is not necessary for anything.[6]
Literature[edit | edit source]
Manusmṛti[edit | edit source]
In the Manusmṛti, niyoga is described in IX.59-63, but the practice is also allowed in IX.64-68. This text (IX.167) describes the child born by niyoga as a kshetraja child of the husband-wife.[7] The practice of niyoga was solely for widows and childless women who chose not to remarry:
"vidhavāyāṁ niyuktastu ghṛtākto vāgyato nisi।
ekaṁ utpādayetputraṁ na dvitīyaṁ kathaṁ cana।।"
(Manusmriti,Chapter 9 Verse 60)[8]
"Meaning: If a widow desires offspring, she may, with the father's consent, engage in niyoga by anointing herself with ghee on her body and should give birth to a son. However, besides one son, she should never produce another."
Therefore, until a critical situation arose, permission for niyoga was not granted. If someone engaged in niyoga against societal norms, they would face social ostracism :
"jyeṣṭho yavīyasō bhāryāṁ yavīyānvāgrajastriyam।
patitau bhavato gatvā niyuktāvapyanāpadi।।"
(Manusmriti,Chapter 9 Verse 58)[9]
"Meaning: Unless there is a crisis, then with the father's consent, if the wives of both older and younger brothers engage in niyoga, they both will share the sin, leading to the degradation of the varna (social order and duties)."
Procedure[edit | edit source]
A wife or a widow must not, however, be forced to have recourse to Niyoga for inheritance or similar purposes. Baudhāyana and Vasistha say that a widow desiring Niyoga should avoid meat, honey etc. and sleep on the ground for a short period not exceeding one year. After six months of the death of her husband, she offers a funeral oblation to her husband and with the approval and aid of her brother or father, and relatives of her husband, and also in consultation with the Gurus of her family, she chooses the man to have an issue by her. A characterless, mad, diseased or very aged widow is not entitled to Niyoga. Sixteen years after maturity is the proper time for Niyoga. A sickly person is to be avoided for the purpose. She must be economically independent of the person whom. she appoints for Niyoga and provide for the necessary ex-penses for food, unguents, etc. herself i.e. from the estate of her husband.[10]
Prohibition[edit | edit source]
The Niyoga has been declared by Manu, and again prohibited by the same ; on account of the successive deterioration of the four ages(Yuga) of the world, it must not be practised by mortals in the present (Kaliyuga) age according to law. Brahma Purana, cited in the Vira-Mitrodaya and Aditya Purana says "The niyoga, and the taking as sons other than the Aurasha and the Dattaka, are prohibited in the Kali age by the wise."[11]Niyoga or Levirate which Apastamba declares as unfit for practice in a degenerate later age or Manu's repudiation of widow-remarriage as unsupported by Vedic hymeneal Mantras or the text purporting to be Baudhayana's cited in the Smrti-candrika . [12]When in almost the same breath the smrti indicates an institution like niyoga (levirate), and the conditions which should govern its application,and also condemns it as an "animal practice" (paśu-dharma), Manusmriti, IX, 59-63 and IX, 64-69, the juxta-position of apparently opposed views should be treated not as an instance of inconsistency, or carelessness in composition, or of interpolation, but, as explained by Brhaspati, as an indication of applicability and inapplicability to different time-cycles or yugas. [13]
In popular culture[edit | edit source]
Niyoga is the central issue of Anahat, a Marathi feature film directed by Amol Palekar. It was showcased at the International Film Festival of India 2003.[citation needed]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Benjamin Walker (2019). Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 592. ISBN 9780429624650.
The levirate system of the ancient Jews was almost identical with the Hindu custom of niyoga, 'injunction', legalized by Manu
- ↑ “ Pg.29 : Niyoga forbidden in the Kali age by Brhaspati and other smrti writers. “ Kane, Pandurang Kane (1941). History Of Dharmasastra Vol. 2, Part. 1. p. 29.
- ↑ “ Pg. 78 : It has been held that ‘ niyoga ’ has nothing to do with polyandry. “S.C.Sarkar (1928). Some Aspects Of The Earliest Social History Of India. p. 78.
- ↑ “ Pg.144 : Sir Henry Maine thinks that the Niyoga is of later date than the Levirate, but J. D. Mayne justified in regarding the Levirate as merely an enlarged form of the Niyoga, which came into effect after a man's death.”Starcke, Carl Nicolai (1889). The primitive family in its origin and development. University of Michigan. New York, D. Appleton and company. p. 144.
- ↑ “ Pg.822 : The Niyoga system, which enabled a woman to choose and invite a male with the desirable seed, and bear children.”S L Bhyrappa (1979). Parva by S L Bhyrappa. p. 822.
- ↑ “ Pg 443 : We conclude that niyoga is not necessary for anything. “The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. p. 443.
- ↑ Bühler, George (1886). "Chapter IX". The Laws of Manu. Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 25.
- ↑ "Manu Smriti , 9:60". aryamantavya.in. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
- ↑ "Manu Smriti , 9:58". aryamantavya.in. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
- ↑ “ Pg.150 : A wife or a widow must not, however, be forced to have recourse to Niyoga for inheritance or similar purposes. Baudhāyana and Vasistha say that a widow desiring Niyoga should avoid meat, honey etc. and sleep on the ground for a short period not exceeding one year. After six months of the death of her husband, she offers a funeral oblation to her husband and with the approval and aid of her brother or father, and relatives of her husband, and also in consultation with the Gurus of her family, she chooses the man to have an issue by her. A characterless, mad, diseased or very aged widow is not entitled to Niyoga. Sixteen years after maturity is the proper time for Niyoga. A sickly person is to be avoided for the purpose. She must be economically independent of the person whom. she appoints for Niyoga and provide for the necessary ex-penses for food, unguents, etc. herself i.e. from the estate of her husband.”Jatindra Bimal Chaudhuri (1945). Women In Vedic Ritual. p. 150.
- ↑ " Pg.491 : The Niyoga has been declared by Manu, and again prohibited by the same ; on account of the successive deterioration of the four ages(Yuga) of the world, it must not be practised by mortals in the present (Kaliyuga) age according to law. " Pg.497 : Brahma Purana, cited in the Vira-Mitrodaya and Aditya Purana says "The niyoga, and the taking as sons other than the Aurasha and the Dattaka, are prohibited in the Kali age by the wise. " J.C. Ghose. Principles of Hindu Law. Kerala State Library. p. 491,497.
- ↑ " Pg.2 : Niyoga or Levirate which Apastamba declares as unfit for practice in a degenerate later age or Manu's repudiation of widow-remarriage as unsupported by Vedic hymeneal Mantras or the text purporting to be Baudhayana's cited in the Smrti-candrika . "Batuknath Bhattacharya (1943). The Kalivarjyas Batuknath Bhattacharya 1943 (UOC). p. 2.
- ↑ " Pg.10 : When in almost the same breath the smrti indicates an institution like niyoga and the conditions which should govern its application,and also condemns it as an "animal practice" (paśu-dharma), Manusmriti, IX, 59-63 and IX, 64-69, the juxta-position of apparently opposed views should be treated not as an instance of inconsistency, or carelessness in composition, or of interpolation, but, as explained by Brhaspati, as an indication of applicability and inapplicability to different time-cycles or yugas. "Aiyangar, K.V. Rangaswami (1949). Aspects Of The Social And Political System Of Manusmrte. p. 10.