Bharatpedia

Vascular plant: Difference between revisions

Article Talk

Vascular plant (edit)

Revision as of 17:51, 22 March 2022

18,407 bytes added ,  22 March 2022
m
robot: Update article (please report if you notice any mistake or error in this edit)
m (robot: Creating new article from Special:WantedPages)
 
m (robot: Update article (please report if you notice any mistake or error in this edit))
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Taxobox
{{Short description|Clade of land plants with xylem and phloem}}
| name = Vascular Plants
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = PinusSylvestris.jpg
| name = Vascular plants
| fossil_range = <br/>mid [[Silurian]] {{ndash}} present
| image = Unidentified fern, Cambridge University Botanic Garden.jpg
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| image_caption = [[Common lady-fern]], a non-seed-bearing plant
| subdivision_ranks = '''Divisions'''
| image2 = Young lemon basil plant (Ocimum × africanum).jpg
| subdivision =  
| image2_caption = [[Lemon basil]], a [[Spermatophyte|seed-bearing]] plant
*Non-seed-bearing plants
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|425|0|[[Silurian]]–Present, 425–0 [[Megaannum|Ma]]|ref= <ref name="Edwards1980">{{cite journal |author= D. Edwards |year= 1980 |title= Records of ''Cooksonia''-type sporangia from late Wenlock strata in Ireland |journal= Nature |volume= 287 |pages= 41–42 |doi= 10.1038/287041a0 |last2= Feehan |first2= J. |issue= 5777|bibcode= 1980Natur.287...41E |s2cid= 7958927 }}</ref><ref name="Parfrey2011">{{cite Q|Q24614721}}</ref>}}
**[[Horsetail|Equisetophyta]]
| display_parents = 2
**[[Lycopodiophyta]]
| taxon = Tracheophytes/Plantae
**[[fern|Pteridophyta]]
| authority = Sinnott, 1935<ref>Sinnott, E. W. 1935. ''Botany. Principles and Problems'', 3d edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.</ref> ex [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]], 1998<ref name="cav">{{Citation |last= Cavalier-Smith |first= T. |year= 1998 |title= A revised six-kingdom system of life |journal= Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |volume= 73 |issue= 3 |pages= 203–266 |url= https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ee41/d705db1da8998a988671d085ed5ee97186b7.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180329121340/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ee41/d705db1da8998a988671d085ed5ee97186b7.pdf |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2018-03-29 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x |pmid= 9809012 |s2cid= 6557779 }}</ref>
*Superdivision [[Spermatophyta]]
| subdivision_ranks = '''Divisions'''<br/><small>† Extinct</small>
**[[Pinophyta]]
| subdivision = * Non-seed-bearing plants
**[[Cycad|Cycadophyta]]
** †''[[Cooksonia]]''
**[[Ginkgo|Ginkgophyta]]
** †[[Rhyniophyte|Rhyniophyta]]
**[[Gnetophyta]]
** †[[Zosterophyll]]ophyta
**[[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
** [[Lycopodiopsida|Lycopodiophyta]]
** †[[Trimerophytophyta]]
** [[Fern|Polypodiophyta]]
** †[[Progymnospermophyta]]
* Superdivision [[Spermatophyta]]
** †[[Pteridospermatophyta]]
** [[Pinophyta]]
** [[Cycadophyta]]
** [[Ginkgophyta]]
** [[Gnetophyta]]
** [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] (angiosperms)
** †[[Bennettitales]]
}}
}}


The '''vascular plants''', or '''tracheophytes''', are [[plant]]s that have specialized [[Tissue (biological)|tissue]]s for conducting water, [[mineral]]s, and [[Photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] products through the plant. They include the [[fern]]s, [[clubmoss]]es, [[horsetail]]s, [[flowering plant]]s, [[conifer]]s and other [[gymnosperm]]s.<ref>Scientific names are ''Tracheophyta'' and ''Tracheobionta'', but neither is very widely used.</ref> They are often called the '''higher plants'''.<ref>Kenrick, Paul & Peter R. Crane 1997. ''The origin and early diversification of land plants: a cladistic study.'' Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. {{ISBN|1-56098-730-8}}.</ref><ref name="Christenhusz_2011a">{{cite journal | last1 = Christenhusz | first1 = Maarten J M. |display-authors = etal| year = 2011 | title = A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms | url = http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p070.pdf | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 19 | pages = 55–70 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.3 }}</ref><ref name="Smith_2006">{{cite journal | last1 = Smith, Alan R. |display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = A classification for extant ferns | url = http://www.pryerlab.net/publication/fichier749.pdf | journal = Taxon | volume = 55 | issue = 3| pages = 705–731 | doi = 10.2307/25065646 | jstor = 25065646 }}</ref><ref name="Christenhusz_2011b">{{cite journal | last1 = Christenhusz, Maarten J.M. |display-authors = etal | year = 2011 | title = A linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes and ferns | url = http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p054.pdf | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 19 | pages = 7–54 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.2 }}</ref>
'''Vascular plants''' ({{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|vasculum}}|duct}}), also called '''tracheophytes''' ({{IPAc-en|t|r|ə|ˈ|k|iː|.|ə|ˌ|f|aɪ|t|s}})<ref>{{Cite web |title=vascular plant {{!}} Definition, Characteristics, Taxonomy, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/tracheophyte |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Tracheophyta - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/tracheophyta#:~:text=The%20vascular%20plants,%20or%20Tracheophyta,(excluding%20many%20fossil%20groups). |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> or collectively '''Tracheophyta''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία}}'' ({{grc-transl|τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία}})|windpipe||''{{wikt-lang|grc|φυτά}}'' ({{grc-transl|φυτά}})|plants}}),<ref name=":0" /> form a large group of [[embryophyte|land plants]] ({{circa|300,000}} accepted known species)<ref name="Christenhusz-Byng2016">{{cite journal |last1=Christenhusz|first1=M. J. M. |last2= Byng|first2=J. W. |name-list-style=amp |year=2016 |title=The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase |journal=[[Phytotaxa]] |volume=261 |pages=201–17 |url=http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 |issue=3 |doi-access=free}}</ref> that have [[lignin|lignified]] [[tissue (biology)|tissues]] (the [[xylem]]) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They also have a specialized non-lignified tissue (the [[phloem]]) to conduct products of [[photosynthesis]]. Vascular plants include the [[clubmoss]]es, [[Equisetum|horsetails]], [[fern]]s, [[gymnosperm]]s (including [[conifer]]s) and [[angiosperms]] ([[flowering plant]]s). Scientific names for the group include Tracheophyta,<ref>{{cite book|last1= Abercrombie|first1= Michael|last2= Hickman|first2= C. J.|last3= Johnson |first3= M. L.|date = 1966|title =A Dictionary of Biology|publisher = Penguin Books}}</ref><ref name="cav"/>{{rp|251}} Tracheobionta<ref name="itistrach">{{cite web|url= https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=564824|title= ITIS Standard Report Page: Tracheobionta|access-date= September 20, 2013}}</ref> and [[Equisetopsida sensu lato|Equisetopsida ''sensu lato'']]. Some early land plants (the [[rhyniophyte]]s) had less developed vascular tissue; the term '''eutracheophyte''' has been used for all other vascular plants, including all living ones.


The vascular plants are set apart in two main ways:
Historically, vascular plants were known as "higher plants," as it was believed that they were further [[Evolution|evolved]] than other plants due to being more complex organisms. However, this is an antiquated remnant of the obsolete [[Great chain of being|scala naturae]], and the term is generally considered to be [[Scientific method|unscientific]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vascular Plants: Definition, Classification, Characteristics & Examples |url=https://sciencing.com/vascular-plants-13719225.html |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=Sciencing |language=en}}</ref>
# Vascular plants have vascular tissues, which circulate resources through the plant.  This feature allows vascular plants to grow to a larger size than non-vascular plants, which lack these specialized conducting tissues and are therefore restricted to relatively small sizes.  
# In vascular plants, the principal generation phase is the ''[[sporophyte]]'', which is [[diploid]] with two sets of chromosomes per cell.<ref>In non-vascular plants, the principal generation phase is often the ''[[gametophyte]]'', which is [[haploid]] with one set of chromosomes per cell.</ref>


Water transport happens in either xylem or phloem: [[xylem]] carries water and inorganic [[solute]]s upward toward the leaves from the roots, while [[phloem]] carries [[Organic chemistry|organic]] solutes throughout the plant.
==Characteristics==
Botanists define vascular plants by three primary characteristics:
# Vascular plants have [[vascular tissue]]s which distribute resources through the plant.  Two kinds of vascular tissue occur in plants: [[xylem]] and [[phloem]]. Phloem and xylem are closely associated with one another and are typically located immediately adjacent to each other in the plant. The combination of one xylem and one phloem strand adjacent to each other is known as a [[vascular bundle]].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology/xylem-phloem|title = Xylem and Phloem|website = Basic Biology|date = 26 August 2020}}</ref> The [[evolution]] of vascular tissue in plants allowed them to evolve to larger sizes than [[non-vascular plant]]s, which lack these specialized conducting tissues and are thereby restricted to relatively small sizes.
# In vascular plants, the principal [[alternation of generations|generation or phase]] is the ''[[sporophyte]]'', which produces [[spore]]s and is [[diploid]] (having two sets of [[chromosomes]] per cell). (By contrast, the principal generation phase in non-vascular plants is the ''[[gametophyte]]'', which produces [[Germ cell|gametes]] and is [[haploid]] - with one set of chromosomes per cell.)
# Vascular plants have true roots, leaves, and stems, even if some groups have secondarily lost one or more of these traits.


==Members==
Cavalier-Smith (1998) treated the Tracheophyta as a [[phylum]] or botanical division encompassing two of these characteristics defined by the Latin phrase "facies diploida xylem et phloem instructa" (diploid phase with xylem and phloem).<ref name="cav"/>{{rp|251}}
*Spore-bearing vascular plants
**[[Horsetail|Equisetophyta]] ~ horsetails
**[[Lycopodiophyta]] ~ clubmosses, spikemosses, quillworts
**[[Fern|Pteridophyta]] ~ ferns


*Seed-bearing vascular plants - Superdivision [[Spermatophyta]]
One possible mechanism for the presumed evolution from emphasis on haploid generation to emphasis on diploid generation is the greater efficiency in spore dispersal with more complex diploid structures.  Elaboration of the spore stalk enabled the production of more spores and the development of the ability to release them higher and to broadcast them farther.  Such developments may include more photosynthetic area for the spore-bearing structure, the ability to grow independent roots, woody structure for support, and more branching.{{citation needed|reason= several points in this paragraph are conjectural and need WP:RS|date=February 2016}}
**[[Pinophyta]] ~ conifers
 
**[[Cycad]]ophyta ~ cycads
==Phylogeny==
**[[Ginkgo]]phyta ~ ginkgoes
A proposed phylogeny of the vascular plants after Kenrick and Crane 1997<ref name=KenrickCrane>{{cite book|last1=Kenrick |first1=Paul |first2=Peter R. |last2=Crane |date=1997 |title=The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |isbn=1-56098-730-8}}</ref> is as follows, with modification to the gymnosperms from Christenhusz ''et al.'' (2011a),<ref name="Christenhusz_2011a">{{cite journal | last1 = Christenhusz | first1 = Maarten J. M. | last2 = Reveal | first2 = James L. | last3 = Farjon | first3 = Aljos | last4 = Gardner | first4 = Martin F. | last5 = Mill | first5 = R.R. | last6 = Chase | first6 = Mark W. | year = 2011 | title = A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms | url = http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p070.pdf | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 19 | pages = 55–70 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.3 }}</ref> Pteridophyta from Smith ''et al.''<ref name="Smith_2006">{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = Alan R. | last2 = Pryer | first2 = Kathleen M. | last3 = Schuettpelz | first3 = E. | last4 = Korall | first4 = P. | last5 = Schneider | first5 = H. | last6 = Wolf | first6 = Paul G. | year = 2006 | title = A classification for extant ferns | url = http://www.pryerlab.net/publication/fichier749.pdf | journal = Taxon | volume = 55 | issue = 3| pages = 705–731 | doi = 10.2307/25065646 | jstor = 25065646 }}</ref> and lycophytes and ferns by Christenhusz ''et al.'' (2011b) <ref name="Christenhusz_2011b">{{cite journal | last1 = Christenhusz | first1 = Maarten J. M. | last2 = Zhang| first2 = Xian-Chun | last3 = Schneider | first3 = Harald | year = 2011 | title = A linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes and ferns | url = http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p054.pdf | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 19 | pages = 7–54 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.2 }}</ref> The cladogram distinguishes the [[rhyniophyte]]s from the "true" tracheophytes, the eutracheophytes.<ref name=KenrickCrane/>
**[[Gnetophyta]] ~ gnetophytes
{{Barlabel|size=17|at1=5|bar1=green|style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%|label1=[[Gymnosperms]]|cladogram={{clade
**[[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] ~ flowering plants
|label1=[[Polysporangiophyte|Polysporangiates]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1='''Tracheophytes'''
|1={{clade
|label1=Eutracheophytes
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Euphyllophytina]]
|1={{clade
|label1=Lignophytes
|1={{cladex
|label1='''[[Spermatophyte]]s'''
|1={{cladex
|1=†[[Pteridospermatophyta]] (seed ferns)
|2=[[Cycadophyta]] (cycads)|barbegin2=green
|3=[[Pinophyta]] (conifers)|bar3=green
|4=[[Ginkgophyta]] (ginkgo)|bar4=green
|5=[[Gnetophyta]]|barend5=green
|6=[[Magnoliophyta]] (flowering plants)
}}
|2=†[[Progymnospermophyta]]
}}
|label2='''[[Fern|Pteridophyta]]'''
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Pteridopsida]] (true ferns)
|2=[[Marattiopsida]]
|3=[[Equisetopsida]] (horsetails)
|4=[[Psilotopsida]] (whisk ferns & adders'-tongues)
|5=†[[Cladoxylopsida]]
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Lycophytina
|2={{clade
|1='''[[Lycopodiophyta]]'''
|2=†[[Zosterophyllophyta]]
}}
}}
|2=†[[Rhyniophyta]]
}}
}}
|2=†''[[Aglaophyton]]''
|3=†[[Horneophytopsida]]
}}
}}
}}
This phylogeny is supported by several molecular studies.<ref name="Smith_2006"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pryer | first1 = K. M. | last2 = Schneider | first2 = H. | year = 2001 | title = Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic group and the closest living relatives to seed plants | journal = Nature | volume = 409 | issue = 6820| pages = 618–22 | doi = 10.1038/35054555 | pmid = 11214320 | last3 = Smith | first3 = AR | last4 = Cranfill | first4 = R | last5 = Wolf | first5 = PG | last6 = Hunt | first6 = JS | last7 = Sipes | first7 = SD | bibcode = 2001Natur.409..618S | s2cid = 4367248 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pryer | first1 = K. M. | last2 = Schuettpelz | first2 = E. | last3 = Wolf | first3 = P. G. | last4 = Schneider | first4 = H. | last5 = Smith | first5 = A. R. | last6 = Cranfill | first6 = R. | year = 2004 | title = Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 91 | issue = 10| pages = 1582–1598 | doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1582| pmid = 21652310 }}</ref> Other researchers state that taking fossils into account leads to different conclusions, for example that the ferns (Pteridophyta) are not monophyletic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rothwell |first1=G.W. |last2=Nixon |first2=K.C. |year=2006 |title=How Does the Inclusion of Fossil Data Change Our Conclusions about the Phylogenetic History of Euphyllophytes? |journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences |volume=167 |issue=3 |pages=737–749 |doi=10.1086/503298 |s2cid=86172890 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref>
 
Hao and Xue presented an alternative phylogeny in 2013 for pre-[[euphyllophyte]] plants.<ref name=HaoXue13>{{Citation |last1=Hao |first1=Shougang |last2=Xue |first2=Jinzhuang |date=2013 |title=The early Devonian Posongchong flora of Yunnan: a contribution to an understanding of the evolution and early diversification of vascular plants |location=Beijing |publisher=Science Press |isbn=978-7-03-036616-0 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269875285 |access-date=2019-10-25 |pages=366 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref>
{{Barlabel|size=13
|at1=0.75|label1=Rhyniopsids|bar1=#b88
|at2=2.5|label2=Renalioids|bar2=#aca
|cladogram=
{{clade|style=font-size:80%;line-height:80%
|label1=[[Polysporangiophyte]]s
|1={{clade
  |1=†[[Horneophytopsida|Horneophytaceae]]
  |label2=[[Tracheophyte]]s
  |2={{clade
    |1=†[[Cooksonia|Cooksoniaceae]]
    |2={{clade
      |1=†''[[Aglaophyton]]''
      |2={{cladex
        |1=†[[Rhyniopsida]]|barbegin1=#b88
        |2={{cladex
          |1=†''[[Catenalis]]''|barend1=#b88
          |2={{cladex
            |1=†''[[Aberlemnia]]''|barbegin1=#aca
            |2={{cladex
              |1=†[[Hsua|Hsuaceae]]|bar1=#aca
              |2={{cladex
                |1=†[[Renalia|Renaliaceae]]|barend1=#aca
                |label2=[[Eutracheophyte]]s
                |2={{clade
                  |1={{clade
                    |1=†''[[Adoketophyton]]''
                    |2=†?[[Barinophytopsida]]
                    |3=†[[Zosterophyllopsida]]
                    }}
                  |2={{clade
                    |label1=[[Microphyll]]s
                    |1={{clade
                      |1=†''[[Hicklingia]]''
                      |2={{clade
                        |1=†''[[Gumuia]]''
                        |2={{clade
                          |1=†''[[Nothia]]''
                          |2={{clade
                            |1=†''[[Zosterophyllum deciduum]]''
                            |2=[[Lycopodiopsida]]
                            }}
                          }}
                        }}
                      }}
                    |2={{clade
                      |1=†''[[Yunia]]''
                      |label2=[[Euphyllophyte]]s
                      |2={{clade
                        |1=†''[[Eophyllophyton]]''
                        |2={{clade
                          |1=†[[Trimerophytopsida]]
                          |label2=[[Megaphyll]]s
                          |2={{clade
                            |label1=[[Moniliformopses]]
                            |1={{clade
                              |1=†''[[Ibyka]]''
                              |2={{clade
                                |1=†''[[Pauthecophyton]]''
                                |2={{clade
                                  |1=†[[Cladoxylopsida]]
                                  |2=[[Polypodiopsida]]
                                  }}
                                }}
                              }}
                            |label2=Radiatopses
                            |2={{clade
                              |1=†''[[Celatheca]]''
                              |2={{clade
                                |1=†''[[Pertica]]''
                                |label2=Lignophytes
                                |2={{clade
                                  |1=†[[Progymnosperm]]s<br/>(paraphyletic)
                                  |2=[[Spermatophyte]]s
                                  }}
                                }}
                              }}
                            }}
                          }}
                        }}
                      }}
                    }}
                  }}
                }}
              }}
            }}
          }}
        }}
      }}
    }}
  }}
}}
}}
 
==Nutrient distribution==
 
[[File:ficusxylem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Photographs showing [[xylem]] elements in the shoot of a [[ficus|fig]] tree (''Ficus alba''): crushed in [[hydrochloric acid]], between slides and cover slips.]]
 
Water and [[nutrient]]s in the form of inorganic solutes are drawn up from the soil by the roots and transported throughout the plant by the [[xylem]]. Organic compounds such as [[sucrose]] produced by [[photosynthesis]] in leaves are distributed by the [[phloem]] [[sieve tube elements]].
 
The xylem consists of [[vessel elements|vessels]] in [[flowering plant]]s and [[tracheid]]s in other vascular plants, which are dead hard-walled hollow cells arranged to form files of tubes that function in water transport. A tracheid cell wall usually contains the polymer [[lignin]]. The phloem, however, consists of living cells called [[sieve-tube member]]s. Between the sieve-tube members are sieve plates, which have pores to allow molecules to pass through. Sieve-tube members lack such organs as [[Cell nucleus|nuclei]] or [[ribosomes]], but cells next to them, the [[phloem#companion cells|companion cells]], function to keep the sieve-tube members alive.
 
=== Transpiration ===
The most abundant [[Chemical compound|compound]] in all plants, as in all cellular organisms, is [[water]], which serves an important structural role and a vital role in plant metabolism.  [[Transpiration]] is the main process of water movement within plant tissues. Water is constantly transpired from the plant through its [[stomata]] to the atmosphere and replaced by soil water taken up by the roots. The movement of water out of the leaf stomata creates  a transpiration pull or tension in the water column in the xylem vessels or tracheids. The pull is the result of water [[surface tension]] within the cell walls of the mesophyll cells, from the surfaces of which evaporation takes place when the stomata are open. [[Hydrogen bonds]] exist between [[water]] [[molecule]]s, causing them to line up; as the molecules at the top of the plant evaporate, each pulls the next one up to replace it, which in turn pulls on the next one in line. The draw of water upwards may be entirely passive and can be assisted by the movement of water into the roots via [[osmosis]]. Consequently, transpiration requires very little energy to be used by the plant. Transpiration assists the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil as soluble [[salts]].
 
=== Absorption ===
Living root cells passively absorb water in the absence of transpiration pull via [[osmosis]] creating root pressure. It is possible for there to be no [[evapotranspiration]] and therefore no pull of water towards the shoots and leaves. This is usually due to high temperatures, high [[humidity]], darkness or drought.{{Citation needed|date=July 2018}}
 
=== Conduction ===
Xylem and [[phloem]] tissues are involved in the conduction processes within plants. Sugars are conducted throughout the plant in the phloem, water and other nutrients through the xylem.  Conduction occurs from a source to a sink for each separate nutrient. Sugars are produced in the leaves (a source) by [[photosynthesis]] and transported to the growing shoots and roots (sinks) for use in growth, [[cellular respiration]] or storage. Minerals are absorbed in the roots (a source) and transported to the shoots to allow cell division and growth.<ref>Chapters 5, 6 and 10 [[Taiz and Zeiger]] ''Plant Physiology'' 3rd Edition SINAUER 2002</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Fern ally|Fern allies]]
*[[Bryophyte]]s
*[[Non-vascular plant]]
*[[Non-vascular plant]]
*[[Embryophyte]]
*[[Pteridophyte]]


== References ==
== References ==
<references/>
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Cracraft|editor-first1=Joel|editor-link1=Joel Cracraft|editor-last2=Donoghue|editor-first2=Michael J.|editor-link2=Michael Donoghue|title=Assembling the Tree of Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC|date= 2004|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-972960-9}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cantino|first1=Philip D.|last2=Doyle|first2=James A.|last3=Graham|first3=Sean W.|last4=Judd|first4=Walter S.|author-link4=Walter S. Judd|last5=Olmstead|first5=Richard G.|last6=Soltis|first6=Douglas E.|author-link6=Douglas Soltis|last7=Soltis|first7=Pamela S.|author-link7=Pamela Soltis|last8=Donoghue|first8=Michael J.|author-link8=Michael Donoghue|title=Towards a Phylogenetic Nomenclature of Tracheophyta|journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]|date=1 August 2007|volume=56|issue=3|pages=822|doi=10.2307/25065865|jstor=25065865}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kenrick|first1=P.|title=The relationships of vascular plants|journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]]|date=29 June 2000|volume=355|issue=1398|pages=847–855|doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0619|pmc=1692788|pmid=10905613}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pryer|first1=Kathleen M.|last2=Schneider|first2=Harald|last3=Magallon|first3=Susana|title=The radiation of vascular plants|pages=138–153|url=http://pryerlab.biology.duke.edu/uploads/media_items/pryer-et-al-tol-2004.original.pdf|ref={{harvid|Pryer et al|2004}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Cracraft|Donoghue|2004}}
{{Refend}}
 
== External links ==
*[https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/68161/higher-plants-or-vascular-plants “Higher plants” or “vascular plants”?]
 
{{Plant classification}}
{{Botany}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q27133}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Vascular plants| ]]
[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category:Extant Silurian first appearances]]
Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/333775"