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| {{Short description|King of Jejakabhukti from 1165 to 1203}} | | {{sSpeedy deletion|Too many sites}} |
| {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
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| {{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
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| {{Infobox royalty
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| | name = Paramardi
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| | title = Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja Parameshvara, Kalanjaradhipati
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| | succession = King of [[Jejakabhukti]]
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| | reign = 1165–1203
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| | predecessor = [[Madanavarman]] or [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]]
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| | successor = [[Trailokyavarman]]
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| | death_date = 1203
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| | death_place = [[Kalinjar Fort|Kalinjar]]
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| | father = Yashovarman II
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| | dynasty = [[Chandela]]
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| }}
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| '''Paramardi''' (reigned {{circa}} 1165–1203) was a king of the [[Chandela]] dynasty of central India. He was the last powerful Chandela king, and ruled the Jejakabhukti region ([[Bundelkhand]] in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]]). Around 1182–83, [[Prithviraj Chauhan]], raided the Chandela capital [[Mahoba]]. Paramardi managed to recover the Chandela power over the next few years, but was defeated by the [[Ghurids|Ghurid]] general [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]] around 1202–03.
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| == Early life ==
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| Paramardi's [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshvar]] inscription suggests that he succeeded his father [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman]]. However, other Chandela inscriptions (including those of his own) suggest that he succeeded his grandfather [[Madanavarman]]. It is possible that Yashovarman ruled for a very short period, or did not rule at all, having died while Madanavarman was still alive.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=139-140}}
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| According to the ''Parmal Raso'', Paramardi ascended the throne at the age of 5 years. An [[Ajaygarh]] inscription appears to corroborate this claim: it states that Paramardi was a leader even as a child (''bāl-opi netā'').{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=140}}
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| === Names ===
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| Paramardi is mentioned as Paramardi-[[deva (Hinduism)|deva]] in Chandela inscriptions. The medieval bardic legends such as [[Alha-Khand]] call him Paramala or Parimala. In modern [[vernacular]]s, he is also known as Paramardidev, Parmar, Paramal Deo or Parimal Chandel (because of [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages|schwa deletion]]). A gold coin issued by him, featuring a seated goddess, gives his name as ''Srimat Paramardi''.{{sfn|P. C. Roy|1980|pp=54-55}} Another name for him is Paramardi-varman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScYJAQAAQBAJ&dq=paramardivarman&pg=PT671 |title=The Past Before Us: Historical Traditions of Early North India |date=2013-11-04 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72652-9 |language=en}}</ref>
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| == Reign ==
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| <mapframe text="[[Find spot]]s of the inscriptions from Paramardi's reign{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=119, 124}}" width="400" height="400" zoom="5" longitude="79.63" latitude="25.47">
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| {
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| "type": "FeatureCollection",
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| "features": [
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "[[Ajaygarh]] (or Ajaygadh)" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [80.26977, 24.88974] }
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| },
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "[[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshvar]] (Baghari)" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [78.54203, 26.93506] }
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| },
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "[[Charkhari|Charkhārī]]" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [79.75010, 25.40188] }
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| },
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "Ichhawar, Banda district (Ichchhāvar)" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [80.49383, 25.87669] }
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| },
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "[[Kalinjar]] (Kālañjara)" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [80.33032, 25.48933] }
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| },
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "[[Mahoba]]" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [79.87242, 25.29210] }
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| },
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "Semra Sanodha (or Semra)" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [78.99104, 24.31841] }
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| },
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| {
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| "type": "Feature",
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| "properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "Pachar (or Pachhār)" },
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| "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [78.75612, 25.58556] }
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| }
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| ]
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| }
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| </mapframe>
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| Paramardi was the last of the powerful Chandela rulers, and has been mentioned in several legendary texts such as ''Paramala Raso'' (''Parmal Raso'' or ''Mahoba Khand''), ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'' and ''Alha-Khand'' (''Alha Raso'' or Ballad of Alha). While these texts are based on historical events, much of their content has been fabricated to glorify either [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] or Paramardi. Thus, these texts are of doubtful historicity, and therefore, much of Paramardi's reign is shrouded in obscurity.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}}
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| Several Chandela inscriptions also mention Paramardi, but these contain little historical information. For example, the Semra copper-plate inscription vaguely eulogizes him as someonoe who surpassed [[Kamadeva|Makaradhvaja]] (the god of love) in handsomeness, the ocean in depth, the lord of heaven in majesty, [[Brihaspati]] in wisdom, and [[Yudhishthira]] in truthfulness. The Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription credits him with military victories and states that other kings bowed to him, but does not name any of these kings.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}} The Ajaygarh inscription of his grandson's wife Kalyanadevi similarly describes him as a universal sovereign, whose enemies were left in a pitiful condition.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}} Such claims of extensive conquests are not corroborated by historical evidence.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}}
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| === Early career ===
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| The inscriptions from the first few years of Paramardi's reign have been found at Semra (1165-1166 CE), [[Mahoba]] (1166-1167 CE), [[Ichhawar]] (1171 CE), Mahoba (1173 CE), Pachar (1176 CE) and [[Charkhari]] (1178 CE).{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=119}} All of these inscriptions use the imperial titles for him: ''Paramabhattaraka-[[Maharajadhiraja]]-Parameshvara Parama-Maheshvara Shri-Kalanjaradhipati Shrimanmat Paramardideva''. This indicates that in the early part of his reign, Paramardi retained the territories that he had inherited from his grandfather Madanavarman.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}}
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| An 1183 CE [[Mahoba]] inscription states that the lord of Tripuri fainted whenever he heard the songs about Paramardi's bravery. This suggests that Paramardi defeated a [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri king of Tripuri]], possibly [[Jayasimha (Kalachuri dynasty)|Jayasimha]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}}
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| === Chahamana invasion ===
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| During 1182-1183 CE, the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]] ruler [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] invaded the Chandela kingdom of Jejakabhukti. The Chandela records do not mention this invasion, presumably to avoid describing the humiliating defeat of their king.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}}
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| According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to [[Delhi]] after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces ([[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]]). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandela capital [[Mahoba]]. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandela royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general [[Udal of Mahoba|Udal]] against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}}
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| Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother [[Alha]] left the Chandela court. They took shelter with [[Jaichand]], the [[Gahadavala]] ruler of [[Kannauj]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}} Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandela territory via [[Gwalior]] and [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshwar]]. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}}
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| Prithviraj then started a march towards Mahoba. Facing an imminent defeat, Paramardi and his nobles sought a truce on the advice of his chief queen Malhan Devi. Prithviraj agreed to the truce, but remained encamped on the banks of the [[Betwa River]] in the Chandela territory. The Chandelas, meanwhile, requested Alha and Udal to come back from Kannauj.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}} The two brothers were initially hesitant, but agreed to return after their mother appealed them to honour their allegiance to the Chandelas. Jaichand dispatched an army led by his best generals, including two of his own sons, to support the Chandelas. Paramardi himself became nervous, and retreated to the [[Kalanjara]] fort with some of his soldiers. His son Brahmajit, along with Alha and Udal, led the Chandela army against Prithviraj Chauhan. In the ensuing battle, the Chandelas were defeated. Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of Jaichand were killed in the conflict. After his victory, Prithviraj sacked the Chandela capital of Mahoba.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}}
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| Next, Prithviraj dispatched his general Chavand Rai to Kalanjara. The Chauhan army captured the fort, took Paramardi as prisoner, and marched back towards Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} According to the ''Parmal Raso'', Alha's son Indal Kumar launched a surprise attack on the returning Chauhan army, and freed Paramardi. Out of shame, Paramardi later committed suicide at the Gajraj temple.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} ''Parmal Raso'' states that his 50 wives committed [[sati (practice)|sati]] (self-immolation) after his death.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}} According to [[Chand Bardai]], he retired to [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] and died there.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} The ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'' states that Prithviraj appointed Pajjun Rai as the governor of Mahoba. Later, Paramardi's son Samarjit recaptured Mahoba with help of Narasimha, an officer of Jaichand. Samarjit then ruled the territory between Kalanjara and Gaya. However, no such prince is mentioned in the Chandela records.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}
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| The exact historicity of this legendary narrative is debatable, but it is known that Prithviraj Chauhan indeed sacked Mahoba. This is corroborated by his stone inscriptions at [[Madanpur, Lalitpur, India|Madanpur]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}} However, the prolonged occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}} Moreover, it is known that Paramardi did not die or retire immediately after the Chauhan victory. He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE [[Ajaygarh]] stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardi ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}
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| The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of [[Dasharna]] country. These evidences suggest that Paramardi managed to recover the Chandela power after Prithviraj Chauhan returned to Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}
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| === Ghurid invasion and death ===
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| {{See also|Siege of Kalinjar}}
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| According to a [[Kalanjara]] inscription, while one of Paramardi's predecessors had imprisoned the wives of the earthly rulers, Paramardi's heroics made even the divine rulers anxious about the safety of their wives. As a result, the gods let loose an army of [[mlechchhas]] (foreigners) against him, and made him face a defeat.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}}
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| Prithviraj Chauhan was killed after [[Second Battle of Tarain]] against the [[Ghurids]] in 1192. After defeating the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamanas]] (Chauhans) and the [[Gahadavala]]s, the Ghurid governor of Delhi planned an invasion of Chandela kingdom.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=147}} A force led by [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]], and accompanied by strong generals such as [[Iltutmish]], besieged the Chandela fort of [[Kalanjara]] in 1202.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}
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| ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', written by the Delhi chronicler [[Hasan Nizami]], states that Parmar (Paramardi) initially offered some resistance, but then fled to the safety of the fort. Subsequently, he surrendered before ruler of Delhi, and agreed to be his vassal.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=147}} He promised to pay a tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could execute this agreement. His [[dewan]] Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) continued to resist the ruler of Delhi after his death. The dewan was finally forced to surrender as the water reservoirs within the fort dried up during a drought. ''Taj-ul-Masir'' further states that after the Sultanate's victory, temples were converted into mosques and 50,000 men were taken as slaves. Qutb al-Din Aibak appointed Hazabbar-ud-Din Hasan Arnal as the governor of Kalanjara, and also captured [[Mahoba]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=148}}
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| The 16th century Muslim historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=148}}
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| Firishta as well as Fakhruddin Mubarakshah state that the fall of Kalanjara happened in the [[Hijri year]] 599 (1202–1203 CE). According to ''Taj-ul-Masir'', Kalanjara fell on 20th of [[Rajab]], in the Hijri year 599, on Monday. However, this date corresponds to 12 April 1203, which was a Friday. Based on different interpretations of the historical sources, different scholars date the fall of Kalanjara to either 1202 or 1203.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}}
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| According to the Chandela inscriptions, Paramardi was succeeded by [[Trailokyavarman]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}
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| == Administration ==
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| According to the Baghari inscription, Paramardi placed the burden of government on his prime minister Sallakshana, who was a [[Brahmin]] of [[Vashistha]] [[gotra]]. Sallakshana commissioned temples dedicated to [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]]. After his death, his son Purushottama inherited his post.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}}
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| The Baghari inscription also mentions one Gadadhara as Paramardi's minister of war and peace (''sandhna-vigraha-sachiva''). According to the [[Ajaygarh]] inscription of [[Bhojavarman]], a [[Kayastha]] named Gangadhara was the Kancukin ([[chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]]) of Paramardi. Gangadhara and his brother Jaunadhara are said to have fought at Kalanjara, possibly in the battle against the Delhi forces.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=149-150}}
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| Ajayapala and Madanapala, the sons of a former [[senapati]] (general) Kilhana, were two Brahmin senapatis of Paramardi.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}} Ajayapala is also known to have been a senapati of Paramardi's grandfather [[Madanavarman]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=136}} Muslim chronicles mention Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) as a [[dewan]] who continued to resist the Delhi forces after Paramardi's death. The medieval bardic tradition also mentions [[Alha]] and [[Udala]] (or Udal) as his generals. Other officers mentioned in the historical records include Mahipala and an ''amatya'' named Vatsaraja.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}}
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| Paramardi was a learned man, and is attributed as the author of a eulogy to [[Shiva]], inscribed on a stone at [[Kalanjara]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}} He patronized a number of scholars, including:{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}}
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| * Vatsaraja, the author of ''Rupa-Kashatakam'' (a collection of six plays)
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| * Gadadhara, a poet styled as ''Kavi-Chakravarti''
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| * Jaganika, the author of ''Alha-Khanda''
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| * Gunabhadra Munipa Saiddhanti, the [[Jain]] author of ''Dhanya-Kumara-Charita''
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| Although himself a [[Shaivite]], Paramardi was tolerant towards Buddhists, Jains and Vaishnavites. A copper-plate inscription shows that when he granted a village to a [[Brahmin]], he respected the rights of a Buddhist shrine located in that village. Several images of the Jain [[tirthankara]]s were set up at various places during his reign.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}} The best known of these are at the [[Aharji]] Jain Tirth Near [[Tikamgarh]].{{cn|date=December 2020}} His minister Sallakshana commissioned a [[Vishnu]] temple.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}}
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist|30em}}
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| === Bibliography ===
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| {{ref begin}}
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| * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2Et2zZGJPUC&pg=PA53 |title=The Coinage of Northern India |author=P. C. Roy |publisher=Abhinav |year=1980 |isbn=9788170171225 }}
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| * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA130 |title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti |author=R. K. Dikshit |publisher=Abhinav |year=1976 |isbn=9788170170464 }}
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| * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA113 |title=The Early Rulers of Khajurāho |author=Sisirkumar Mitra |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=9788120819979 }}
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| {{ref end}}
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| {{Chandelas of Jejakabhukti}}
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| [[Category:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]]
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| [[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]
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| [[Category:13th-century Indian monarchs]]
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