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{{Short description|Medieval invasion of one polity over another}}
{{Short description|1025–1026 Chola military campaign}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Chola invasion of Srivijaya
| conflict          = Chola invasion of Srivijaya
| partof            = [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]]
| partof            = [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]]
| image            = Rajendra map new.svg
| image            = File:Chola Empire Map (1).svg
| caption          = Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 CE
| image_size        = 300px
| date              = 1025–1030 CE
| caption          = Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 AD
| date              = 1025–1026 AD<ref name=":02" />{{rp|394, 402}}
| place            = [[Palembang]] ([[Sumatra]]) and [[Kedah]] ([[Malay Peninsula]]), [[Srivijaya]]
| place            = [[Palembang]] ([[Sumatra]]) and [[Kedah]] ([[Malay Peninsula]]), [[Srivijaya]]
| result            = [[Chola]] and [[Khmer Empire]] Victory
| result            = [[Chola]] victory
*[[Srivijaya]] becomes a Chola Subordinate
*[[Chola]] influence in [[Srivijaya]]
*[[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]] is captured
* [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]] is captured
* Dissolution of Srivijayan [[Mandala (political model)|mandala]]
| combatant1        = [[Chola Empire]]
| combatant1        = [[Chola Empire]]
| combatant2        = [[Srivijaya]]
| combatant2        = [[Srivijaya]]
| commander1        = [[Rajendra I]] <br/>
| commander1        = '''[[Rajendra I]]'''<br>Beemaseenan<br>Amarabujangan Divakara<br>Karunaakaran
Beemaseenan <br/>
| commander2        = '''[[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama I]]'''{{POW}}<br>[[Samara Vijayatunggavarman]]
Amarabujangan Divakara <br/>
Karunaakaran
| commander2        = [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]]{{POW}}<br/>
[[Samara Vijayatunggavarman]]
| strength1        =  
| strength1        =  
| strength2        =  
| strength2        =  
| casualties1      =  
| casualties1      =  
| casualties2      =  
| casualties2      =  
| units1            = [[Chola Navy]]<br/>
| units1            = [[Chola Navy]]<br />[[Chola Army]]
[[Chola army]]
| units2            = Srivijaya Navy<br />Srivijaya Army
| units2            = Srivijaya Navy <br/>
Srivijaya Army
}}
}}


In [[1025 in India|1025]] CE, the [[Chola]] Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] launched naval raids on [[Srivijaya]] in [[maritime Southeast Asia]],<ref name="Munoz">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> Rajendra's overseas expedition against [[Srivijaya]] was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of [[Southeast Asia]]. Several places in present-day [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] were invaded by [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]].<ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke,K Kesavapany,Vijay Sakhuja p.170</ref><ref>Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India  by Moti Chandra p.214</ref> The [[Chola]] invasion furthered the expansion of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 by Tansen Sen p.159</ref><ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium  by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H. O'Rourke p.69</ref><ref>Wink, André, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. I, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th-11th centuries'', p.325, {{ISBN|978-0391041738}}</ref><ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization  by Sailendra Nath Sen p.564</ref> The Cholan invasion led to the fall of the [[Sailendra Dynasty]] of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar [[Atiśa]] from [[Sumatra]] to [[India]] and [[Tibet]] in 1025 CE.<ref>Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana  by  Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91</ref>
{{History of Indonesia}}In 1025 AD, the [[Chola Empire|Chola]] Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] launched naval invasions on [[Srivijaya]] in [[maritime Southeast Asia]], leading to the fall of the [[Sailendra Dynasty]] of Srivijaya.<ref name="Munoz">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref>
 
Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of [[Southeast Asia]]. Several places in present-day [[Indonesia]] and [[Malay Peninsula]] were invaded by Rajendra I of the [[Chola dynasty]].<ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.170</ref><ref>Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India  by Moti Chandra p.214</ref> The invasion furthered the expansion of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] merchant associations such as the [[Manigramam]], [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole]] and [[Ainnurruvar]] into [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 by Tansen Sen p.159</ref><ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium  by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.69</ref><ref>Wink, André, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. I, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th-11th centuries'', p.325, {{ISBN|978-0391041738}}</ref><ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization  by Sailendra Nath Sen p.564</ref>
 
The Chola invasion also coincided with return voyage of the great [[Bengal]]i [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] scholar [[Atiśa]] (c. 982–1054) from [[Sumatra]] to [[Indian subcontinent|India]] and [[Tibet]] in 1025.<ref>Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana  by  Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91</ref>


==Background==
==Background==
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} In the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Srivijaya]] maintained close relations with the [[Pala Empire]] in [[Bengal]], and an 860 CE [[Nalanda inscription]] records that Maharaja [[Balaputra]] of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the [[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]] in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the [[Chola dynasty]] of southern [[India]] was friendly during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]]. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from [[Sailendra]] dynasty — king [[Maravijayattungavarman]] — constructed the [[Chudamani Vihara]] in the port town of [[Nagapattinam]].<ref name="sastri219220">{{cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |title=The CōĻas |publisher=University of Madras |year=1935 |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri |page=219–220 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n235/mode/2up}}</ref> However, during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>
Throughout much of their history, ancient India and Indonesia maintained peaceful and friendly relations, making the Chola invasion a unique event in Asian history.<ref name="Kulke" />
 
In the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Srivijaya]] had close ties with the [[Pala Empire]] in [[Bengal]]. An 860 [[Nalanda inscription]] records that Maharaja [[Balaputra]] of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the [[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]] in Pala territory. Relations between Srivijaya and the [[Chola dynasty]] of [[southern India]] were cordial during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]]. In 1006, King [[Maravijayattungavarman]], a Srivijayan [[Maharaja]] from the [[Sailendra]] dynasty, constructed the [[Chudamani Vihara]] in the port town of [[Nagapattinam]].<ref name="sastri219220">{{cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |title=The CōĻas |publisher=University of Madras |year=1935 |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri |pages=219–220 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n235/mode/2up}}</ref> However, during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]], relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>
 
Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points, the [[Malacca Strait]] and the [[Sunda Strait]], and was a significant trading empire with formidable naval forces. The northwest opening of the Malacca Strait was controlled from Kedah on the [[Malay Peninsula]] and from [[Pannai]] on the [[Sumatra]]n side, while [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] (in [[Jambi]]) and [[Palembang]] controlled the southeast opening and the Sunda Strait. Srivijaya enforced a naval trade monopoly, compelling ships passing through their waters to stop at their ports or risk being plundered.<ref name="Naval Melaka Straits">{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=October 2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=380–399|doi=10.1017/S0022463413000362 |s2cid=161550066 }}</ref>


The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both [[piracy]] and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOfjaW7C3AsC&dq=Chola+piracy&pg=PA367 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |author=Craig A. Lockard |date=27 December 2006 |publisher=Cengage Learning |page=367 |isbn=0618386114 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref> Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points ([[Malacca Strait|Malacca]] and the [[Sunda Strait]]) and was at that time a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on the [[Malay Peninsula]] side and from [[Pannai]] on the [[Sumatra]]n side, while [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] ([[Melayu Kingdom|Jambi]]) and [[Palembang]] controlled its southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.<ref name="Naval Melaka Straits">{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=October 2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |pages=380-399}}</ref>
The Cholas benefitted from both [[agriculture]] and foreign trade. Their seafaring activities sometimes led to overseas trade and conquest, including in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Craig A. Lockard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOfjaW7C3AsC&dq=Chola+piracy&pg=PA367 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |date=27 December 2006 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=0618386114 |page=367 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref>


The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian [[Nilakanta Sastri]] suggested that the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his ''[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]'' to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.<ref name="Kulke"/> Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King [[Suryavarman I]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against [[Tambralinga]] kingdom.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers</ref> After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref>
The reasons for the Chola naval expedition are unclear. Historian [[Nilakanta Sastri]] suggested that the conflict may have arisen from Srivijayan attempts to obstruct Chola trade with the East, especially China, or perhaps from Rajendra's desire to extend his ''[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]'' (world conquest) across the sea, adding prestige to his reign.<ref name="Kulke" /> Another theory posits that geopolitical and diplomatic factors motivated the invasion. King [[Suryavarman I]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] sought assistance from Rajendra Chola I against the [[Tambralinga]] kingdom.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers</ref> In response, the Tambralinga kingdom sought aid from Srivijayan king Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336" /><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref>


==Invasion==
==Invasion==
The Chola invasion against [[Srivijaya]] was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. Moreover, during this time in the [[11th century]], the [[Chola Navy|Chola navy]] had developed strongly, while Srivijaya sea power was relatively weak.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43863212 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=385 |issn=0022-4634}}</ref> To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago, vessels from India sailed eastward across the [[Bay of Bengal]] and called at the ports of Lamuri in [[Aceh]] or [[Kedah]] in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola armada sailed directly to the [[Sumatra]]n west coast. The port of [[Barus]] in the west coast of [[North Sumatra]] at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish after crossing the [[Indian Ocean]]. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along [[Sumatra]]'s west coast southward and sailed into [[Sunda Strait|Strait of Sunda]].<ref name="Munoz"/> The Srivijaya navy guarded Kedah and the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the [[Sunda Strait]] in the south. The first Srivijayan city that was raided was [[Palembang]], the capital of Srivijaya empire. The unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the ''Kadatuan'' royal palace and monasteries. The [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world#Tanjore Inscription|Thanjavur inscription]] states that Rajendra captured King [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya, adorned with great splendor.<ref name="Kulke">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&dq=Chola+captured+Srivijaya+jeweled+gate&pg=PA1 |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |year=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian, 2009 |page=1 |isbn=9789812309372 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref>


The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as the armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken advantage of the [[Southeast Asia]]n [[monsoon]] for moving from one port to another swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan [[Mandala (political model)|''mandala'']] to prepare their defenses, reorganize themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate.<ref name="Munoz"/><ref name="Munoz 163">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |pages=163|isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> The war ended with a victory for the Cholas and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342"/><ref name="Southeast Asia p.43">Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43</ref><ref>Early kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161</ref>
The Chola invasion of [[Srivijaya]] was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. In the [[11th century]], the [[Chola Navy|Chola navy]] had become a formidable force, while Srivijaya's sea power had weakened.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43863212 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=385 |doi=10.1017/S0022463413000362 |jstor=43863212 |s2cid=161550066 |issn=0022-4634|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Indian ships typically sailed eastward across the [[Bay of Bengal]], stopping at ports in Lamuri, [[Aceh]], or [[Kedah]] in the Malay Peninsula before entering the [[Malacca Strait]]. However, the Chola fleet sailed directly to the west coast of [[Sumatra]]. The port of [[Barus]] on North Sumatra’s west coast, controlled by Tamil trade guilds, served as a resupply point after crossing the [[Indian Ocean]]. From there, the Chola fleet sailed southward along Sumatra's west coast and entered the [[Sunda Strait]].<ref name="Munoz"/>
 
The Srivijaya navy, stationed at Kedah near the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait, was unaware of the Chola invasion approaching from the south via the Sunda Strait. The first Srivijayan city to be attacked was [[Palembang]], the empire's capital. The sudden assault allowed the Cholas to sack the city, plundering the ''Kadatuan'' royal palace and monasteries. The [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world#Tanjore Inscription|Thanjavur inscription]] records that Rajendra Chola captured King [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] of Srivijaya and seized treasures, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya.<ref name="Kulke">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&dq=Chola+captured+Srivijaya+jeweled+gate&pg=PA1 |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |year=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |page=1 |isbn=9789812309372 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref>
 
Despite their success, the Cholas did not establish lasting control over the captured cities, as the campaign primarily involved fast-moving raids and plunder. The Chola fleet likely utilized the [[Southeast Asia]]n [[monsoon]] winds to swiftly move between ports. This tactic of rapid, unexpected attacks contributed to the Cholas' success, as it prevented the Srivijayan [[Mandala (political model)|''mandala'']] from organizing defenses, mounting a response, or seeking aid.<ref name="Munoz" /><ref name="Munoz 163">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |pages=163|isbn=981-4155-67-5}}</ref> The war ended in a Chola victory, significantly weakening Srivijaya and breaking its maritime monopoly in the region.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336" /><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342" /><ref name="Southeast Asia p.43">Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43</ref><ref>Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161</ref>


==Aftermath==
==Aftermath==
[[File:Charter_issued_by_king_Rājendra_Chola_I_Or._1687.pdf|left|thumb|250x250px|[[Charter]] issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a [[Vihāra|Buddhist Vihara]] in Srivijaya.]]
[[File:Charter_issued_by_king_Rājendra_Chola_I_Or._1687.pdf|left|thumb|250x250px|[[Charter]] issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a [[Vihāra|Buddhist Vihara]] in Srivijaya.]]
With the Maharaja [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderless [[Srivijaya]] mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The invasion marked the end of the [[Sailendra]] dynasty. According to the 15th-century [[Malay Annals]], [[Rajendra Chola I]] after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref> This invasion forced [[Srivijaya]] to make peace with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] kingdom of [[Kahuripan]]. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King [[Airlangga]] in [[East Java]]. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.<ref name="Munoz 163" />
With the Maharaja [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderless [[Srivijaya]] mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion, marking the end of the [[Sailendra]] dynasty. According to the 15th-century [[Malay Annals]], [[Rajendra Chola I]], after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref>
 
The invasion forced [[Srivijaya]] to make peace with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] kingdom of [[Kahuripan]]. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King [[Airlangga]] in [[East Java]]. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.<ref name="Munoz 163" />
 
This invasion gravely weakened the [[Srivijaya]]n hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like [[Kahuripan]] and its successor, [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] in [[Java]] based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. [[Sri Deva]] was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of [[China]] in 1028 CE.<ref name="Munoz 163" /> ''[[Sanfotsi|Sanfoqi]]'' sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 405}} No Srivijayan envoys came to China between 1028–1077, indicating that the ''[[Mandala (political model)|mandala]]'' of Srivijaya had faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed in 1025.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Miksic |first=John M. |title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800 |publisher=NUS Press |year=2013 |isbn=9789971695583 |author1-link=John N. Miksic}}</ref>{{rp|110}} In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to "Sanfoqi", but this term probably refers to the [[Malayu (kingdom)|Malayu]]-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by Chinese record of ''Sanfoqi Zhanbei guo'' (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|397, 398, 405}}


Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the [[Srivijaya]]n hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like [[Kahuripan]] and its successor, [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] in [[Java]] based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. [[Sri Deva]] was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of [[China]] in 1028 CE.<ref name="Munoz 163" /> Although the invasion was not followed by direct [[Chola]]n occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. [[Tamil people|Tamil]] traders encroached on the [[Srivijaya]]n realm traditionally controlled by [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]] traders and the [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds' influence increased on the [[Malay Peninsula]] and north coast of [[Sumatra]].<ref name="Munoz 163" />
The Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles mentioned ''Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo'' which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely referring to Kedah. ''Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo'' sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the Malacca Straits.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Miksic |first1=John N. |title=Ancient Southeast Asia |last2=Goh |first2=Geok Yian |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London }}</ref>{{rp|398, 399, 405}}


With the growing presence of [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds in the region, relations improved between Srivijaya and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the Imperial Court of China. The prince who was the nephew of [[Rajendra Chola]] later was enthroned in 1070 CE as [[Kulothunga Chola I]]. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE, [[Virarajendra Chola]] launched a naval raid to help Srivijaya reclaim [[Kedah]].<ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305">Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.305</ref> [[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]] reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the Srivijayan Maharaja and Kedah accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty.<ref name="Munoz"/><ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305"/>
Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded in the 12th century — the Tamil poem ''Kalingatupparani'' of around 1120 mentioned [[Kulottunga I|Kulottungga]]'s destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared from Indian sources.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 399}}


==See also==
==See also==
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{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}


[[Category:Chola Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Chola Empire]]
[[Category:Srivijaya]]
[[Category:Srivijaya]]
[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category:1025 in Asia]]
[[Category:1025 in Asia]]
[[Category:11th century in India]]
[[Category:11th century in India]]
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[[Category:Overseas empires]]
[[Category:Overseas empires]]
[[Category:Invasions by India]]
[[Category:Invasions by India]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Cholas]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Chola Empire]]

Latest revision as of 15:48, 16 March 2026


Chola invasion of Srivijaya
Part of South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I

Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 AD
Date1025–1026 AD[1]:394, 402
Location
Palembang (Sumatra) and Kedah (Malay Peninsula), Srivijaya
Result

Chola victory

Belligerents
Chola Empire Srivijaya
Commanders and leaders
Rajendra I
Beemaseenan
Amarabujangan Divakara
Karunaakaran		 Sangrama ITemplate:POW
Samara Vijayatunggavarman
Units involved
Chola Navy
Chola Army		 Srivijaya Navy
Srivijaya Army

Template:History of IndonesiaIn 1025 AD, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval invasions on Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia, leading to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya.[2]

Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places in present-day Indonesia and Malay Peninsula were invaded by Rajendra I of the Chola dynasty.[3][4] The invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia.[5][6][7][8]

The Chola invasion also coincided with return voyage of the great Bengali Buddhist scholar Atiśa (c. 982–1054) from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025.[9]

Background[edit | edit source]

Throughout much of their history, ancient India and Indonesia maintained peaceful and friendly relations, making the Chola invasion a unique event in Asian history.[10]

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya had close ties with the Pala Empire in Bengal. An 860 Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. Relations between Srivijaya and the Chola dynasty of southern India were cordial during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In 1006, King Maravijayattungavarman, a Srivijayan Maharaja from the Sailendra dynasty, constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.[11] However, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I, relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[12]

Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points, the Malacca Strait and the Sunda Strait, and was a significant trading empire with formidable naval forces. The northwest opening of the Malacca Strait was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula and from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu (in Jambi) and Palembang controlled the southeast opening and the Sunda Strait. Srivijaya enforced a naval trade monopoly, compelling ships passing through their waters to stop at their ports or risk being plundered.[13]

The Cholas benefitted from both agriculture and foreign trade. Their seafaring activities sometimes led to overseas trade and conquest, including in Southeast Asia.[14]

The reasons for the Chola naval expedition are unclear. Historian Nilakanta Sastri suggested that the conflict may have arisen from Srivijayan attempts to obstruct Chola trade with the East, especially China, or perhaps from Rajendra's desire to extend his digvijaya (world conquest) across the sea, adding prestige to his reign.[10] Another theory posits that geopolitical and diplomatic factors motivated the invasion. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire sought assistance from Rajendra Chola I against the Tambralinga kingdom.[15] In response, the Tambralinga kingdom sought aid from Srivijayan king Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.[15][16]

Invasion[edit | edit source]

The Chola invasion of Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. In the 11th century, the Chola navy had become a formidable force, while Srivijaya's sea power had weakened.[17] Indian ships typically sailed eastward across the Bay of Bengal, stopping at ports in Lamuri, Aceh, or Kedah in the Malay Peninsula before entering the Malacca Strait. However, the Chola fleet sailed directly to the west coast of Sumatra. The port of Barus on North Sumatra’s west coast, controlled by Tamil trade guilds, served as a resupply point after crossing the Indian Ocean. From there, the Chola fleet sailed southward along Sumatra's west coast and entered the Sunda Strait.[2]

The Srivijaya navy, stationed at Kedah near the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait, was unaware of the Chola invasion approaching from the south via the Sunda Strait. The first Srivijayan city to be attacked was Palembang, the empire's capital. The sudden assault allowed the Cholas to sack the city, plundering the Kadatuan royal palace and monasteries. The Thanjavur inscription records that Rajendra Chola captured King Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and seized treasures, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya.[10]

Despite their success, the Cholas did not establish lasting control over the captured cities, as the campaign primarily involved fast-moving raids and plunder. The Chola fleet likely utilized the Southeast Asian monsoon winds to swiftly move between ports. This tactic of rapid, unexpected attacks contributed to the Cholas' success, as it prevented the Srivijayan mandala from organizing defenses, mounting a response, or seeking aid.[2][18] The war ended in a Chola victory, significantly weakening Srivijaya and breaking its maritime monopoly in the region.[15][16][19][20]

Aftermath[edit | edit source]

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Charter issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a Buddhist Vihara in Srivijaya.

With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion, marking the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay Annals, Rajendra Chola I, after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.[21][22]

The invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.[18]

This invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.[18] Sanfoqi sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang.[1]:398, 405 No Srivijayan envoys came to China between 1028–1077, indicating that the mandala of Srivijaya had faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed in 1025.[23]:110 In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to "Sanfoqi", but this term probably refers to the Malayu-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by Chinese record of Sanfoqi Zhanbei guo (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.[1]:397, 398, 405

The Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles mentioned Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely referring to Kedah. Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the Malacca Straits.[1]:398, 399, 405

Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded in the 12th century — the Tamil poem Kalingatupparani of around 1120 mentioned Kulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared from Indian sources.[1]:398, 399

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Miksic, John N.; Goh, Geok Yian (2017). Ancient Southeast Asia. London: Routledge.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 981-4155-67-5.
  3. ↑ Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.170
  4. ↑ Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India by Moti Chandra p.214
  5. ↑ Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 by Tansen Sen p.159
  6. ↑ Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.69
  7. ↑ Wink, André, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. I, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th-11th centuries, p.325, ISBN 978-0391041738
  8. ↑ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.564
  9. ↑ Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana by Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay, eds. (2009). Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 1. ISBN 9789812309372. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
  11. ↑ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1935). The CōĻas. University of Madras. pp. 219–220.
  12. ↑ Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67
  13. ↑ Heng, Derek (October 2013). "State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 44 (3): 380–399. doi:10.1017/S0022463413000362. S2CID 161550066.
  14. ↑ Craig A. Lockard (27 December 2006). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. Cengage Learning. p. 367. ISBN 0618386114. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers
  17. ↑ Heng, Derek (2013). "State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 44 (3): 385. doi:10.1017/S0022463413000362. ISSN 0022-4634. JSTOR 43863212. S2CID 161550066.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. p. 163. ISBN 981-4155-67-5.
  19. ↑ Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43
  20. ↑ Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161
  21. ↑ Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226
  22. ↑ Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71
  23. ↑ Miksic, John M. (2013). Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800. NUS Press. ISBN 9789971695583.
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