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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}} | ||
[[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|alt=|thumb|One child showing compassion for another child.]] | [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|alt=|thumb|One child showing compassion for another child.]] | ||
'''Compassion''' motivates people to go out of their way to | '''Compassion''' motivates people to go out of their way to relieve the physical, mental, or emotional pains of others and themselves. Compassion is often regarded as being sensitive to the emotional aspects of the suffering of others. When based on notions such as fairness, justice, and interdependence, it may be considered rational in nature. | ||
Compassion involves allowing ourselves to be moved by suffering and experiencing the motivation to help alleviate and prevent it. An act of compassion is defined by its [[helpfulness]]. Qualities of compassion are patience and wisdom; kindness and perseverance; warmth and resolve. It is often, though not inevitably, the key component in what manifests in the social context as [[altruism]]. Expression of compassion is prone to be hierarchical, paternalistic, and controlling in responses.<ref name="Gilbert2010" /> The difference between [[sympathy]] and compassion is that the former responds to others' suffering with sorrow and concern whereas the latter responds with warmth and care.<ref name="CompInteg">{{Cite book |last1=Reddy, Nanda Kishore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLlyCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 |title=Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude |last2=Ajmera, Santosh |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |year=2015 |isbn=978-93-5134-236-6 |page=146}}</ref> An article by the Clinical Psychology Review suggests that "compassion consists of three facets: noticing, feeling, and responding."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Strauss|first1=Clara|last2=Lever Taylor|first2=Billie|last3=Gu|first3=Jenny|last4=Kuyken|first4=Willem|last5=Baer|first5=Ruth|last6=Jones|first6=Fergal|last7=Cavanagh|first7=Kate|date=July 2016|title=What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures | The word "compassion" comes from [[Middle English]], and derives from [[Old French]], via [[ecclesiastical Latin]] compassio(n- ), from compati (‘suffer with’). | ||
Compassion involves "feeling for another" and is a precursor to [[empathy]], the "feeling as another" capacity (as opposed to [[sympathy]], the "feeling towards another"). In common parlance, active compassion is the desire to alleviate another's suffering.<ref name="sjsl">{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology |date=2009 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6125-1 |editor-last=Lopez |editor-first=Shane J. |location=Malden, MA |chapter=Compassion |oclc=226984639}}</ref> | |||
Compassion involves allowing ourselves to be moved by suffering, and experiencing the motivation to help alleviate and prevent it. An act of compassion is defined by its [[helpfulness]]. Qualities of compassion are patience and wisdom; kindness and perseverance; warmth and resolve. It is often, though not inevitably, the key component in what manifests in the social context as [[altruism]]. Expression of compassion is prone to be hierarchical, paternalistic, and controlling in responses.<ref name="Gilbert2010" /> The difference between [[sympathy]] and compassion is that the former responds to others' suffering with sorrow and concern whereas the latter responds with warmth and care.<ref name="CompInteg">{{Cite book |last1=Reddy, Nanda Kishore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLlyCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 |title=Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude |last2=Ajmera, Santosh |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |year=2015 |isbn=978-93-5134-236-6 |page=146}}</ref> An article by the Clinical Psychology Review suggests that "compassion consists of three facets: noticing, feeling, and responding."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Strauss|first1=Clara|last2=Lever Taylor|first2=Billie|last3=Gu|first3=Jenny|last4=Kuyken|first4=Willem|last5=Baer|first5=Ruth|last6=Jones|first6=Fergal|last7=Cavanagh|first7=Kate|date=July 2016|title=What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=47|pages=15–27|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004|pmid=27267346|issn=0272-7358}}</ref> This means that compassion is a verb. | |||
The English [[noun]] ''compassion'', meaning ''to suffer together with'', comes from [[Latin]]. Its [[prefix]] ''com-'' comes directly from ''com'', an archaic version of the Latin [[preposition]] and affix [[wikt:cum|cum]] (= with); the ''-passion'' segment is derived from ''passus'', [[past participle]] of the [[deponent verb]] [[wikt:patior|patior, patī, passus sum]]. Compassion is thus related in origin, form and meaning to the English noun patient (= one who suffers), from ''patiens'', [[present participle]] of the same [[wikt:patior|patior]], and is akin to the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] verb πάσχειν (= ''paskhein'', to suffer) and to its [[cognate]] noun [[wikt:πάθος|πάθος]] (= [[pathos]]).<ref name="newSOED">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Lesley |url=https://archive.org/details/newshorteroxford00lesl |title=The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles |publisher=Clarendon |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-861271-1 |location=Oxford [Eng.] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Partridge">{{Cite book |last=Partridge |first=Eric |title=Origins: a short etymological dictionary of modern English |publisher=Macmillan |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-02-594840-2 |location=New York}}</ref> Ranked a great virtue in numerous philosophies, compassion is considered in almost all the major [[religion|religious traditions]] as among the greatest of [[virtue]]s. | The English [[noun]] ''compassion'', meaning ''to suffer together with'', comes from [[Latin]]. Its [[prefix]] ''com-'' comes directly from ''com'', an archaic version of the Latin [[preposition]] and affix [[wikt:cum|cum]] (= with); the ''-passion'' segment is derived from ''passus'', [[past participle]] of the [[deponent verb]] [[wikt:patior|patior, patī, passus sum]]. Compassion is thus related in origin, form and meaning to the English noun patient (= one who suffers), from ''patiens'', [[present participle]] of the same [[wikt:patior|patior]], and is akin to the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] verb πάσχειν (= ''paskhein'', to suffer) and to its [[cognate]] noun [[wikt:πάθος|πάθος]] (= [[pathos]]).<ref name="newSOED">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Lesley |url=https://archive.org/details/newshorteroxford00lesl |title=The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles |publisher=Clarendon |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-861271-1 |location=Oxford [Eng.] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Partridge">{{Cite book |last=Partridge |first=Eric |title=Origins: a short etymological dictionary of modern English |publisher=Macmillan |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-02-594840-2 |location=New York}}</ref> Ranked a great virtue in numerous philosophies, compassion is considered in almost all the major [[religion|religious traditions]] as among the greatest of [[virtue]]s. | ||
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:* From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, compassion can be viewed as a distinct emotional state, which can be differentiated from distress, sadness, and love.<ref name="Bowlby: Attach and loss vol. 1">{{Cite book |last=Bowlby |first=John |title=Attachment: Attachment and Loss Volume One |publisher=Basic Books |year=1983 |location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref name="The Moral Emotions: Haidt">{{Cite book |last=Haidt |first=Jonathan |title=The Moral Emotions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |location=Oxford |pages=852–870}}</ref><ref name="Social Functionalism and the Evolution of Emotions: Keltner et al">{{Cite book |last1=Keltner |first1=Dacher |title=Social Functionalism and the Evolution of Emotions |last2=Jonathan Haidt |last3=Michelle Shiota |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2006 |location=New York |pages=115–142}}</ref> | :* From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, compassion can be viewed as a distinct emotional state, which can be differentiated from distress, sadness, and love.<ref name="Bowlby: Attach and loss vol. 1">{{Cite book |last=Bowlby |first=John |title=Attachment: Attachment and Loss Volume One |publisher=Basic Books |year=1983 |location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref name="The Moral Emotions: Haidt">{{Cite book |last=Haidt |first=Jonathan |title=The Moral Emotions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |location=Oxford |pages=852–870}}</ref><ref name="Social Functionalism and the Evolution of Emotions: Keltner et al">{{Cite book |last1=Keltner |first1=Dacher |title=Social Functionalism and the Evolution of Emotions |last2=Jonathan Haidt |last3=Michelle Shiota |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2006 |location=New York |pages=115–142}}</ref> | ||
:* Compassion as a synonym of empathic distress, which is characterized by the feeling of distress in connection with another person's suffering.<ref name="Compassion: An Evolutionary Analysis and Empirical Review">{{Cite journal |last1=Goetz |first1=Jennifer |last2=Dacher Kelter |last3=Emiliana Simon-Thomas |year=2010 |title=Compassion: An Evolutionary Analysis and Empirical Review |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=351–374 |doi=10.1037/a0018807 |pmc=2864937 |pmid=20438142}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekman |first=Paul |title=Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to improve communication and emotional life |publisher=Henry Holt & Company |year=2003 |location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hoffman |first=Martin |year=1981 |title=Is altruism part of human nature? |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=121–137 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.40.1.121}}</ref> This perspective of compassion is based on the finding that people sometimes emulate and feel the emotions of people around them.<ref name="Hatfield, 1993: Emotional Contagion">{{Cite journal |last1=Hatfield |first1=Elaine |last2=John Cacioppo |last3=Rapson |first3=Richard L. |year=1993 |title=Emotional Contagion |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=96–99 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953 |s2cid=220533081}}</ref> | :* Compassion as a synonym of empathic distress, which is characterized by the feeling of distress in connection with another person's suffering.<ref name="Compassion: An Evolutionary Analysis and Empirical Review">{{Cite journal |last1=Goetz |first1=Jennifer |last2=Dacher Kelter |last3=Emiliana Simon-Thomas |year=2010 |title=Compassion: An Evolutionary Analysis and Empirical Review |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=351–374 |doi=10.1037/a0018807 |pmc=2864937 |pmid=20438142}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekman |first=Paul |title=Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to improve communication and emotional life |publisher=Henry Holt & Company |year=2003 |location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hoffman |first=Martin |year=1981 |title=Is altruism part of human nature? |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=121–137 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.40.1.121}}</ref> This perspective of compassion is based on the finding that people sometimes emulate and feel the emotions of people around them.<ref name="Hatfield, 1993: Emotional Contagion">{{Cite journal |last1=Hatfield |first1=Elaine |last2=John Cacioppo |last3=Rapson |first3=Richard L. |year=1993 |title=Emotional Contagion |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=96–99 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953 |s2cid=220533081}}</ref> | ||
:* According to | :* According to Thump ten Jinpa, compassion is a ''sense of concern'' that arises in us in the face of someone who is in need or someone who is in pain. And accompanied by a kind of a wishing (i.e. desire) to see the relief or end of that situation and wanting (i.e. [[motivation]]) to do something about it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 September 2015 |title=Compassion is Natural. So Why Is It So Hard for Us? |url=https://bigthink.com/videos/thupten-jinpa-on-modern-day-compassion |access-date=28 November 2020 |website=Big Think |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Emma Seppala distinguishes compassion from empathy and altruism as follows: "... The definition of compassion is often confused with that of empathy. Empathy, as defined by researchers, is the visceral or emotional experience of another person's feelings. It is, in a sense, an automatic mirroring of another's emotion, like tearing up at a friend's sadness. Altruism is an action that benefits someone else. It may or may not be accompanied by empathy or compassion, for example in the case of making a donation for tax purposes. Although these terms are related to compassion, they are not identical. Compassion often does, of course, involve an empathic response and altruistic behavior. However, compassion is defined as the emotional response when perceiving suffering and involves an authentic desire to help."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seppala |first=Emma |date=30 April 2013 |title=The Compassionate Mind |url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/the-compassionate-mind |journal=APS Observer |language=en-US |volume=26 |issue=5}}</ref> According to Thupten Jinpa, compassion is not the following: Compassion is not pity, Compassion is not attachment, Compassion is not the same as empathetic feeling, Compassion is not simply wishful thinking, Compassion is not self-regard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Science of Compassion |url=https://www.compassionateactionnetwork.org/science-of-compassion |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=CAN |language=en-US}}</ref> | Emma Seppala distinguishes compassion from empathy and altruism as follows: "... The definition of compassion is often confused with that of empathy. Empathy, as defined by researchers, is the visceral or emotional experience of another person's feelings. It is, in a sense, an automatic mirroring of another's emotion, like tearing up at a friend's sadness. Altruism is an action that benefits someone else. It may or may not be accompanied by empathy or compassion, for example in the case of making a donation for tax purposes. Although these terms are related to compassion, they are not identical. Compassion often does, of course, involve an empathic response and altruistic behavior. However, compassion is defined as the emotional response when perceiving suffering and involves an authentic desire to help."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seppala |first=Emma |date=30 April 2013 |title=The Compassionate Mind |url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/the-compassionate-mind |journal=APS Observer |language=en-US |volume=26 |issue=5}}</ref> According to Thupten Jinpa, compassion is not the following: Compassion is not pity, Compassion is not attachment, Compassion is not the same as empathetic feeling, Compassion is not simply wishful thinking, Compassion is not self-regard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Science of Compassion |url=https://www.compassionateactionnetwork.org/science-of-compassion |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=CAN |language=en-US}}</ref> | ||
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The more one person knows about the human condition and the associated experiences, the more vivid the route to identification with suffering becomes.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology">{{Cite book |last=Cassell |first=Eric |title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-518724-3 |edition=2 |location=New York City |pages=393–403}}</ref> Identifying with another person is an essential process for human beings, which is even illustrated by infants who begin to mirror the facial expressions and body movements of their mother as early as the first days of their lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meltzoff |first=Andrew |year=1985 |title=The Roots of Social and Cognitive Development: Models of Man's Original Nature |journal=Social Perception in Infants |pages=1–30}}</ref> Compassion is recognized through identifying with other people (i.e. [[perspective-taking]]), the knowledge of human behavior, the perception of suffering, transfer of feelings, knowledge of goal and purpose changes in sufferers, and leads to the absence of the suffering from the group.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> [[Personality psychology]] agrees that people are inherently different and distinct from one another, which leads to the conclusion that human suffering is always individual and unique. Suffering can result from psychological, social, and physical trauma<ref name="cassell1995">{{Cite book |last=Cassell |first=Eric |title=The Healer's Art |publisher=MIT Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-262-53062-0}}</ref> and it happens in acute forms as often as chronically.<ref name="cassell1995" /> Due to the inherent differences in people's personalities some may define their early stages of suffering to their external circumstances and those life events being quiet or not discussed. The later stages may involve the person expressing their [[victimization]] and searching for help.<ref name="Models of Point Suffering">{{Cite book |last=Reich |first=Warren |title=Models of Point Suffering: Foundations for an Ethic Compassion |year=1987 |isbn=978-3-7091-7457-9 |series=Acta Neurochirurgica Supplementum |volume=38 |pages=117–122 |doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-6975-9_20 |pmid=3477062}}</ref> [[Suffering]] has been defined as the perception of a person's impending destruction or loss of integrity, which continues until the threat is vanished or the person's integrity can be restored.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> Compassion consists of three major requirements: People must feel that troubles that evoke their feelings are serious, the understanding that sufferers' troubles are not self-inflicted, and ability to picture oneself with the same problems in a non-blaming and non-shaming manner.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> The importance of identifying with others for compassion is contrasted by the negative physical and psychological effects of [[Abandonment (emotional)|abandonment]]. | The more one person knows about the human condition and the associated experiences, the more vivid the route to identification with suffering becomes.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology">{{Cite book |last=Cassell |first=Eric |title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-518724-3 |edition=2 |location=New York City |pages=393–403}}</ref> Identifying with another person is an essential process for human beings, which is even illustrated by infants who begin to mirror the facial expressions and body movements of their mother as early as the first days of their lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meltzoff |first=Andrew |year=1985 |title=The Roots of Social and Cognitive Development: Models of Man's Original Nature |journal=Social Perception in Infants |pages=1–30}}</ref> Compassion is recognized through identifying with other people (i.e. [[perspective-taking]]), the knowledge of human behavior, the perception of suffering, transfer of feelings, knowledge of goal and purpose changes in sufferers, and leads to the absence of the suffering from the group.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> [[Personality psychology]] agrees that people are inherently different and distinct from one another, which leads to the conclusion that human suffering is always individual and unique. Suffering can result from psychological, social, and physical trauma<ref name="cassell1995">{{Cite book |last=Cassell |first=Eric |title=The Healer's Art |publisher=MIT Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-262-53062-0}}</ref> and it happens in acute forms as often as chronically.<ref name="cassell1995" /> Due to the inherent differences in people's personalities some may define their early stages of suffering to their external circumstances and those life events being quiet or not discussed. The later stages may involve the person expressing their [[victimization]] and searching for help.<ref name="Models of Point Suffering">{{Cite book |last=Reich |first=Warren |title=Models of Point Suffering: Foundations for an Ethic Compassion |year=1987 |isbn=978-3-7091-7457-9 |series=Acta Neurochirurgica Supplementum |volume=38 |pages=117–122 |doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-6975-9_20 |pmid=3477062}}</ref> [[Suffering]] has been defined as the perception of a person's impending destruction or loss of integrity, which continues until the threat is vanished or the person's integrity can be restored.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> Compassion consists of three major requirements: People must feel that troubles that evoke their feelings are serious, the understanding that sufferers' troubles are not self-inflicted, and ability to picture oneself with the same problems in a non-blaming and non-shaming manner.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> The importance of identifying with others for compassion is contrasted by the negative physical and psychological effects of [[Abandonment (emotional)|abandonment]]. | ||
Compassion is often a characteristic element of democratic societies.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> The compassion process is highly related to identifying with the other person because sympathizing with others is possible among people from other countries, cultures, locations, etc. A possible source of this process of identifying with others comes from a universal category called "Spirit." Toward the late 1970s, very different cultures and nations around the world took a turn to [[religious fundamentalism]], which has occasionally been attributed to "Spirit".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hegal |first=Georg |title=Phenomenology of Spirit |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1952 |isbn=978-0-19-824597-1}}</ref> The role of compassion as a factor contributing to individual or societal behavior has been the topic of continuous debate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Lee |date=1 January 1996 |title=Compassion and Societal Well-Being |journal=Pacific Philosophical Quarterly |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=216–224 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0114.1996.tb00167.x}}</ref> In contrast to the process of identifying with other people, a complete absence of compassion may require ignoring or disapproving identification with other people or groups.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> Earlier studies established the links between interpersonal violence and cruelty which leads to indifference.<ref>{{Cite book | Compassion is often a characteristic element of democratic societies.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> The compassion process is highly related to identifying with the other person because sympathizing with others is possible among people from other countries, cultures, locations, etc. A possible source of this process of identifying with others comes from a universal category called "Spirit." Toward the late 1970s, very different cultures and nations around the world took a turn to [[religious fundamentalism]], which has occasionally been attributed to "Spirit".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hegal |first=Georg |title=Phenomenology of Spirit |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1952 |isbn=978-0-19-824597-1}}</ref> The role of compassion as a factor contributing to individual or societal behavior has been the topic of continuous debate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Lee |date=1 January 1996 |title=Compassion and Societal Well-Being |journal=Pacific Philosophical Quarterly |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=216–224 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0114.1996.tb00167.x}}</ref> In contrast to the process of identifying with other people, a complete absence of compassion may require ignoring or disapproving identification with other people or groups.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /> Earlier studies established the links between interpersonal violence and cruelty which leads to indifference.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Child abuse, domestic violence, and animal abuse: linking the circles of compassion for prevention and intervention |date=1999 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=0-585-06389-3 |editor-last=Ascione |editor-first=Frank R. |location=West Lafayette, Ind. |oclc=42636597 |editor2-last=Arkow |editor2-first=Phil}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Randall |first=Lockwood |title=Cruelty to Animals and Interpersonal Violence: Readings in Research and Application |date=1998 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=1-55753-105-6 |oclc=231843225}}</ref> Compassion may have the ability to induce feelings of kindness and [[forgiveness]], which could give people the ability to stop situations that have the potential to be distressing and occasionally lead to violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goetz |first1=J |last2=D Keltner |last3=E Simon-Thomas |year=2010 |title=Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=351–374 |doi=10.1037/a0018807 |pmc=2864937 |pmid=20438142}}</ref> This concept has been illustrated throughout history: [[The Holocaust]], [[Genocide]], [[European colonization of the Americas]], etc. The seemingly essential step in these atrocities could be the definition of the victims as "not human" or "not us." The atrocities committed throughout human history are thus claimed to have only been relieved, minimized, or overcome its damaging effects through the presence of compassion,<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=MacIntyre |first=Alisdair |title=A Short History of Ethics |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-203-13112-1}}</ref> although recently, drawing on empirical research in [[evolutionary theory]], [[developmental psychology]], [[social neuroscience]], and psychopathy, it also has been counterargued that compassion or empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another, nor inevitably complementary, since over the course of History, mankind has created social structures for upholing truly universal moral principles to all humanity, such as Human Rights and the [[International Criminal Court]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Decety |first=Jean |title=New Frontiers in Social Neuroscience |date=1 November 2014 |isbn=978-3-319-02903-0 |volume=21 |pages=127–151 |chapter=The Neuroevolution of Empathy and Caring for Others: Why It Matters for Morality |series=Research and Perspectives in Neurosciences |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02904-7_8 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287290900}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Decety |first1=J. |last2=Cowell |first2=J. M. |year=2014 |title=The complex relation between morality and empathy |url=http://spihub.org/site/resource_files/publications/spi_wp_135_decety.pdf |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=337–339 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.008 |pmid=24972506 |s2cid=355141}}</ref> On one hand, [[Thomas Nagel]], for instance, critiques [[Joshua Greene (psychologist)|Joshua Greene]] by suggesting that he is too quick to conclude [[utilitarianism]] specifically from the general goal of constructing an impartial morality; for example, he says, [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Rawls]] offer other impartial approaches to ethical questions.<ref name="Nagel2013">{{Cite magazine |last=Nagel |first=Thomas |date=2 November 2013 |title=You Can't Learn About Morality from Brain Scans: The problem with moral psychology |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/115279/joshua-greenes-moral-tribes-reviewed-thomas-nagel |magazine=New Republic |access-date=24 November 2013}}</ref> In his defense against the possible destructive nature of passions, [[Plato]] compared the human soul to a chariot: the intellect is the driver and the emotions are the horses, and life is a continual struggle to keep the emotions under control. In his apology of a solid universal morality, Immanuel Kant saw compassion as a weak and misguided sentiment: "Such benevolence is called soft-heartedness and should not occur at all among human beings", he said of it. | ||
== Psychology == | == Psychology == | ||
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Paul Ekman describes a "taxonomy of compassion" including: emotional recognition (knowing how another person feels), emotional resonance (feeling emotions another person feels), familial connection (care-giver-offspring), global compassion (extending compassion to everyone in the world), sentient compassion (extended compassion to other species), and heroic compassion (compassion that comes with a risk).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paul Ekman's Taxonomy of Compassion |url=https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/paul_ekmans_taxonomy_of_compassion |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=Greater Good |language=en}}</ref> | Paul Ekman describes a "taxonomy of compassion" including: emotional recognition (knowing how another person feels), emotional resonance (feeling emotions another person feels), familial connection (care-giver-offspring), global compassion (extending compassion to everyone in the world), sentient compassion (extended compassion to other species), and heroic compassion (compassion that comes with a risk).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paul Ekman's Taxonomy of Compassion |url=https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/paul_ekmans_taxonomy_of_compassion |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=Greater Good |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Indeed, Paul Ekman goes on further to make an important distinction between proximal (i.e. in the moment) and distal compassion (i.e. predicting the future; [[affective forecasting]]): "... it has implications in terms of how we go about encouraging compassion. We are all familiar with proximal compassion: Someone falls down in the street, and we help him get up. | Indeed, Paul Ekman goes on further to make an important distinction between proximal (i.e. in the moment) and distal compassion (i.e. predicting the future; [[affective forecasting]]): "... it has implications in terms of how we go about encouraging compassion. We are all familiar with proximal compassion: Someone falls down in the street, and we help him get up. That's proximal compassion: where we see someone in need, and we help them. But, when I used to tell my kids, "Wear a helmet," that's distal compassion: trying to prevent harm before it occurs. And that requires a different set of skills: It requires social forecasting, anticipating harm before it occurs, and trying to prevent it. Distal compassion is much more amenable to educational influences, I think, and it's our real hope."<ref name="Eckman">{{Cite web |title=How to Cultivate Global Compassion |url=https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/paul_ekman_global_compassion |access-date=9 November 2020 |website=Greater Good |language=en}}</ref> Distal compassion also requires [[perspective-taking]].<ref name = Eckman /> | ||
Compassion has been associated with important psychological outcomes including increases in mindfulness and emotion regulation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jazaieri |first1=Hooria |last2=McGonigal |first2=Kelly |last3=Jinpa |first3=Thupten |last4=Doty |first4=James R. |last5=Gross |first5=James J. |last6=Goldin |first6=Philippe R. |date=1 February 2014 |title=A randomized controlled trial of compassion cultivation training: Effects on mindfulness, affect, and emotion regulation | Compassion has been associated with important psychological outcomes including increases in mindfulness and emotion regulation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jazaieri |first1=Hooria |last2=McGonigal |first2=Kelly |last3=Jinpa |first3=Thupten |last4=Doty |first4=James R. |last5=Gross |first5=James J. |last6=Goldin |first6=Philippe R. |date=1 February 2014 |title=A randomized controlled trial of compassion cultivation training: Effects on mindfulness, affect, and emotion regulation |journal=Motivation and Emotion |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=23–35 |doi=10.1007/s11031-013-9368-z |issn=1573-6644 |s2cid=35717645}}</ref> | ||
=== Compassion fatigue === | === Compassion fatigue === | ||
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Olga Klimecki (et al.), have found differential (non-overlapping) fMRI brain activation areas in respect to compassion and empathy: compassion was associated with the [[Orbitofrontal cortex|mOFC]], [[anterior cingulate cortex|pregenual ACC]], and ventral [[striatum]]. Empathy, in contrast, was associated with the [[Insular cortex|anterior insula]] and the [[cingulate cortex|anterior midcingulate cortex]] (aMCC).<ref name="Klimecki" /> | Olga Klimecki (et al.), have found differential (non-overlapping) fMRI brain activation areas in respect to compassion and empathy: compassion was associated with the [[Orbitofrontal cortex|mOFC]], [[anterior cingulate cortex|pregenual ACC]], and ventral [[striatum]]. Empathy, in contrast, was associated with the [[Insular cortex|anterior insula]] and the [[cingulate cortex|anterior midcingulate cortex]] (aMCC).<ref name="Klimecki" /> | ||
Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, [[neuroscientists]] at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] USA in October 2006,<ref>Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation, PNAS 2006:103(42);15623–15628</ref> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another [[brain circuit]] was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/[[septal region]]. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.<ref name="brain">{{Cite news |last=Vedantam |first=Shankar |date=May 2007 |title=If It Feels Good to Be Good, It Might Be Only Natural |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html |access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In one study conducted by Jill Rilling and Gregory Berns, neuroscientists at [[Emory University]], subjects' brain activity was recorded while they helped someone in need. It was found that while the subjects were performing compassionate acts the caudate nucleus and anterior cingulate regions of the brain were activated, the same areas of the brain associated with pleasure and reward. One brain region, the subgenual [[anterior cingulate]] cortex/[[basal forebrain]], contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy.<ref name="PMID_27528669">{{Cite journal |last1=Lockwood |first1=Patricia L |last2=Apps |first2=Matthew A J |last3=Valton |first3=Vincent |last4=Viding |first4=Essi |last5=Roiser |first5=Jonathan P |year=2016 |title=Neurocomputational mechanisms of prosocial learning and links to empathy. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=113 |issue=35 |pages=9763–8 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1603198113 |pmc=5024617 |pmid=27528669 | Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, [[neuroscientists]] at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] USA in October 2006,<ref>Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation, PNAS 2006:103(42);15623–15628</ref> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another [[brain circuit]] was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/[[septal region]]. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.<ref name="brain">{{Cite news |last=Vedantam |first=Shankar |date=May 2007 |title=If It Feels Good to Be Good, It Might Be Only Natural |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html |access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In one study conducted by Jill Rilling and Gregory Berns, neuroscientists at [[Emory University]], subjects' brain activity was recorded while they helped someone in need. It was found that while the subjects were performing compassionate acts the caudate nucleus and anterior cingulate regions of the brain were activated, the same areas of the brain associated with pleasure and reward. One brain region, the subgenual [[anterior cingulate]] cortex/[[basal forebrain]], contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy.<ref name="PMID_27528669">{{Cite journal |last1=Lockwood |first1=Patricia L |last2=Apps |first2=Matthew A J |last3=Valton |first3=Vincent |last4=Viding |first4=Essi |last5=Roiser |first5=Jonathan P |year=2016 |title=Neurocomputational mechanisms of prosocial learning and links to empathy. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=113 |issue=35 |pages=9763–8 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1603198113 |pmc=5024617 |pmid=27528669 |quote=. fMRI revealed that activity in a posterior portion of the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain (sgACC) drives learning only when we are acting in a prosocial context |doi-access=free}} | ||
*{{lay source |template=cite news |date=August 15, 2016 |title=Finding the Brain's Generosity Center |url=http://neurosciencenews.com/generosity-empathy-neuroscience-4850/ |work=Neuroscience News}}</ref> The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding and personal reputation.<ref name="neurons">{{Cite news |last=Svoboda |first=Elizabeth |date=5 September 2013 |title=Scientists Are Finding That We Are Hard-Wired for Giving |publisher=University of Notre Dame |url=https://generosityresearch.nd.edu/news/hard-wired-for-giving/ |access-date=7 August 2017}}</ref> True compassion, if it exists at all, is thus inherently motivated (at least to some degree) by self-interest. | |||
In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the [[University of Southern California]] neuroscientist [[Antonio R. Damasio]] and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] lack the ability to feel their way empathically to moral answers and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue – in this case as to whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to [[Adrian Raine]], a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: "Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?"<ref name="brain" /> | In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the [[University of Southern California]] neuroscientist [[Antonio R. Damasio]] and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] lack the ability to feel their way empathically to moral answers and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue – in this case as to whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to [[Adrian Raine]], a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: "Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?"<ref name="brain" /> | ||
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== Self-compassion == | == Self-compassion == | ||
{{Further|Self-compassion}} | {{Further|Self-compassion}} | ||
Self-compassion is a process of self kindness and accepting suffering as a quality of being human. It has positive effects on subjective happiness, [[optimism]], [[wisdom]], [[curiosity]], [[agreeableness]], and [[extroversion]].<ref name="Emotional effects of compassion - NeV">{{Cite journal |last1=NeV |first1=Kristen |last2=Stephanie Rude |last3=Kristin Kirpatrick |year=2007 |title=An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits |journal=Journal of Research in Psychology |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=908–916 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002}}</ref> [[Kristin Neff]] and Christopher Germer have identified that there are three levels of activities that thwart self-compassion and they are self-criticism, self-isolation and self-absorption, they equate this to fight, flight and freeze responses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/germer.neff.pdf|title=missing}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chrisgermer.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Transforming-Trauma.pdf|title=Transforming Trauma}}</ref> It has been found that parenting practices contribute to the development of self-compassion in children. Maternal support, secure attachment, and harmonious family functioning all create an environment where self-compassion can develop. On the other hand, certain developmental factors (i.e., personal fable) can hinder the development of self-compassion in children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neff |first=Kristin D. |date=June 2009 |title=The Role of Self-Compassion in Development: A Healthier Way to Relate to Oneself |journal=Hum. Dev. |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=211–214 |doi=10.1159/000215071 |pmc=2790748 |pmid=22479080}}</ref> | Self-compassion is a process of self kindness and accepting suffering as a quality of being human. It has positive effects on subjective happiness, [[optimism]], [[wisdom]], [[curiosity]], [[agreeableness]], and [[extroversion]].<ref name="Emotional effects of compassion - NeV">{{Cite journal |last1=NeV |first1=Kristen |last2=Stephanie Rude |last3=Kristin Kirpatrick |year=2007 |title=An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits |journal=Journal of Research in Psychology |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=908–916 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002}}</ref> [[Kristin Neff]] and Christopher Germer have identified that there are three levels of activities that thwart self-compassion and they are [[self-criticism]], self-isolation and self-absorption, they equate this to fight, flight and freeze responses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/germer.neff.pdf|title=missing}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chrisgermer.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Transforming-Trauma.pdf|title=Transforming Trauma}}</ref> It has been found that parenting practices contribute to the development of self-compassion in children. Maternal support, secure attachment, and harmonious family functioning all create an environment where self-compassion can develop. On the other hand, certain developmental factors (i.e., personal fable) can hinder the development of self-compassion in children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neff |first=Kristin D. |date=June 2009 |title=The Role of Self-Compassion in Development: A Healthier Way to Relate to Oneself |journal=Hum. Dev. |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=211–214 |doi=10.1159/000215071 |pmc=2790748 |pmid=22479080}}</ref> | ||
For increasing compassion in the workplace to self and others, ''authentic leadership'' centered on humanism and nourishing quality interconnectedness are considered as the key.<ref name="Compassion in the workplace">{{Cite journal |last=Peus |first=Claudia |date=15 April 2011 |title=Money over man versus caring and compassion? Challenges for today's organizations and their leaders |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=955–960 |doi=10.1002/job.751}}</ref> [[Judith V. Jordan|Judith Jordan]]'s concept of ''self-empathy'' is similar to self-compassion, it implies the capacity to notice, care and respond towards the ones own felt needs. The strategies of self-care involve valuing oneself, thinking about one's ideations of needs compassionately, and connecting with others in order to conversely experience renewal, support, and validation. Research indicates that self-compassionate individuals experience greater [[psychological health]] than those who lack self-compassion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leary |first1=Mark R. |last2=Tate |first2=Eleanor B. |last3=Adams |first3=Claire E. |last4=Batts Allen |first4=Ashley |last5=Hancock |first5=Jessica |year=2007 |title=Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=92 |issue=5 |pages=887–904 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887 |pmid=17484611}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neff |first1=K. D. |last2=Rude |first2=S. S. |last3=Kirkpatrick |first3=K. |year=2007 |title=An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits |journal=Journal of Research in Personality |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=908–916 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002}}</ref> | For increasing compassion in the workplace to self and others, ''authentic leadership'' centered on humanism and nourishing quality interconnectedness are considered as the key.<ref name="Compassion in the workplace">{{Cite journal |last=Peus |first=Claudia |date=15 April 2011 |title=Money over man versus caring and compassion? Challenges for today's organizations and their leaders |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=955–960 |doi=10.1002/job.751}}</ref> [[Judith V. Jordan|Judith Jordan]]'s concept of ''self-empathy'' is similar to self-compassion, it implies the capacity to notice, care and respond towards the ones own felt needs. The strategies of self-care involve valuing oneself, thinking about one's ideations of needs compassionately, and connecting with others in order to conversely experience renewal, support, and validation. Research indicates that self-compassionate individuals experience greater [[psychological health]] than those who lack self-compassion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leary |first1=Mark R. |last2=Tate |first2=Eleanor B. |last3=Adams |first3=Claire E. |last4=Batts Allen |first4=Ashley |last5=Hancock |first5=Jessica |year=2007 |title=Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=92 |issue=5 |pages=887–904 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887 |pmid=17484611}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neff |first1=K. D. |last2=Rude |first2=S. S. |last3=Kirkpatrick |first3=K. |year=2007 |title=An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits |journal=Journal of Research in Personality |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=908–916 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002}}</ref> | ||
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[[Mencius]] maintained that everyone possesses the germ or root of compassion, illustrating his case with the famous example of the child at an open well: | [[Mencius]] maintained that everyone possesses the germ or root of compassion, illustrating his case with the famous example of the child at an open well: | ||
"Suppose a man were, all of a sudden, to see a young child on the verge of falling into a well. He would certainly be moved to compassion, not because he wanted to get into the good graces of the parents, nor because he wished to win the praise of his fellow-villagers or friends, nor yet because he disliked the cry of the child".<ref>D. C. Lau trans., ''Mencius'' (Penguin 1970) p. 18 and p. 82</ref> | |||
Mencius saw the task of moral cultivation as that of developing the initial impulse of compassion into an enduring quality of [[Ren (Confucianism)|benevolence]].<ref>D. C. Lau trans., ''Mencius'' (Penguin 1970) p. 22-7</ref> | Mencius saw the task of moral cultivation as that of developing the initial impulse of compassion into an enduring quality of [[Ren (Confucianism)|benevolence]].<ref>D. C. Lau trans., ''Mencius'' (Penguin 1970) p. 22-7</ref> | ||
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{{See also|Enlightenment (spiritual)#Hinduism|Hospitality|Kama|Samyama}} | {{See also|Enlightenment (spiritual)#Hinduism|Hospitality|Kama|Samyama}} | ||
[[File:1 Sannyasi in yoga meditation on the Ganges, Rishikesh.jpg|thumb|left|[[Yoga]] aims at physical, mental and spiritual purification, with a compassionate mind and spirit being one of its most important goals.<ref>[[Klaus K. Klostermaier]] (1989), A Survey of Hinduism: First Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887068072}}, pp 362–367</ref> Various ''asanas'' and ''mudras'' are combined with meditation and self-reflection exercises to cultivate compassion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McCall |first=Timothy |year=2010 |title=Yoga to Cultivate Compassion, Gratitude, and Joy – Part I |url=http://www.yogajournal.com/for_teachers/2490 |website=Yoga Journal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=B. |first=McCall, Timothy | [[File:1 Sannyasi in yoga meditation on the Ganges, Rishikesh.jpg|thumb|left|[[Yoga]] aims at physical, mental and spiritual purification, with a compassionate mind and spirit being one of its most important goals.<ref>[[Klaus K. Klostermaier]] (1989), A Survey of Hinduism: First Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887068072}}, pp 362–367</ref> Various ''asanas'' and ''mudras'' are combined with meditation and self-reflection exercises to cultivate compassion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McCall |first=Timothy |year=2010 |title=Yoga to Cultivate Compassion, Gratitude, and Joy – Part I |url=http://www.yogajournal.com/for_teachers/2490 |website=Yoga Journal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=B. |first=McCall, Timothy |title=Yoga as medicine: the yogic prescription for health & healing |date=2012 |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-38406-2 |oclc=812689170}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jeste |first1=D. V. |last2=Vahia |first2=I. V. |year=2008 |title=Comparison of the conceptualization of wisdom in ancient Indian literature with modern views: focus on the Bhagavad Gita |journal=Psychiatry |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=197–202 |doi=10.1521/psyc.2008.71.3.197 |pmc=2603047 |pmid=18834271}}</ref>]] | ||
In classical literature of [[Hinduism]], compassion<ref name="nmgc">Nancy Martin, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17893-9}}, see Article on ''Grace and Compassion'', pp 752–757</ref> is a virtue with many shades, each shade explained by different terms. Three most common terms are ''[[Daya (Hinduism)|daya]]'' (दया),<ref>{{Cite web |title=dayA |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=dayA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112023437/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=dayA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-date=12 November 2016}}</ref> ''[[karuṇā]]'' (करुणा),<ref>{{Cite web |title=karuNA |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=karuNA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112015253/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=karuNA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-date=12 November 2016}}</ref> and ''[[anukampā]]'' (अनुकम्पा).<ref>{{Cite web |title=AnukampA in Sanskrit English Dictionary, Spoken Sanskrit, Germany (2011) |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=anukampA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116090230/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=anukampA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-date=16 January 2017}}</ref> Other words related to compassion in Hinduism include ''karunya'', ''kripa'', and ''anukrosha''.<ref name=abde/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/AEScan/2020/web/webtc/indexcaller.php|title=Apte English-Sanskrit Dictionary 1884 Basic|website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}</ref> Some of these words are used interchangeably among the schools of Hinduism to explain the concept of compassion, its sources, its consequences, and its nature. The virtue of compassion to all living beings, claim [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] and others,<ref>M.K. Gandhi, Hindu Dharma, {{ISBN|978-8122201086}}, Orient Paperbacks</ref><ref>Tripathi, A., & Mullet, E. (2010), Conceptualizations of forgiveness and forgivingness among Hindus, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 20(4), pp 255–266</ref> is a central concept in Hindu philosophy.<ref name=nmgc/> | In classical literature of [[Hinduism]], compassion<ref name="nmgc">Nancy Martin, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17893-9}}, see Article on ''Grace and Compassion'', pp 752–757</ref> is a virtue with many shades, each shade explained by different terms. Three most common terms are ''[[Daya (Hinduism)|daya]]'' (दया),<ref>{{Cite web |title=dayA |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=dayA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112023437/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=dayA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-date=12 November 2016}}</ref> ''[[karuṇā]]'' (करुणा),<ref>{{Cite web |title=karuNA |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=karuNA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112015253/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=karuNA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-date=12 November 2016}}</ref> and ''[[anukampā]]'' (अनुकम्पा).<ref>{{Cite web |title=AnukampA in Sanskrit English Dictionary, Spoken Sanskrit, Germany (2011) |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=anukampA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116090230/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=anukampA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= |archive-date=16 January 2017}}</ref> Other words related to compassion in Hinduism include ''karunya'', ''kripa'', and ''anukrosha''.<ref name=abde/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/AEScan/2020/web/webtc/indexcaller.php|title=Apte English-Sanskrit Dictionary 1884 Basic|website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}</ref> Some of these words are used interchangeably among the schools of Hinduism to explain the concept of compassion, its sources, its consequences, and its nature. The virtue of compassion to all living beings, claim [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] and others,<ref>M.K. Gandhi, Hindu Dharma, {{ISBN|978-8122201086}}, Orient Paperbacks</ref><ref>Tripathi, A., & Mullet, E. (2010), Conceptualizations of forgiveness and forgivingness among Hindus, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 20(4), pp 255–266</ref> is a central concept in Hindu philosophy.<ref name=nmgc/> | ||
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Compassion in Hinduism is discussed as an absolute and relative concept. There are two forms of compassion: one for those who suffer even though they have done nothing wrong and one for those who suffer because they did something wrong. Absolute compassion applies to both, while relative compassion addresses the difference between the former and the latter. An example of the latter include those who plead guilty or are convicted of a crime such as murder; in these cases, the virtue of compassion must be balanced with the virtue of justice.<ref name=abde/> | Compassion in Hinduism is discussed as an absolute and relative concept. There are two forms of compassion: one for those who suffer even though they have done nothing wrong and one for those who suffer because they did something wrong. Absolute compassion applies to both, while relative compassion addresses the difference between the former and the latter. An example of the latter include those who plead guilty or are convicted of a crime such as murder; in these cases, the virtue of compassion must be balanced with the virtue of justice.<ref name=abde/> | ||
The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages. For example, ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]],'' written between 200 BC and AD 400, and sometimes called the Tamil [[Veda]], is a cherished classic on Hinduism written in a South Indian language. It dedicates Chapter 25 of Book 1 to compassion,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tirukkuṛaḷ |url=http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216064046/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm |archive-date=16 December 2014 | | The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages. For example, ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]],'' written between 200 BC and AD 400, and sometimes called the Tamil [[Veda]], is a cherished classic on Hinduism written in a South Indian language. It dedicates Chapter 25 of Book 1 to compassion,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tirukkuṛaḷ |url=http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216064046/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm |archive-date=16 December 2014 |at=verses 241–250}}</ref> further dedicating separate chapters each for the resulting values of compassion, chiefly, vegetarianism or [[veganism]] (Chapter 26), [[non-violence|doing no harm]] (Chapter 32), [[non-killing]] (Chapter 33), possession of [[kindness]] (Chapter 8), dreading evil deeds (Chapter 21), [[benignity]] (Chapter 58), the right [[scepter]] (Chapter 55), and absence of [[terrorism]] (Chapter 57), to name a few.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pope |first=George Uglow |url=http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0153.pdf |title=The Sacred Kurral of Tiruvalluva Nayanar |date=1886 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=8120600223 |edition=First |location=New Delhi}}</ref> | ||
====Jainism==== | ====Jainism==== | ||