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}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
===Battle of Takkolam===
===Battle of Takkolam===
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh.  It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya.  Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh.  It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya.  Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=159–162
|url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>


==Civic and religious contributions==
==Civic and religious contributions==

Revision as of 12:34, 11 September 2026

Parantaka I
Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
Chola Empire under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
Chola Emperor
Reign907 CE - 955 CE
PredecessorAditya I
SuccessorGandaraditya
BornVeera Narayanan
873 CE
Tiruvottiyur, Chola Empire
(Modern day Chennai Tamil Nadu, India)
Died955 CE (aged 82)
Tiruvottiyur, Chola Empire
(Modern day Chennai Tamil Nadu, India)
Queen11 Total[1]
Including:
Ko "Kizhan Adigal"
Iravi Nili
Solamadeviyar
IssueRajaditya
Gandaraditya
Uttamasili
Arinjaya
Viramadevi
Anupama.
HouseCholas
DynastyChola
FatherAditya I
MotherTribhuvanamadeviyar
ReligionHinduism
List of Chola kings and emperors
Early Cholas
Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848)
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya 848–871(?)
Aditya I 871–907
Parantaka I 907–950
Gandaraditya 950–957
Arinjaya 956–957
Sundara (Parantaka II) 957–970
Aditya II (co-regent)
Uttama 970–985
Rajaraja I 985–1014
Rajendra I 1012–1044
Rajadhiraja 1044–1054
Rajendra II 1054–1063
Virarajendra 1063–1070
Athirajendra 1070–1070
Later Cholas
Kulothunga I 1070–1120
Vikrama 1118–1135
Kulothunga II 1133–1150
Rajaraja II 1146–1173
Rajadhiraja II 1166–1178
Kulothunga III 1178–1218
Rajaraja III 1216–1256
Rajendra III 1246–1279
Related dynasties
Telugu Chodas of Andhra
Chodagangas of Kalinga
Nidugal Cholas of Karnataka
Rajahnate of Cebu
Chola society

Parantaka Chola I (Tamil : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a Chola emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing Pandya by defeating Rajasimhan II and in the Deccan won the Battle of Vallala against Rashtrakutas which happened before 916 CE.[2][3] The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.


Invasion of the Pandya kingdom

Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the Pandya kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital Madurai and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler Maravarman Rajasinha II sought the help of Kassapa V of Anuradhapura who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of Vellore. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in Madurai in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of Pandyan monarchy. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. Mahavamsa records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the Rohana hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.[4]

Lankan Expedition

Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to recapture Pandya regalia by invading Lanka. Although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to retrieve the insignia.[5][6][7][8][9] Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records.[9][10][11] During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region.[12] Mahavamsa also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the Rohana hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

Sitpuli–Nellore campaign

In the 34th year of Parantaka Chola I's reign (c. 941 CE), two inscriptions from Tiruvottiyur record a northern campaign led by one of his military officers, Maran Paramesvaran. A native of Kulattur, Maran Paramesvaran defeated Sitpuli, a district in the Nellore region, and is stated to have destroyed Nellore.

After completing the campaign, Maran Paramesvaran returned south and stopped at Tiruvottiyur, where he made a land grant to Mahadeva as an offering of thanksgiving. Four years later, the land was exempted from the fiscal dues imposed upon it. The inscriptions therefore provide evidence for a northern military expedition undertaken by Parantaka's officer, during which Sitpuli was defeated and Nellore was reportedly destroyed.

The campaign was probably directed against the power of the Eastern Chalukyas under Chalukya Bhima II, with Sitpuli having been located in the southern part of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom. However, as no records of Parantaka have been found on the eastern coast north of Tiruvottiyur, it is uncertain whether the campaign resulted in any permanent territorial or political control in the region.[13]

War against Rashtrakutas

Background

Aditya I had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king Krishna II tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.[14]

Battle of vallala

Aditya I had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king Krishna II tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, Krishna II invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince Indra III lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince Rajaditya. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,[2] a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.[15]

Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories

Banas and Vaidumbas

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.[16][17]

Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.[18]

Initial encounter with krishna III

Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.[19][20] Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.[21][14][22]

Battle of Takkolam

At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to Nellore in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king Krishna III waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son Rajaditya but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.[23]

Civic and religious contributions

Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

Chola Territories c. 950

The copper-plate inscriptions detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the Chidambaram Siva Temple with golden roof. "Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near Tiruchirappalli, sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,[original research?] informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

Personal life

From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.[24] Besides him he had several other sons; Arikulakesari, Gandaraditya and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the Chera Perumals as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct Chera princesses (the mothers of his two sons, Rajaditya and Arinjaya).[25][26]

A member of the retinue of pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva gave a gift to the Vishnu temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.[27] Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after Rajaditya.[28] It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.[29] In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.[30] He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as Viranarayana, Virakirti, Vira-Chola, Vikrama-Chola, Irumadi-Sola (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), Devendran (lord of the gods), Chakravartin (the emperor), Panditavatsalan (fond of learned men), Kunjaramallan (the wrestler with elephants) and Surachulamani (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son Gandaraditya succeeded him.

Inscriptions

Thyagaraja Temple
Sculpture in Tiruvottiyur.

The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from Tiruvorriyur. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond Thondaimandalam:

..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.[31]

Here we have his son Arinjaya making a donation. Once again it is from Tiruvorriyur:

On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.[32]

We also have several inscriptions of his son Rajaditya from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called Tiruttondîsvaram:[33]

A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.[34]

Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)

Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ S. R. Balasubrahmanyam. Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam. Asia publ. house, 1966. p. 165.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 K.A., Nilakanta Sastri (1955). A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press. pp. Page=168.
  3. ↑ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 46–49. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
  4. ↑ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Cholas, Vol. 1, pp. 144–147.
  5. ↑ GEIGER, WILH. "The Trustworthiness of Mahavamsa". THE Indian Historical Quarterly: 221.[dead link]
  6. ↑ Cholas I. p. 154.
  7. ↑ Sastri, K. Nilakanta (July 1974). The Pandyan Kingdom. Ind-U. S. Incorporated. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-88253-426-8.
  8. ↑ Pillay, Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi (1963). South India and Ceylon. University of Madras. pp. 62–63.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Spencer, George W. (1976). "The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon". The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (3): 408–409. doi:10.2307/2053272. ISSN 0021-9118. JSTOR 2053272.
  10. ↑ Spencer 1976, p. 409
  11. ↑ Cholas I. p. 148.
  12. ↑ de Silva, K. M. (1981). A History of Sri Lanka. University of California Press. p. 42. Retrieved 31 March 2026.
  13. ↑ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. The Cholas. Vol. 1. pp. 152–153.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). Colas.
  15. ↑ Dutta, Vidhan (15 March 2025). A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire. Blue Rose Publishers.
  16. ↑ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1990). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. Wiley Eastern Ltd. p. 439. Retrieved 1 April 2026.
  17. ↑ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). The Colas. University of Madras. p. 142. Retrieved 1 April 2026.
  18. ↑ N. Sethuraman (1995). "Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries" (PDF). Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper). Retrieved 1 April 2026.
  19. ↑ "South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com". www.whatisindia.com. Retrieved 14 February 2026.
  20. ↑ E. Hultzsch, ed. (1987). South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II (PDF). Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 1 April 2026.
  21. ↑ Altekar, A. s (1934). Rashtrakutas And Their Times.
  22. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cholas I
  23. ↑ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. The Cholas. Vol. 1. pp. 159–162.
  24. ↑ South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56
  25. ↑ George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.
  26. ↑ S. Swaminathan. The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture. Sharada Pub. House, 1998. p. 23.
  27. ↑ Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64
  28. ↑ South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198
  29. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124). Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.
  30. ↑ Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167
  31. ↑ South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55
  32. ↑ South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57
  33. ↑ A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393
  34. ↑ A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232

References

  • Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). Outlines of South Indian History. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
  • Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
  • South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
  • A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
  • A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
  • Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
  • Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
  • South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar
Preceded by
Aditya I 		Chola
907–955 CE 		Succeeded by
Gandaraditya
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