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{{Short description|Proclamation by Muhammad to end intertribal fighting in Medina}}
{{Short description|Proclamation by Muhammad to end intertribal fighting}}
{{Muhammad}}
{{Infobox treaty
The '''Constitution of Medina''' ({{lang|ar|دستور المدينة}}, ''Dustūr al-Madīna''), also known as the '''Charter of Medina''' ({{lang-ar|صحيفة المدينة}}, ''Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah''; or: {{lang|ar|ميثاق المدينة}}, ''Mīthāq al-Madina'' "Covenant of Medina"),<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lecker |first1=Michael |title=The Constitution of Medina |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0209.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |access-date=16 December 2019 |date=26 August 2014}}</ref> is the modern name given to a document or documents believed to have formalized the agreement between Muhammad, his followers, and the residents of [[Medina]]. Portions of this constitution are corroborated by multiple sound hadith reports. Its validity in its stated single form, however, has been called into question, as there is no single sound chain of authorities ([[Hadith studies|isnad]]) supporting it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The "Constitution" of Medina: Translation, Commentary, and Meaning Today |url=https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/the-constitution-of-medina-translation-commentary-and-meaning-today |access-date=2023-04-21 |website=Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of Medina |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0209.xml |access-date=2023-04-21 |website=obo |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Çakmak |first=Cenap |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSHFDgAAQBAJ |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] |date=2017-05-18 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-217-5 |pages=324 |language=en}}</ref> There are differences of opinion as well as to how many documents the constitution comprises—from one to eight. It is also unclear with which [[Jews]] this agreement was made, whether it was only with some of the smaller Jewish social units that had lost their tribal structure and affiliated with the [[Arabs]], with the Judaized Arabs, or also included the three major Jewish clans in the city, namely [[Banu Qaynuqa]], [[Banu Nadir]], and [[Banu Qurayza]].<ref name=":0" />
| name = Constitution of Medina
| long_name = ميثاق المدينة (Mithaq al-Madina)
| type = [[Constitution]], [[Agreement (disambiguation)|Agreement]], [[Social contract]]
| date_signed = 622 CE
| signatories = Various tribes and groups in Medina
| parties = '''Supreme Magistrate''' / '''Author''':<br/>[[Muhammad]]<br/>'''Muslims of Medina''':<br/>[[Muhajirun]] (migrants from Mecca)<br/> [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] (helpers from Medina)<br/>'''Jewish tribes of Medina''':<br/>[[Banu Qaynuqa]]<br/>[[Banu Nadir]]<br/>[[Banu Qurayza]]<br/>'''Pagan Arabs of Medina'''<br/> '''Various polytheistic tribes'''
| language = [[Arabic]]}}{{Muhammad}}
The '''Mithaq al-Madina''' or the '''Constitution of Medina''' or the '''Charter of Medina''' (<!-- The use of دستور is anachronistic and a semantic borrowing) -->{{Langx|ar|وثيقة المدينة|Waṯīqat al-Madīna|rtl=Yes}}; or {{langx|ar|صحیفة المدينة|Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna|label=none|rtl=yes}}; also known as the "Umma Document"),{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=227}} is a constitution<ref>John Burton, ''Those are the High-flying Cranes'', Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol 15 No. 2, pp. 265</ref><ref>Tarif Khalidi, ''Arab Historical Thought in The Classical Period'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 48</ref> that governed the affairs of [[Medina]]<ref name="Al-Dawoody1-19">{{cite book|first=Ahmed|last=Al-Dawoody|date=2011|title=The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations |page=19 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9780230111608}}</ref>{{Sfn|Rubin|2022|p=8}} which formed the basis of the [[First Islamic State]], a multi-religious polity under the Prophet Muhammad's leadership.<ref name="BLAiH-42">{{cite web |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |title=The Arabs in History |page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2114/mode/2up |access-date=24 November 2023}}.</ref> Composed of approximately 47 clauses, the constitution established a [[legal]], [[economic]] and political framework for the diverse communities living in Medina, declaring all citizens as one community.<ref name="Crone-know-2008">{{cite web |last1=Crone |first1=Patricia |title=What do we actually know about Mohammed? |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/mohammed_3866jsp/ |website=Open Democracy |access-date=22 November 2023 |date=10 June 2008 |quote=sources dating from the mid-8th century onwards preserve a document drawn up between Mohammed and the inhabitants of Yathrib, which there are good reasons to accept as broadly authentic}}</ref>


This constitution gave the [[prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], who had just escaped persecution in [[Mecca]], a leading role in the community of Medina. By dating this treaty at the outset of his arrival, it credited Muhammad with honor and power earlier than he would later gain, but more importantly, it gives the justification for Muhammad's subsequent attacks on the Jews as retaliation for their opposition to him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon Darnell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfxsPwAACAAJ |title=A History of the Jews of Arabia: From Ancient Times to Their Eclipse Under Islam |date=2009 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-57003-885-3 |pages=80–2 |language=en}}</ref> There is a suggestion, however, that if this constitution really existed, it was probably created after the elimination of the three major Jewish clans in Medina by Muhammad and his troops.<ref>Watt (1956), p.227</ref> Others, such as [[Bernard Lewis]], argue that the charter was not a treaty in the modern sense but a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad.<ref name=":1" />
According to [[Robert Bertram Serjeant]], the Constitution of Medina consisted of eight distinct documents, issued on several occasions over the first seven years or so of Muhammad's Medinan period.<ref name="Serjeant-1978-BotSoOaAS">{{cite journal |last1=Serjeant |first1=R. B. |title=The "Sunnah Jāmi'ah," Pacts with the Yaṯẖrib Jews, and the "Taḥrīm" of Yaṯẖrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the So-Called 'Constitution of Medina' |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=1978 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761 |jstor=615621 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/615621 |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref> Many of the texts were recorded by Ibn Ishaq and [[Abu Ubaid al-Qasim bin Salam|Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam]],{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=227}} though how they encountered the text is unclear.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}}{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=221}} Although it does not fulfill any of the conditions of authenticity in the Islamic recording system (such as having a reliable chain of narrators up to the person who recorded it), it is widely accepted as authentic.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}} It may have been preserved due to interest in its manner of administration.{{Sfn|Donner|1998|p=209}} Many tribal groups are mentioned, including the [[Banu Najjar]] and [[Quraysh]], as well as many tribal institutions, like vengeance, [[Blood money in Islam|blood money]], [[ransom]], alliance, and [[Vassal|clientage]],{{Sfn|Cook|2024|p=69}} and has striking resemblances with [[Al-Ma'idah|Surah 5 (Al-Ma'idah)]] of the [[Quran]].{{Sfn|Goudarzi|2024|p=62–64}}


The preamble declares the document to be "a book [''kitab''] of the prophet Muhammad to operate between the believers [''mu'minin''] and Muslims from the [[Quraysh]] tribe and from [[Yathrib]] and those who may be under them and wage war in their company" declaring them to constitute "one community [''[[ummah]] wāḥidah''] separate from all other people". It established the collective responsibility of nine constituent tribes for their members' actions, specifically emphasising [[blood money (restitution)|blood money]] and [[ransom]] payment. The first constituent group mentioned are the [[Qurayshi]] migrants, followed by eight other tribes. Eight Jewish groups are recognized as part of the Yathrib community, and their religious separation from Muslims is established. The Jewish [[Banu Shutayba]] tribe is inserted as one of the Jewish groups, rather than with the nine tribes mentioned earlier in the document. The constitution also established Muhammad as the mediating authority between groups and forbids the waging of war without his authorization.
The constitution formed the basis of a multi-religious [[Islamic state]] in Medina.{{sfn|Serjeant|1978}}{{sfn|Firestone|1999|p=118}}<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>{{sfn|Watt|1956}}{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=4}}
The constitution was created to end the bitter intertribal fighting between the rival clans of [[Banu Aws]] and [[Banu Khazraj]] in Medina{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=4}} and to maintain peace and co-operation among all Medinan groups. Establishing the role of Muhammad as the mediating authority between the two groups and the others in Medina was central to the ending of Medinan internal violence and was an essential feature of the constitution. The document ensured [[freedom of religion|freedom of religious]] beliefs and practices for all citizens who "follow the believers". It assured that representatives of all parties, Muslim or non-Muslim, should be present when consultation occurs or in cases of negotiation with foreign states. It declared "a woman can only be hosted by a host with the consent of her family" and imposed a tax system for supporting the community in times of conflict. It declared the role of Medina as a [[haram (site)|''ḥaram'']] ({{lang|ar|حرم}}, "sanctuary"), where no blood of the peoples included in the pact can be spilled.
The division of the constitution into numbered articles would not have been in the original text but was added much later by scholars. Therefore, the numbering of clauses differs across different versions. But there is general agreement on the authenticity of the [[s:Constitution of Medina|most widely-read version]] of the charter, which is found in [[Ibn Hisham]]'s sira.<ref name="Al-Dawoody1">{{cite book|first=Ahmed|last=Al-Dawoody|date=2011|title=The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations|page=19|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230111608}}</ref>{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=225|ps=: "This document has generally been regarded as authentic...."}}
==Background==
According to traditional Islamic belief, in Muhammad's last years in Mecca, a delegation from Medina from its twelve important clans invited him as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community.<ref name="Cambridge39">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 39</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |title=Islam : the straight path |date=1998 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-511233-7 |page=17 |edition=3rd}}</ref> There had been fighting in Medina involving mainly its pagan and Jewish inhabitants for around 100 years before 620. The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the [[Battle of Bu'ath]] in which all the clans had been involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood feud and [[eye for an eye|an eye for an eye]] were no longer workable unless there was one man with the authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.<ref name= "Cambridge39" /> The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and to protect him physically as if he was one of them.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Welch |first=Alford |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam}}{{page needed|date=January 2016}}</ref>
After emigration to Medina, Muhammad drafted the constitution, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" of the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca and specifying the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina, including that of the Muslim community to other communities: the [[Jew]]s and the other "[[Peoples of the Book]]".<ref name="Cambridge39"/> According to chroniclers such as [[Ibn Sa'd|Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi]], the composition of the population of Medina at that time consisted of two supergroup local Arab tribes, the Aus and the Khazraj, with eight clans and 33 other smaller groups under them.{{CN|date=November 2022}} Meanwhile, the Jewish tribes at least consisted of around 20 groups, with the most well-known tribes Qaynuqa, Nadhir, and Qurayza among them.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=153}}
==Historical sources==
==Historical sources==
No copy of the Constitution of Medina has ever been found. We only know of its existence from excerpts included in [[historiography of early Islam|early Muslim sources]], the earliest of which is "[[Al-Sīrah Al-Nabawiyyah]]" of [[Ibn Hisham]] (early 800s CE), which claims to republish material found in the lost "Sīrat Rasūl Allāh" of [[Ibn Ishaq]] (mid 700s CE). This report, however, was transmitted without any chain of authority; thus making it does not satisfy the acceptance criteria of hadith scholars.<ref name=":0" /> Later Muslim writings, such as those by Sayyid al-Nas and Abu ‘Ubayd's ''Kitab al-Amwal'' also claim to preserve material from the Constitution of Medina.
The Constitution is only known from excerpts in [[historiography of early Islam|early Muslim sources]], primarily the [[Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (Ibn Hisham)|Al-Sīrah Al-Nabawiyyah]] of [[Ibn Hisham]] (early 800s CE), a recension of the [[Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (Ibn Ishaq)|Al-Sīrah Al-Nabawiyyah]] of [[Ibn Ishaq]], though transmitted without a chain of narration, a crucial criterion for hadith scholars.<ref name="aw"/> Other important sources for the Constitution includes those of Sayyid al-Nas and the ''Kitab al-Amwal'' of [[Abu Ubaid al-Qasim bin Salam|Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam]].
The document's historicity has been questioned, such as by the [[Revisionist school of Islamic studies|revisionist scholars]],<ref>Hoyland, Robert G., ''Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam (Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam)'', The Darwin Press, pp. 548-549</ref> though many Muslim and Western scholars of Islam believe such a document did exist during the time of Muhammad—but that it did not survive and we cannot be certain of its contents.<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/>{{sfn|Cook|1983|p=65}}<ref>John Burton, ''Those are the High-flying Cranes'', Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol 15 No. 2, pp. 265</ref><ref>Tarif Khalidi, ''Arab Historical Thought in The Classical Period'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 48</ref>


One 20th-century scholar, Montgomery Watt, suggested that the Constitution of Medina must have been written in the [[Muhammad in Medina|early Medinan period]] (i.e., in 622 CE or shortly thereafter), because if the document been drafted any later, then it would have both had a positive attitude towards the Quraysh and given Muhammad a prominent place. Others, such as Hubert Grimme, suggested that it must have been drafted after the 624 CE [[Battle of Badr]]. Still others, such as [[Leone Caetani]], suggested that the document was written before that battle.{{sfn|Watt|1956|pp=225–226}}
According to L. Ali Khan, scholars do not agree on whether the constitution was a single document or "a compilation of multiple agreements reached at different times".<ref name="Khan-2006"/> According to mid-20th century scholar, [[Robert Bertram Serjeant]], the 'Constitution of Medina' consists of "eight distinct documents ... issued on various occasions over the first seven years or so of Muhammad's Medinan period".<ref name="Serjeant-1978-BotSoOaAS"/> In its first [[recension]], Serjeant hypothesizes that the text sanctioned the establishment of a confederation; in its second, it admonished the Aws and Khazraj to abide by their treaty; in its third, in conjunction with the proceeding verses, it encouraged of Muhammad's adherents to face the Meccan forces they eventually fought at [[Uhud]]. He also suggests that 3:101–104 of the Qur'an may refer to the constitution.{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=8}}


Another mid-20th century scholar, RB Serjeant, proposed that 3:101–104 of the Qur'an may refer to the Constitution of Medina. He hypothesized that the document underwent [[recension]]: In its first recension, the text sanctioned the establishment of a confederation; in its second, it admonished the Aws and Khazraj to abide by their treaty; in its third, in conjunction with the proceeding verses, it is an encouragement of Muhammad's adherents to face the Meccan forces they eventually fought at [[Uhud]].{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=8}}
== Genre and authenticity ==
The Constitution has been highly influential among contemporary Muslims,{{sfn|Anjum|2021}} celebrated for its religious pluralism,<ref name="Khan-2006"/> unique character and the first "Constitution"{{sfn|Hamidullah|1941|page=title page}} and belief that God is its ultimate source.{{#tag:ref|"In comparison to our constitution it is obvious that the constitution of Nabi SAW is superior because it is a constitution based on divinity, i.e. Qur’an and Hadith. There is no comparison."<ref name="IslamQA.org">{{cite web |last1=bin Moulana Yaseen Rahim |first1=Shaakir |last2=Ashraf |first2=Mufti Muhammad |title=The Madinah Constitution |url=https://islamqa.org/hanafi/mahmoodiyah/54050/the-madinah-constitution/ |website=IslamQA.org |date=16 October 2012 |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref>|group=Note}} On the other hand, historians have variously characterized it as a "municipal charter” (''Gemeindeordnung''); or as a "unilateral proclamation" by Muhammad, whose "purpose was purely practical and administrative", rather than a treaty in the modern sense.{{#tag:ref| "The document is not a treaty in the European sense, but rather a unilateral proclamation, its purpose was purely practical and administrative and reveals the cautious, cartful character of the Prophet."<ref name="BLAiH-42">{{cite web |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |title=The Arabs in History |page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2114/mode/2up |access-date=24 November 2023}}.</ref>|group=Note}}


==Original text==
Most historians have accepted the authenticity of the Constitution of Medina.<ref name="Crone-know-2008">{{cite web |last1=Crone |first1=Patricia |title=What do we actually know about Mohammed? |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/mohammed_3866jsp/ |website=Open Democracy |access-date=22 November 2023 |date=10 June 2008 |quote=sources dating from the mid-8th century onwards preserve a document drawn up between Mohammed and the inhabitants of Yathrib, which there are good reasons to accept as broadly authentic}}</ref><ref name="Al-Dawoody1-19">{{cite book|first=Ahmed|last=Al-Dawoody|date=2011|title=The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations |page=19 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9780230111608}}</ref>{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=225|ps=: "This document has generally been regarded as authentic...."}}<ref name="BLAiH-42"/>{{sfn|Holland|2012|p=383}}{{#tag:ref| though "the most skeptical of contemporary 'source-critical' scholars", (Patricia Crone), has endorsed the text's antiquity, saying that in the Sira of Ibn Ishaq, “it sticks out like a piece of solid rock in an accumulation of rubble.”{{sfn|Arjomand|2009}} |group=Note}} This is based on its inclusion of non-Muslims and its portrayal of the [[Quraysh]] as enemies of God, a view inconsistent with later Islamic periods. Other factors include the perceived archaic style of the text, its abundance of unexplained allusions that were considered to be likely understood only by contemporaries, and its apparent inclination towards tribal law over developed Islamic norms.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}}
The following is a translation into English of what was alleged (by Ibn Hisham in the early 800s CE) to have been the text of the Constitution of Medina by Muslim scholar [[Muhammad Hamidullah|Muhamad Hamidullah]] based on the following sources: the Seerah of Ibn Hisham<ref>[https://www.kalamullah.com/Books/Sirat%20Ibn%20Hisham.pdf Seerah of Ibn Hisham]</ref> which quotes the Seerah of Ibn Ishaq,<ref>[[iarchive:TheLifeOfMohammedGuillaume/page/n137|Seerah of Ibn Ishaq]]</ref> Abu Ubaid's Kitab-al-Amwal,<ref>[http://read.kitabklasik.net/2009/12/kitab-al-amwal-abu-ubaid-al-qasim-bin.html Abu Ubaid's Kitab-al-Amwal] (p. 517)</ref> and Ibn Kathir's ''al-Bidayah-wan-Nihaya''.<ref>Ibn Kathir's al-Bidayah-wan-Nihaya (Vol. 3, pp. 224 —26)</ref> A comparative translation of the two versions by Ibn Ishaq in Ibn Hisham's recension and Abu Ubaid has been published by Michael Lecker, who highlights the differences between the two texts.<ref name=Lecker>{{Cite book|title=The "Constitution of Medina" : Muḥammad's First Legal Document.|last=Lecker|first=Michael|publisher=Darwin|year=2004|location=Princeton, N.J.}}</ref><blockquote>'''A Translation of the Constitution of the City-State of Madina in the Time of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وسلم)'''


[I have tried to make the translation very clear so as not to require any marginal notes for its understanding. The clauses have been numbered, to facilitate easy reference. Since this numbering has been agreed upon and is the same in Germany, Holland, Italy, and other places, so whenever I have had to differ I have indicated my difference by subdividing the clause into (a), (b), etc., so as not to interfere with the international numbering.]<ref name=Lecker/>
At least a few remain skeptical however, and some think that the Constitution existed but its wording or content is no longer accessible.<ref name="Al-Dawoody1-19"/>{{sfn|Cook|1983|p=65}}<ref>John Burton, ''Those are the High-flying Cranes'', Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol 15 No. 2, pp. 265</ref><ref>Tarif Khalidi, ''Arab Historical Thought in The Classical Period'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 48</ref> In the case of some historians, skepticism is constrained to particular aspects of the Constitution as well as the context of its emergence; disagreements persist on whether the documents resulted from negotiated settlements or were merely unilateral edicts by Muhammad, the identity of participants (including uncertainty about the inclusion of the three major Jewish tribes of Medina—[[Banu Qaynuqa]], [[Banu Nadir]], and [[Banu Qurayza]]),{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=227}} the quantity of documents, the precise timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), and the appropriate approach to its translation, among other issues.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}}


'''In the name of God, the Beneficent and the Merciful'''
== Dating ==
[[File:PERF No. 665.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|An early manuscript of [[Ibn Hisham]]'s {{tlit|ar|[[Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (Ibn Hisham)|al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah]]}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Nabia |author-link=Nabia Abbott |title=Studies in Arabic Literary Papyri: Qur'anic Commentary and Tradition |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1967 |volume=2 |location=Chicago, USA}}</ref>{{Reference page|page=61}}]]


(1) This is a prescript of Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم), the Prophet and Messenger of God (to operate) between the faithful and the followers of Islam from among the Quraish and the people of Madina and those who may be under them, may join them and take part in wars in their company.
One 20th-century scholar, [[W. Montgomery Watt]], suggested that the Constitution of Medina must have been written in the [[Muhammad in Medina|early Medinan period]] (i.e., in 622 CE or shortly thereafter), because if the document had been drafted any later, then it would have both had a positive attitude towards the Quraysh and given Muhammad a more prominent place. Malay scholars, Fadzilah Din and Mohamed Noh Abdul Jalil, as well as the noted Pakistani scholar, [[Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri]],<ref>T̤āhirulqādrī Muḥammad and Muḥammad Muḥammad. The Constitution of Medina (63 Constitutional Articles). Minhaj-Ul-Quran International 2012. INSERT-MISSING-DATABASE-NAME http://www.aspresolver.com/aspresolver.asp?TCR2;3211718. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/950030374 Worldcat website] Accessed 20 Dec. 2023.</ref> cite the 622 CE drafting.<ref>Din, Fadzilah and Mohamed Noh Abdul Jalil. “Nationhood and loyalty in Islam: Between Dustur al-Madinah and the Bukit Seguntang Covenant.” (2018). [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Nationhood-and-loyalty-in-Islam%3A-Between-Dustur-and-Din-Jalil/e365c1f3fc545bd0613c99e448dda5142d618236 Semantic Scholar website] Retrieved 20 December 2023.</ref> Others, such as Hubert Grimme, suggested that it must have been drafted after the 624 CE [[Battle of Badr]]. Still others, such as [[Leone Caetani]], suggested that the document was written before that battle.{{sfn|Watt|1956|pp=225–226}}


(2) They shall constitute a separate political unit (Ummat) as distinguished from all the people (of the world).
Portions of the constitution are corroborated by multiple sound hadith reports. Its validity in its stated single form, however, has been called into question, as there is no single sound chain of authorities ([[Hadith studies|isnad]]) supporting it.{{sfn|Anjum|2021}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of Medina |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0209.xml |access-date=2023-04-21 |website=obo |language=en}}</ref><ref name="aw">{{Cite book |last=Çakmak |first=Cenap |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSHFDgAAQBAJ |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] |date=2017-05-18 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-217-5 |pages=324 |language=en}}</ref> There are differences of opinion as well as to how many documents the constitution comprises—from one to eight. It is also unclear with which [[Jews]] this agreement was made, whether it was only with some of the smaller Jewish social units that had lost their tribal structure and affiliated with the [[Arabs]], with the Judaized Arabs, or also included what later sources described as the three major Jewish clans in the city, namely [[Banu Qaynuqa]], [[Banu Nadir]], and [[Banu Qurayza]],<ref name="aw"/> (who are not mentioned in the agreement).


(3) The emigrants from the Quraish shall be (responsible) for own their ward; and shall pay their blood money in mutual collaboration and shall secure the release of their own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that the mutual dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
This constitution gave the [[prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], who had just escaped persecution in [[Mecca]], a leading role in the community of Medina. By dating this treaty at the outset of his arrival, it credited Muhammad with honor and power earlier than he would later gain, but more importantly, it gives the justification for Muhammad's subsequent attacks on the Jews as retaliation for their opposition to him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon Darnell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfxsPwAACAAJ |title=A History of the Jews of Arabia: From Ancient Times to Their Eclipse Under Islam |date=2009 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-57003-885-3 |pages=80–2 |language=en}}</ref> Another question raised about the constitution is that though it gives a list of Jewish tribes/clans of Medina involved, not among them are three famous in traditional Islamic history for being driven into exile (the [[Banu Qaynuqa]] and [[Banu Nadir]] tribes) or "massacred and dumped into pits" (the [[Banu Qurayza]] tribe),{{sfn|Ibn Kathir|p=2}} after conspiring and rising up against Muhammad. There is a suggestion, however, that if this constitution really existed, it was probably created after the elimination of the three major Jewish clans in Medina by Muhammad and his troops.<ref>Watt (1956), p.227</ref> (see Also:[[Jewish tribes of Arabia]])


(4) And Banu ‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood money in mutual collaboration, and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
==Background==
 
According to traditional Islamic belief, in Muhammad's last years in Mecca, a delegation from Medina from its twelve important clans invited him as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community.<ref name="Cambridge39">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 39</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |title=Islam : the straight path |date=1998 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-511233-7 |page=17 |edition=3rd}}</ref> There had been fighting in Medina involving mainly its pagan and Jewish inhabitants for around 100 years before 620. The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the [[Yawm al-Buath|Battle of Bu'ath]] in which all the clans had been involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood feud and [[eye for an eye|an eye for an eye]] were no longer workable unless there was one man with the authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.<ref name= "Cambridge39"/> The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and to protect him physically as if he was one of them.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Welch |first=Alford |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam}}{{page needed|date=January 2016}}</ref>
(5) And Banu Al-Harith-ibn-Khazraj shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
 
(6) And Banu Sa‘ida shall be responsible for their own ward, and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
 
(7) And Banu Jusham shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
 
(8) And Banu an-Najjar shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
 
(9) And Banu ‘Amr-ibn-‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
 
(10) And Banu-al-Nabit shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
 
(11) And Banu-al-Aws shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
 
(12) (a) And the believers shall not leave any one, hard-pressed with debts, without affording him some relief, in order that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice. (b) Also no believer shall enter into a contract of clientage with one who is already in such a contract with another believer.
 
(13) And the hands of pious believers shall be raised against every such person as rises in rebellion or attempts to acquire anything by force or is guilty of any sin or excess or attempts to spread mischief among the believers ; their hands shall be raised all together against such a person, even if he be a son to any one of them.
 
(14)  A Believer will not kill a Believer [in retaliation] for a non-Believer and will not aid a non-Believer against a Believer.
 
(15) The protection (''dhimmah'') of Allah is one, the least of them [i.e., the Believers] is entitled to grant protection (''yujīr'') that is binding for all of them. The Believers are each other’s allies (''mawālī'') to the exclusion of other people.
 
(16) And that those who will obey us among the Jews, will have help and equality. Neither shall they be oppressed nor will any help be given against them.
 
(17) And the peace of the believers shall be one. If there be any war in the way of God, no believer shall be under any peace (with the enemy) apart from other believers, unless it (this peace) be the same and equally binding on all.
 
(18) And all those detachments that will fight on our side will be relieved by turns.
 
(19) And the believers as a body shall take blood vengeance in the way of God.
 
(20) (a) And undoubtedly pious believers are the best and in the rightest course. (b) And that no associator (non-Muslim subject) shall give any protection to the life and property of a Quraishite, nor shall he come in the way of any believer in this matter.
 
(21) And if any one intentionally murders a believer, and it is proved, he shall be killed in retaliation, unless the heir of the murdered person be satisfied with blood-money. And all believers shall actually stand for this ordinance and nothing else shall be proper for them to do.
 
(22) And it shall not be lawful for any one, who has agreed to carry out the provisions laid down in this code and has affixed his faith in God and the Day of Judgment, to give help or protection to any murderer, and if he gives any help or protection to such a person, God‟s curse and wrath shall be on him on the Day of Resurrection, and no money or compensation shall be accepted from such a person.
 
(23) And that whenever you differ about anything, refer it to God and to Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم)
 
(24) And the Jews shall share with the believers the expenses of war so long as they fight in conjunction,
 
(25) And the Jews of Banu ‘Awf shall be considered as one community (Ummat) along with the believers—for the Jews their religion, and for the Muslims theirs, be one client or patron. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings evil only on himself and his household.
 
(26) And the Jews of Banu-an-Najjar shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
 
(27) And the Jews of Banu-al-Harith shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
 
(28) And the Jews of Banu Sa‘ida shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf
 
(29) And the Jews of Banu Jusham shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
 
(30) And the Jews of Banu al-Aws shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
 
(31) And the Jews of Banu Tha‘laba shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings evil only on himself and his household.
 
(32) And Jafna, who are a branch of the Tha’laba tribe, shall have the same rights as the mother tribes.
 
(33) And Banu-ash-Shutaiba shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf; and they shall be faithful to, and not violators of, treaty.


(34) And the mawlas (clients) of Tha'laba shall have the same rights as those of the original members of it.
After emigration to Medina, Muhammad drafted the constitution, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" of the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca and specifying the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina, including that of the Muslim community to other communities: the [[Jew]]s and the other "[[Peoples of the Book]]".<ref name="Cambridge39"/> According to chroniclers such as [[Ibn Sa'd|Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi]] (785-845 CE), the composition of the population of Medina at that time consisted of two supergroup local Arab tribes, the Aus and the Khazraj, with eight clans and 33 other smaller groups under them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} Meanwhile, the Jewish tribes at least consisted of around 20 groups, with the most well-known tribes Qaynuqa, Nadhir, and Qurayza among them,{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=153}} (who are not mentioned in the agreement). The constitution also appointed Muhammad as the [[Chief Magistrate]],<ref>Sallābi, A. (2001) Ar‑Rahmatul‑lil‑‘Alameen. Cairo: Dar al-Tawheed.</ref><ref>Ibn Hishām, A. (1955) As‑Sīrah an‑Nabawiyyah, Vol. 1–2. Cairo: Dar al‑Kutub.</ref> making him as the foremost judicial authority responsible for resolving conflicts and overseeing judicial welfare in [[Medina]]. This later unified the diverse tribal groups, including the Jewish tribes, and ended long standing internecine tensions. In this role, prophet Muhammad exercised final decision making in [[dispute resolution]], interpretation of law, and maintenance of [[public order]].<ref>Mubārakfūrī, S. (1996) Ar‑Raheeq al‑Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Darussalam.</ref><ref>Al‑Bukhārī, M. (n.d.) Ṣaḥīḥ al‑Bukhārī, Kitāb al‑Sulḥ and Kitāb al‑Aḥkām (reports of people seeking the Prophet’s arbitration).</ref>


(35) And the sub-branches of the Jewish tribes shall have the same rights as the mother tribes.
==Text==
The following English translation is that of Michael Lecker from 2004.{{Sfn|Lecker|2004}} It is based on the version of the document found in Ibn Hisham's recension of the [[Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (Ibn Ishaq)|Seerah of Ibn Ishaq]], Abu Ubaid's ''Kitab-al-Amwal'', and Ibn Kathir's ''[[al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya]]''.{{sfn|Ibn Kathir|loc=vol. 3|pp=224–226}} The translation was aimed at being clear, with clauses numbered in line with international standards for ease of future reference.{{Sfn|Lecker|2004}} There is general agreement on the authenticity of the text.<ref name="Al-Dawoody1-19"/>{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=225|ps=: "This document has generally been regarded as authentic...."}}


(36) (a) And that none of them shall go out to fight as a soldier of the Muslim army, without the per-mission of Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم). (b) And no obstruction shall be placed in the way of any one‟s retaliation for beating or injuries; and whoever sheds blood brings it upon himself and his household, except he who has been wronged, and Allah demands the most righteous fulfillment of this [treaty].
<blockquote>
# This is a prescript of Muhammad, the Prophet and Messenger of God (to operate) between the faithful and the followers of Islam ("Muslims") from among the Quraish and the people of Madina and those who may be under them, may join them and take part in wars in their company.
# They shall constitute a separate political unit ("''Ummah''") as distinguished from all the people (of the world).
# The emigrants from the Quraish shall be (responsible) for their own ward; and shall pay their blood money in mutual collaboration and shall secure the release of their own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that the mutual dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu ‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood money in mutual collaboration, and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu Al-Harith-ibn-Khazraj shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu Sa‘ida shall be responsible for their own ward, and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu Jusham shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu an-Najjar shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu ‘Amr-ibn-‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu-al-Nabit shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
# And Banu-al-Aws shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
#
## And the believers shall not leave any one, hard-pressed with debts, without affording him some relief, in order that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
## Also no believer shall enter into a contract of clientage with one who is already in such a contract with another believer.
# And the hands of pious believers shall be raised against every such person as rises in rebellion or attempts to acquire anything by force or is guilty of any sin or excess or attempts to spread mischief among the believers ; their hands shall be raised all together against such a person, even if he be a son to any one of them.
# A Believer will not kill a Believer [in retaliation] for a non-Believer and will not aid a non-Believer against a Believer.
# The protection (''dhimmah'') of Allah is one, the least of them [i.e., the Believers] is entitled to grant protection (''yujīr'') that is binding for all of them. The Believers are each other's allies (''mawālī'') to the exclusion of other people.
# And that those who will follow us among the Jews, will have help and equality. Neither shall they be oppressed nor will any help be given against them.
# And the peace of the believers shall be one. If there be any war in the way of God, no believer shall be under any peace (with the enemy) apart from other believers, unless it (this peace) be the same and equally binding on all.
# And all those detachments that will fight on our side will be relieved by turns.
# And the believers as a body shall take blood vengeance in the way of God.
## And undoubtedly pious believers are the best and in the rightest course.
## And that no associator (non-Muslim subject) shall give any protection to the life and property of a Quraishite, nor shall he come in the way of any believer in this matter.
# And if any one intentionally murders a believer, and it is proved, he shall be killed in retaliation, unless the heir of the murdered person be satisfied with blood-money. And all believers shall actually stand for this ordinance and nothing else shall be proper for them to do.
# And it shall not be lawful for any one, who has agreed to carry out the provisions laid down in this code and has affixed his faith in God and the Day of Judgment, to give help or protection to any murderer, and if he gives any help or protection to such a person, God‟s curse and wrath shall be on him on the Day of Resurrection, and no money or compensation shall be accepted from such a person.
# And that whenever you differ about anything, refer it to God and to Muhammad
# And the Jews shall share with the believers the expenses of war so long as they fight in conjunction,
# And the Jews of Banu ‘Awf shall be considered as one community (''Ummat'') along with the believers—for the Jews their religion, and for the Muslims theirs, be one client or patron. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings evil only on himself and his household.
# And the Jews of Banu-an-Najjar shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
# And the Jews of Banu-al-Harith shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
# And the Jews of Banu Sa‘ida shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf
# And the Jews of Banu Jusham shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
# And the Jews of Banu al-Aws shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
# And the Jews of Banu Tha‘laba shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings evil only on himself and his household.
# And Jafna, who are a branch of the Tha’laba tribe, shall have the same rights as the mother tribes.
# And Banu-ash-Shutaiba shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf; and they shall be faithful to, and not violators of, treaty.
# And the mawlas (clients) of Tha'laba shall have the same rights as those of the original members of it.
# And the sub-branches of the Jewish tribes shall have the same rights as the mother tribes.
#
## And that none of them shall go out to fight as a soldier of the Muslim army, without the per-mission of Muhammad<!-- (صلى الله عليه وسلم) -->.
## And no obstruction shall be placed in the way of any one‟s retaliation for beating or injuries; and whoever sheds blood brings it upon himself and his household, except he who has been wronged, and Allah demands the most righteous fulfillment of this [treaty].
#
## And the Jews shall bear the burden of their expenses and the Muslims theirs.
## And if any one fights against the people of this code, their (i.e., of the Jews and Muslims) mutual help shall come into operation, and there shall be friendly counsel and sincere behaviour between them; and faithfulness and no breach of covenant.
# And the Jews shall be bearing their own expenses so long as they shall be fighting in conjunction with the believers.
# And the Valley of Yathrib (Madina) shall be a Haram (sacred place) for the people of this code.
# The clients (mawla) shall have the same treatment as the original persons (i.e., persons accepting clientage). He shall neither be harmed nor shall he himself break the covenant.
# And no refuge shall be given to any one without the permission of the people of the place (i.e., the refugee shall have no right of giving refuge to others).
# And that if any murder or quarrel takes place among the people of this code, from which any trouble may be feared, it shall be referred to God and God's Messenger, Muhammad; and God will be with him who will be most particular about what is written in this code and act on it most faithfully.
# The Quraish shall be given no protection nor shall they who help them.
# And they (i.e., Jews and Muslims) shall have each other's help in the event of any force invading Yathrib.
#
## And if they (i.e., the Jews) are invited to any peace, they also shall offer peace and shall be a party to it; and if they invite the believers to some such affairs, it shall be their (Muslims) duty as well to reciprocate the dealings, excepting that any one makes a religious war.
## On every group shall rest the responsibility of (repulsing) the enemy from the place which faces its part of the city.
# And the Jews of the tribe of al-Aws, clients as well as original members, shall have the same rights as the people of this code: and shall behave sincerely and faithfully towards the latter, not perpetrating any breach of covenant. As one shall sow so shall he reap. And God is with him who will most sincerely and faithfully carry out the provisions of this code.
# And this prescript shall not be of any avail to any oppressor or breaker of covenant. And one shall have security whether one goes out to a campaign or remains in Madina, or else it will be an oppression and breach of covenant. And God is the Protector of him who performs the obligations with faithfulness and care, as also His Messenger Muhammad.{{sfn|Hamidullah|1941|pages=31–42}}</blockquote>


(37) (a) And the Jews shall bear the burden of their expenses and the Muslims theirs.
== Commentaries ==
=== Relationship with Jewish tribes ===
According to [[Jonathan Berkey]], one of the constitution's more interesting aspects was the inclusion of the Jewish tribes in the ummah because although the Jewish tribes were "one community with the believers", they also "have their religion and the Muslims have theirs".<ref>{{citation | first = Jonathan | last = Berkey | title = The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 64}}</ref>


(b) And if any one fights against the people of this code, their (i.e., of the Jews and Muslims) mutual help shall come into operation, and there shall be friendly counsel and sincere behaviour between them; and faithfulness and no breach of covenant.
L. Ali Khan says that it was a [[social contract]] derived from a [[treaty]] and not from any [[fiction]]al [[state of nature]] or from behind the [[John Rawls|Rawlsian]] [[veil of ignorance (philosophy)|veil of ignorance]]. It was built upon the concept of one [[community]] of diverse [[tribe]]s living under the [[sovereignty]] of [[monotheism|one God]].<ref name="Khan-2006">{{cite web |title=The Medina Constitution |date=2006-11-17 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228245045 |last1=Khan |first1=L. Ali  |website=researchgate.net |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref>
 
(38) And the Jews shall be bearing their own expenses so long as they shall be fighting in conjunction with the believers.
 
(39) And the Valley of Yathrib (Madina) shall be a Haram (sacred place) for the people of this code.
 
(40) The clients (mawla) shall have the same treatment as the original persons (i.e., persons accepting clientage). He shall neither be harmed nor shall he himself break the covenant.
 
(41) And no refuge shall be given to any one without the permission of the people of the place (i.e., the refugee shall have no right of giving refuge to others).
 
(42) And that if any murder or quarrel takes place among the people of this code, from which any trouble may be feared, it shall be referred to God and God‟s Messenger, Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم); and God will be with him who will be most particular about what is written in this code and act on it most faithfully.
 
(43) The Quraish shall be given no protection nor shall they who help them.
 
(44) And they (i.e., Jews and Muslims) shall have each other‟s help in the event of any one invading Yathrib.
 
(45) (a) And if they (i.e., the Jews) are invited to any peace, they also shall offer peace and shall be a party to it; and if they invite the believers to some such affairs, it shall be their (Muslims) duty as well to reciprocate the dealings, excepting that any one makes a religious war. (b) On every group shall rest the responsibility of (repulsing) the enemy from the place which faces its part of the city.
 
(46) And the Jews of the tribe of al-Aws, clients as well as original members, shall have the same rights as the people of this code: and shall behave sincerely and faithfully towards the latter, not perpetrating any breach of covenant. As one shall sow so shall he reap. And God is with him who will most sincerely and faithfully carry out the provisions of this code.
 
(47) And this prescript shall not be of any avail to any oppressor or breaker of covenant. And one shall have security whether one goes out to a campaign or remains in Madina, or else it will be an oppression and breach of covenant. And God is the Protector of him who performs the obligations with faithfulness and care, as also His Messenger Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The First Written Constitution of the World|last=Hamidullah|first=Muhammad|year=1941|pages=31–42}}</ref></blockquote>
 
==Quraysh==
Muhammad's [[Quraysh]] (or Quraish) tribe appear in the document as both a principal constituent of the community and the enemy. The Quraysh referred to are sometimes the followers of Muhammad as "migrants" or "believers", but other times, the word refers to those members of the tribe who expelled Muhammad and his followers from Mecca, the Qurayshi capital.
 
==Analysis==
[[Bernard Lewis]] claims that the charter was not a treaty in the modern sense but a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad.<ref name=":1">{{citation | first = Bernard | last = Lewis | title = The Arabs in History | page = 42}}.</ref> One of the constitution's more interesting aspects was the inclusion of the Jewish tribes in the ummah because although the Jewish tribes were "one community with the believers", they also "have their religion and the Muslims have theirs".<ref>{{citation | first = Jonathan | last = Berkey | title = The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 64}}</ref>
 
L. Ali Khan says that it was a [[social contract]] derived from a [[treaty]] and not from any [[fiction]]al [[state of nature]] or from behind the [[John Rawls|Rawlsian]] [[veil of ignorance (philosophy)|veil of ignorance]]. It was built upon the concept of one [[community]] of diverse [[tribe]]s living under the [[sovereignty]] of [[monotheism|one God]].<ref>{{cite SSRN |ssrn=945458 |title=The Medina Constitution |date=2006-11-17}}</ref>


It also instituted peaceful methods of [[dispute resolution]] among diverse groups living as one people but without assimilating into one religion, language or culture.<ref>{{cite book
It also instituted peaceful methods of [[dispute resolution]] among diverse groups living as one people but without assimilating into one religion, language or culture.<ref>{{cite book
Line 145: Line 114:
}}</ref> Welch in ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'' states: "The constitution reveals [[Muhammad]]'s great diplomatic skills, for it allows the ideal that he cherished of an [[ummah]] (community) based clearly on a religious outlook to sink temporarily into the background and is shaped essentially by practical considerations."<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>
}}</ref> Welch in ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'' states: "The constitution reveals [[Muhammad]]'s great diplomatic skills, for it allows the ideal that he cherished of an [[ummah]] (community) based clearly on a religious outlook to sink temporarily into the background and is shaped essentially by practical considerations."<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>


[[Tom Holland (author)|Tom Holland]] writes, "The Constitution of Medina is accepted by even the most suspicious of scholars as deriving from the time of Muhammad. Here in these precious documents, it is possible to glimpse the authentic beginnings of a movement that would succeed, in barely two decades, in prostrating both the Roman and the Persian Empires".{{sfn|Holland|2012|p=383}}
===Relationship between Believers===
 
Another important feature of the Constitution of Medina is the redefinition of ties between "Believers" (as they are described in the document). It sets faith relationships above blood-ties and emphasizes individual responsibility.<ref>{{citation | last = Williams | first = John Alden | title = Themes of Islamic Civilization | page = 12}}.</ref> Tribal identities are still important to refer to different groups, but the "main binding tie" for the newly created ummah is religion.<ref name= "Denny, Frederick 1977 p 44">{{citation | last = Denny | first = Frederick | contribution = Umma in the Constitution of Medina | title = Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume= 36 | number = 1 | date = Jan 1977 | page = 44 | publisher = The University of Chicago Press}}.</ref> That contrasts with the norms of pre-Islamic Arabia, which was a thoroughly tribal society, but Serjeant postulates the existence of earlier theocratic communities.{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=4}} According to Denny, "Watt has likened the Ummah as it is described in the document to a tribe, but with the important difference that it was to be based on religion and not on kinship".<ref name="Denny, Frederick 1977 p 44"/> That is an important event in the development of the small group of Muslims in Medina to the larger Muslim community and empire.{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=4}}
===Significance of Ummah===
Another important feature of the Constitution of Medina is the redefinition of ties between Muslims. It sets faith relationships above blood-ties and emphasizes individual responsibility.<ref>{{citation | last = Williams | first = John Alden | title = Themes of Islamic Civilization | page = 12}}.</ref> Tribal identities are still important to refer to different groups, but the "main binding tie" for the newly created ummah is religion.<ref name= "Denny, Frederick 1977 p 44">{{citation | last = Denny | first = Frederick | contribution = Umma in the Constitution of Medina | title = Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume= 36 | number = 1 | date = Jan 1977 | page = 44 | publisher = The University of Chicago Press}}.</ref> That contrasts with the norms of pre-Islamic Arabia, which was a thoroughly tribal society, but Serjeant postulates the existence of earlier theocratic communities.{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=4}} According to Denny, "Watt has likened the Ummah as it is described in the document to a tribe, but with the important difference that it was to be based on religion and not on kinship".<ref name="Denny, Frederick 1977 p 44"/> That is an important event in the development of the small group of Muslims in Medina to the larger Muslim community and empire.{{sfn|Serjeant|1964|p=4}}
 
===Rights of non-Muslims===
The non-Muslims had the following rights on the condition they "follow" the Muslims:{{sfnp|Ahmad|1979|pp=46–47}}
#The security of God is equal for all groups.<ref>Article 15, as quoted in {{harvp|Ahmad|1979|pp=46–47}}</ref>
#Non-Muslim members have the same political and cultural rights as Muslims. They have autonomy and freedom of religion.<ref>Article 25, as quoted in {{harvp|Ahmad|1979|pp=46–47}}</ref>
#Non-Muslims take up arms against the enemy of the nation and share the cost of war. There is to be no treachery between the two.<ref>Article 37, as quoted in {{harvp|Ahmad|1979|pp=46–47}}</ref>
#Non-Muslims are not obliged to take part in the Muslims' religious wars.<ref>Article 45, as quoted in {{harvp|Ahmad|1979|pp=46–47}}</ref>
 
==Reforms==
{{main|Early reforms under Islam}}


== See also ==
== See also ==
*[[Early reforms under Islam]]
*[[Al-Risalah al-Huquq]]
*[[Al-Risalah al-Huquq]]
*[[Ashtiname of Muhammad]]
*[[Ashtiname of Muhammad]]
Line 167: Line 125:
*[[Marrakesh Declaration]]
*[[Marrakesh Declaration]]
*[[Muhammad in Medina]]
*[[Muhammad in Medina]]
*[[Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry]]
*[[Ummah]]
*[[Ummah]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}


==References==
==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|35em}}
{{Reflist|35em}}


==Sources==
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ahmad |first=Barakat |author-link=Barakat Ahmad |year=1979 |title=Muhammad and the Jews  |publisher=Vikas Publishing House}}
*{{cite book |last=Ahmad |first=Barakat |author-link=Barakat Ahmad |year=1979 |title=Muhammad and the Jews  |publisher=Vikas Publishing House }}
* {{Cite book |last=Arjomand |first=Said Amir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNGAEAAAQBAJ |title=Messianism and Sociopolitical Revolution in Medieval Islam |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-38759-1 |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last=Caetani |first=Leone |year=1905 |title=Annali dell'Islam |volume=I |location=Milan |publisher=Hoepli }}
* {{cite book |last=Caetani |first=Leone |year=1905 |title=Annali dell'Islam |volume=I |location=Milan |publisher=Hoepli}}
*{{cite book|last=Cook |first=M. A. |title=Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsZJ3X-UvJsC |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1983|isbn=9780192876058}}
* {{cite book|last=Cook|first=M. A.|title=Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsZJ3X-UvJsC|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1983|isbn=9780192876058}}
*{{cite book|last=Firestone|first=Reuven|title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535219-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6kVVeIkzDkC&pg=PA118}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cook |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmXiEAAAQBAJ |title=A History of the Muslim World |date=2024 |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-23658-2}}
*{{cite book |last=Holland |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Holland (author) |year=2012 |title=In the Shadow of the Sword: The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World |isbn=978-0-349-12235-9 |publisher=Abacus |title-link=In the Shadow of the Sword (book) }}
* {{Cite book |last=Donner |first=Fred |url=https://archive.org/details/NarrativesOfIslamicOriginsTheBeginningsOfIslamicHistoricalWriting |title=Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing |date=1998 |publisher=Darwin Press}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Khatab|first1=Sayed|last2=Bouma|first2=Gary D.|author-link2=Gary Bouma|year=2007|title=Democracy in Islam|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415425742 |url=https://www.routledge.com/products/9780415664165}}
* {{Cite book |last=Donner |first=Fred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eyrnEAAAQBAJ |title=Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam |date=2010-09-01 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-50375-5 |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Firestone|first=Reuven|title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535219-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6kVVeIkzDkC&pg=PA118}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Goudarzi |first=Mohsen |date=2024 |title=Mecca's Cult and Medina's Constitution in the Qurʾān: A New Reading of al-Māʾidah |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/islam-2024-0003/html |journal=Der Islam |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=25–73|doi=10.1515/islam-2024-0003 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Holland (author) |year=2012 |title=In the Shadow of the Sword: The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World |isbn=978-0-349-12235-9 |publisher=Abacus |title-link=In the Shadow of the Sword (book)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Humphreys |first=R. Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-A9DwAAQBAJ |title=Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry – Revised Edition |date=1991 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00856-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book
|author=Ibn Kathir |author-link=Ibn Kathir
|title=[[Al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya]]
|script-title=ar:البداية والنهاية
|trans-title=The Beginning and the End
}} Abridged edition available in English, {{cite book
|title=al Bidayah wan Nihayah Ibn Kathir Early Days
|date=30 March 2017
|url=https://archive.org/stream/IbnKathirEarlyDays_201703
}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Khatab|first1=Sayed|last2=Bouma|first2=Gary D.|author-link2=Gary Bouma|year=2007|title=Democracy in Islam|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415425742|url=https://www.routledge.com/products/9780415664165}}
*{{cite book|last= Mubarakpuri| first= Safiur Rahman|title= Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum|publisher= Maktaba Dar-us-Salam | year = 1996|location=Riyadh| title-link= Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum}}
*{{cite book|last= Mubarakpuri| first= Safiur Rahman|title= Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum|publisher= Maktaba Dar-us-Salam | year = 1996|location=Riyadh| title-link= Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum}}
*{{cite book|last=Rodinson |first=Maxime |title=Muhammad|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|year=2002|orig-year=1960|isbn=978-1-56584-752-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqR_mU0qpE4C}}
*{{cite book|last=Rodinson|first=Maxime|title=Muhammad|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|year=2002|orig-year=1960|isbn=978-1-56584-752-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqR_mU0qpE4C}}
*{{cite book|last=Schaller|first=Günter|title=Die "Gemeindeordnung von Medina" – Darstellung eines politischen Instruments. Ein Beitrag zur gegenwärtigen. Fundamentalismus-Diskussion im Islam. Augsburg, Univ.-Diss. |year=1985 |language=de |url=https://archive.org/stream/DieGemeindeordnungVonMedina/Die_Gemeindeordnung_von_Medina}}
*{{Cite book |last=Rubin |first=Uri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WFqEAAAQBAJ |title=The Life of Muhammad |date=19 April 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-88676-5 |language=en}}
*{{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.&nbsp;B. |year=1964 |title=The Constitution of Medina |journal=[[Islamic Quarterly]] |volume=8 |pages=3–16 }}
*{{cite book|last=Schaller|first=Günter|title=Die "Gemeindeordnung von Medina" – Darstellung eines politischen Instruments. Ein Beitrag zur gegenwärtigen. Fundamentalismus-Diskussion im Islam. Augsburg, Univ.-Diss.|year=1985|language=de|url=https://archive.org/stream/DieGemeindeordnungVonMedina/Die_Gemeindeordnung_von_Medina}}
*{{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.&nbsp;B. |year=1978 |title=Sunnah Jāmi'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrīm of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina' |journal=[[Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies]] |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761 |s2cid=161485671 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.&nbsp;B. |year=1964 |title=The Constitution of Medina |journal=[[Islamic Quarterly]] |volume=8 |pages=3–16}}
*{{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.&nbsp;B. |year=1978 |title=Sunnah Jāmi'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrīm of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina' |journal=[[Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies]] |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761 |s2cid=161485671}}
*{{cite book |last=Stillman|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Stillman |year=1979 |title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America |isbn=0-8276-0198-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Stillman|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Stillman |year=1979 |title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America |isbn=0-8276-0198-0}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Suermann |first=Harald. |title=Die Konstitution von Medina. Erinnerung an ein anderes Modell des Zusammenlebens |journal=Collectanea Christiana Orientalia |year=2005 |volume=2 |pages=225–244 |doi=10.21071/cco.v2i.693 |hdl=10396/4090 |hdl-access=free }} [https://www.uco.es/revistas/index.php/cco/article/view/693]
*{{Cite journal |last=Suermann |first=Harald. |title=Die Konstitution von Medina. Erinnerung an ein anderes Modell des Zusammenlebens |journal=Collectanea Christiana Orientalia |year=2005 |volume=2 |pages=225–244 |doi=10.21071/cco.v2i.693 |doi-broken-date=11 July 2025 |hdl=10396/4090 |hdl-access=free}} [https://www.uco.es/revistas/index.php/cco/article/view/693] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128051736/https://www.uco.es/revistas/index.php/cco/article/view/693 |date=2020-11-28}}
*{{cite book|last=Watt|first=William Montgomery|author-link=W. Montgomery Watt|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp |title=Muhammad at Medina|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Karachi New York |year=1956|isbn=978-0-19-577307-1}}
*{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ucPAQAAIAAJ |title=Muhammad at Medina |date=1956 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en}}
*{{cite book|last=Watt|first=William Montgomery|author-link=W. Montgomery Watt|title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C|year=1961|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-881078-0|access-date=27 June 2016}}
*{{cite book|last=Watt|first=William Montgomery|author-link=W. Montgomery Watt|title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C|orig-date=1961|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-881078-0|access-date=27 June 2016}}
*{{cite book |last=Wellhausen |first=Julius |year=1889 |title=Skizzen und Vorabeiten |volume=IV |location=Berlin |publisher=Reimer }}
*{{cite book |last=Wellhausen |first=Julius |year=1889 |title=Skizzen und Vorabeiten |volume=IV |location=Berlin |publisher=Reimer}}
*{{cite book|last=Wensinck|first=Arendt Jan|year=1908|title=Muhammad and the Jews of Medina|publisher=Leiden}}
*{{cite book|last=Wensinck|first=Arendt Jan|year=1908|title=Muhammad and the Jews of Medina|publisher=Leiden}}
====Constitution translations====
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hamidullah |first=Muhammad |author-link=Muhammad Hamidullah
|title=The First Written Constitution in the World
|date=1941
|location=Lahore, Pakistan
|publisher=Ashraf Press
|url=https://dn790006.ca.archive.org/0/items/THEFIRSTWRITTENCONSTITUTIONOFTHEWORLD/THE%20FIRST%20WRITTEN%20CONSTITUTION%20OF%20THE%20WORLD.pdf
<!--
|isbn=969-432-192-1
|edition=3rd
|date=1975
|url=https://archive.org/details/firstwrittencons0000hami
-->
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Guillaume |first=A. |author-link=Alfred Guillaume
|title=The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah
|orig-date=1955
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=0-19-636033-1
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Lecker |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Lecker
|title=The "Constitution of Medina": Muḥammad's First Legal Document
|date=2004
|publisher=Darwin Press
|isbn=0-87850-148-7
|url=https://www.academia.edu/42839772
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Arjomand |first=Saïd Amir |author-link=Saïd Amir Arjomand
|title=The Constitution of Medina: A Sociolegal Interpretation of Muhammad's Acts of Foundation of the 'Umma.'
|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies
|volume=41
|number=4
|date=2009
|pages=555–75
|doi=10.1017/S0020743809990067 |jstor=40389306 |jstor-access=free
}}
* {{Cite web
|language=en
|last=Anjum |first=Ovamir |author-link=Ovamir Anjum
|date=4 February 2021
|title=The "Constitution" of Medina: Translation, Commentary, and Meaning Today
|website=Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research
|url=https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/the-constitution-of-medina-translation-commentary-and-meaning-today
|access-date=2023-04-21
}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


Line 198: Line 229:
*[[Yitzhak Ben-Zvi|Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak]]. ''The Exiled and the Redeemed''. Jewish Publication Society, 1957
*[[Yitzhak Ben-Zvi|Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak]]. ''The Exiled and the Redeemed''. Jewish Publication Society, 1957
*[[Fred Donner|Donner, Fred M.]] "Muhammad's Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca". ''Muslim World'' '''69''': 229–47, 1979.
*[[Fred Donner|Donner, Fred M.]] "Muhammad's Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca". ''Muslim World'' '''69''': 229–47, 1979.
*[[Alfred Guillaume|Guillaume, A.]] ''The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah''. Oxford University Press, 1955. {{ISBN|0-19-636033-1}}
* Hamidullah, Muhammad. ''The First Written Constitution in the World: An Important Document of the Time of the Holy Prophet'', 3rd. ed. 1975, Ashraf Press; Lahore, Pakistan.
*[[F.E. Peters|Peters, Francis E.]] ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam''. State University of New York Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-7914-1875-8}}
*[[F.E. Peters|Peters, Francis E.]] ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam''. State University of New York Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-7914-1875-8}}
* Walker, Adam, "Constitution of Medina", in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp.&nbsp;113–115.
* Walker, Adam, "Constitution of Medina", in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp.&nbsp;113–115.
*Yildirim, Yetkin. "Peace and Conflict Resolution in the Medina Charter", Peace Review, Vol. 18, Issue 1, 2006, pp.&nbsp;109–117.
*Yildirim, Yetkin. "Peace and Conflict Resolution in the Medina Charter", Peace Review, Vol. 18, Issue 1, 2006, pp.&nbsp;109–117.
{{refend}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{wikisourcepar|Medina Charter}}
*[http://www.constitution.org/cons/medina/con_medina.htm Full text] with alternate translations
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110709101622/http://www.constitutionofmadina.com/ The Constitution of Medina]


[[Category:Treaties of Muhammad]]
[[Category:Treaties of Muhammad]]
[[Category:Jewish Saudi Arabian history]]
[[Category:Jewish Saudi Arabian history]]
[[Category:Defunct constitutions]]
[[Category:Defunct constitutions|Medina]]
[[Category:Muhammad in Medina]]
[[Category:Muhammad in Medina]]
[[Category:Islam and other religions]]
[[Category:Islam and other religions]]
[[Category:Islam and Judaism]]
[[Category:Muhammad and Judaism]]

Latest revision as of 20:45, 13 March 2026


Constitution of Medina
ميثاق المدينة (Mithaq al-Madina)
TypeConstitution, Agreement, Social contract
Signed622 CE
SignatoriesVarious tribes and groups in Medina
PartiesSupreme Magistrate / Author:
Muhammad
Muslims of Medina:
Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca)
Ansar (helpers from Medina)
Jewish tribes of Medina:
Banu Qaynuqa
Banu Nadir
Banu Qurayza
Pagan Arabs of Medina
Various polytheistic tribes
LanguageArabic
Part of a series on
Muhammad
Muhammad circular symbol
Life
Career
Miracles
Views
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Succession
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Related

The Mithaq al-Madina or the Constitution of Medina or the Charter of Medina (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.; or Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.; also known as the "Umma Document"),[1] is a constitution[2][3] that governed the affairs of Medina[4][5] which formed the basis of the First Islamic State, a multi-religious polity under the Prophet Muhammad's leadership.[6] Composed of approximately 47 clauses, the constitution established a legal, economic and political framework for the diverse communities living in Medina, declaring all citizens as one community.[7]

According to Robert Bertram Serjeant, the Constitution of Medina consisted of eight distinct documents, issued on several occasions over the first seven years or so of Muhammad's Medinan period.[8] Many of the texts were recorded by Ibn Ishaq and Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam,[1] though how they encountered the text is unclear.[9][10] Although it does not fulfill any of the conditions of authenticity in the Islamic recording system (such as having a reliable chain of narrators up to the person who recorded it), it is widely accepted as authentic.[9] It may have been preserved due to interest in its manner of administration.[11] Many tribal groups are mentioned, including the Banu Najjar and Quraysh, as well as many tribal institutions, like vengeance, blood money, ransom, alliance, and clientage,[12] and has striking resemblances with Surah 5 (Al-Ma'idah) of the Quran.[13]

Historical sources[edit | edit source]

The Constitution is only known from excerpts in early Muslim sources, primarily the Al-Sīrah Al-Nabawiyyah of Ibn Hisham (early 800s CE), a recension of the Al-Sīrah Al-Nabawiyyah of Ibn Ishaq, though transmitted without a chain of narration, a crucial criterion for hadith scholars.[14] Other important sources for the Constitution includes those of Sayyid al-Nas and the Kitab al-Amwal of Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam.

According to L. Ali Khan, scholars do not agree on whether the constitution was a single document or "a compilation of multiple agreements reached at different times".[15] According to mid-20th century scholar, Robert Bertram Serjeant, the 'Constitution of Medina' consists of "eight distinct documents ... issued on various occasions over the first seven years or so of Muhammad's Medinan period".[8] In its first recension, Serjeant hypothesizes that the text sanctioned the establishment of a confederation; in its second, it admonished the Aws and Khazraj to abide by their treaty; in its third, in conjunction with the proceeding verses, it encouraged of Muhammad's adherents to face the Meccan forces they eventually fought at Uhud. He also suggests that 3:101–104 of the Qur'an may refer to the constitution.[16]

Genre and authenticity[edit | edit source]

The Constitution has been highly influential among contemporary Muslims,[17] celebrated for its religious pluralism,[15] unique character and the first "Constitution"[18] and belief that God is its ultimate source.[Note 1] On the other hand, historians have variously characterized it as a "municipal charter” (Gemeindeordnung); or as a "unilateral proclamation" by Muhammad, whose "purpose was purely practical and administrative", rather than a treaty in the modern sense.[Note 2]

Most historians have accepted the authenticity of the Constitution of Medina.[7][4][20][6][21][Note 3] This is based on its inclusion of non-Muslims and its portrayal of the Quraysh as enemies of God, a view inconsistent with later Islamic periods. Other factors include the perceived archaic style of the text, its abundance of unexplained allusions that were considered to be likely understood only by contemporaries, and its apparent inclination towards tribal law over developed Islamic norms.[9]

At least a few remain skeptical however, and some think that the Constitution existed but its wording or content is no longer accessible.[4][23][24][25] In the case of some historians, skepticism is constrained to particular aspects of the Constitution as well as the context of its emergence; disagreements persist on whether the documents resulted from negotiated settlements or were merely unilateral edicts by Muhammad, the identity of participants (including uncertainty about the inclusion of the three major Jewish tribes of Medina—Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qurayza),[26] the quantity of documents, the precise timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), and the appropriate approach to its translation, among other issues.[9]

Dating[edit | edit source]

An early manuscript of Ibn Hisham's Template:Tlit[27]Template:Reference page

One 20th-century scholar, W. Montgomery Watt, suggested that the Constitution of Medina must have been written in the early Medinan period (i.e., in 622 CE or shortly thereafter), because if the document had been drafted any later, then it would have both had a positive attitude towards the Quraysh and given Muhammad a more prominent place. Malay scholars, Fadzilah Din and Mohamed Noh Abdul Jalil, as well as the noted Pakistani scholar, Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri,[28] cite the 622 CE drafting.[29] Others, such as Hubert Grimme, suggested that it must have been drafted after the 624 CE Battle of Badr. Still others, such as Leone Caetani, suggested that the document was written before that battle.[30]

Portions of the constitution are corroborated by multiple sound hadith reports. Its validity in its stated single form, however, has been called into question, as there is no single sound chain of authorities (isnad) supporting it.[17][31][14] There are differences of opinion as well as to how many documents the constitution comprises—from one to eight. It is also unclear with which Jews this agreement was made, whether it was only with some of the smaller Jewish social units that had lost their tribal structure and affiliated with the Arabs, with the Judaized Arabs, or also included what later sources described as the three major Jewish clans in the city, namely Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qurayza,[14] (who are not mentioned in the agreement).

This constitution gave the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who had just escaped persecution in Mecca, a leading role in the community of Medina. By dating this treaty at the outset of his arrival, it credited Muhammad with honor and power earlier than he would later gain, but more importantly, it gives the justification for Muhammad's subsequent attacks on the Jews as retaliation for their opposition to him.[32] Another question raised about the constitution is that though it gives a list of Jewish tribes/clans of Medina involved, not among them are three famous in traditional Islamic history for being driven into exile (the Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadir tribes) or "massacred and dumped into pits" (the Banu Qurayza tribe),[33] after conspiring and rising up against Muhammad. There is a suggestion, however, that if this constitution really existed, it was probably created after the elimination of the three major Jewish clans in Medina by Muhammad and his troops.[34] (see Also:Jewish tribes of Arabia)

Background[edit | edit source]

According to traditional Islamic belief, in Muhammad's last years in Mecca, a delegation from Medina from its twelve important clans invited him as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community.[35][36] There had been fighting in Medina involving mainly its pagan and Jewish inhabitants for around 100 years before 620. The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all the clans had been involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with the authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.[35] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and to protect him physically as if he was one of them.[37]

After emigration to Medina, Muhammad drafted the constitution, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" of the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca and specifying the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina, including that of the Muslim community to other communities: the Jews and the other "Peoples of the Book".[35] According to chroniclers such as Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (785-845 CE), the composition of the population of Medina at that time consisted of two supergroup local Arab tribes, the Aus and the Khazraj, with eight clans and 33 other smaller groups under them.[citation needed] Meanwhile, the Jewish tribes at least consisted of around 20 groups, with the most well-known tribes Qaynuqa, Nadhir, and Qurayza among them,[38] (who are not mentioned in the agreement). The constitution also appointed Muhammad as the Chief Magistrate,[39][40] making him as the foremost judicial authority responsible for resolving conflicts and overseeing judicial welfare in Medina. This later unified the diverse tribal groups, including the Jewish tribes, and ended long standing internecine tensions. In this role, prophet Muhammad exercised final decision making in dispute resolution, interpretation of law, and maintenance of public order.[41][42]

Text[edit | edit source]

The following English translation is that of Michael Lecker from 2004.[43] It is based on the version of the document found in Ibn Hisham's recension of the Seerah of Ibn Ishaq, Abu Ubaid's Kitab-al-Amwal, and Ibn Kathir's al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya.[44] The translation was aimed at being clear, with clauses numbered in line with international standards for ease of future reference.[43] There is general agreement on the authenticity of the text.[4][20]

  1. This is a prescript of Muhammad, the Prophet and Messenger of God (to operate) between the faithful and the followers of Islam ("Muslims") from among the Quraish and the people of Madina and those who may be under them, may join them and take part in wars in their company.
  2. They shall constitute a separate political unit ("Ummah") as distinguished from all the people (of the world).
  3. The emigrants from the Quraish shall be (responsible) for their own ward; and shall pay their blood money in mutual collaboration and shall secure the release of their own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that the mutual dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  4. And Banu ‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood money in mutual collaboration, and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  5. And Banu Al-Harith-ibn-Khazraj shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  6. And Banu Sa‘ida shall be responsible for their own ward, and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  7. And Banu Jusham shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  8. And Banu an-Najjar shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  9. And Banu ‘Amr-ibn-‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  10. And Banu-al-Nabit shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
  11. And Banu-al-Aws shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
    1. And the believers shall not leave any one, hard-pressed with debts, without affording him some relief, in order that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.
    2. Also no believer shall enter into a contract of clientage with one who is already in such a contract with another believer.
  13. And the hands of pious believers shall be raised against every such person as rises in rebellion or attempts to acquire anything by force or is guilty of any sin or excess or attempts to spread mischief among the believers ; their hands shall be raised all together against such a person, even if he be a son to any one of them.
  14. A Believer will not kill a Believer [in retaliation] for a non-Believer and will not aid a non-Believer against a Believer.
  15. The protection (dhimmah) of Allah is one, the least of them [i.e., the Believers] is entitled to grant protection (yujīr) that is binding for all of them. The Believers are each other's allies (mawālī) to the exclusion of other people.
  16. And that those who will follow us among the Jews, will have help and equality. Neither shall they be oppressed nor will any help be given against them.
  17. And the peace of the believers shall be one. If there be any war in the way of God, no believer shall be under any peace (with the enemy) apart from other believers, unless it (this peace) be the same and equally binding on all.
  18. And all those detachments that will fight on our side will be relieved by turns.
  19. And the believers as a body shall take blood vengeance in the way of God.
    1. And undoubtedly pious believers are the best and in the rightest course.
    2. And that no associator (non-Muslim subject) shall give any protection to the life and property of a Quraishite, nor shall he come in the way of any believer in this matter.
  20. And if any one intentionally murders a believer, and it is proved, he shall be killed in retaliation, unless the heir of the murdered person be satisfied with blood-money. And all believers shall actually stand for this ordinance and nothing else shall be proper for them to do.
  21. And it shall not be lawful for any one, who has agreed to carry out the provisions laid down in this code and has affixed his faith in God and the Day of Judgment, to give help or protection to any murderer, and if he gives any help or protection to such a person, God‟s curse and wrath shall be on him on the Day of Resurrection, and no money or compensation shall be accepted from such a person.
  22. And that whenever you differ about anything, refer it to God and to Muhammad
  23. And the Jews shall share with the believers the expenses of war so long as they fight in conjunction,
  24. And the Jews of Banu ‘Awf shall be considered as one community (Ummat) along with the believers—for the Jews their religion, and for the Muslims theirs, be one client or patron. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings evil only on himself and his household.
  25. And the Jews of Banu-an-Najjar shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
  26. And the Jews of Banu-al-Harith shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
  27. And the Jews of Banu Sa‘ida shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf
  28. And the Jews of Banu Jusham shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
  29. And the Jews of Banu al-Aws shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf.
  30. And the Jews of Banu Tha‘laba shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings evil only on himself and his household.
  31. And Jafna, who are a branch of the Tha’laba tribe, shall have the same rights as the mother tribes.
  32. And Banu-ash-Shutaiba shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu ‘Awf; and they shall be faithful to, and not violators of, treaty.
  33. And the mawlas (clients) of Tha'laba shall have the same rights as those of the original members of it.
  34. And the sub-branches of the Jewish tribes shall have the same rights as the mother tribes.
    1. And that none of them shall go out to fight as a soldier of the Muslim army, without the per-mission of Muhammad.
    2. And no obstruction shall be placed in the way of any one‟s retaliation for beating or injuries; and whoever sheds blood brings it upon himself and his household, except he who has been wronged, and Allah demands the most righteous fulfillment of this [treaty].
    1. And the Jews shall bear the burden of their expenses and the Muslims theirs.
    2. And if any one fights against the people of this code, their (i.e., of the Jews and Muslims) mutual help shall come into operation, and there shall be friendly counsel and sincere behaviour between them; and faithfulness and no breach of covenant.
  37. And the Jews shall be bearing their own expenses so long as they shall be fighting in conjunction with the believers.
  38. And the Valley of Yathrib (Madina) shall be a Haram (sacred place) for the people of this code.
  39. The clients (mawla) shall have the same treatment as the original persons (i.e., persons accepting clientage). He shall neither be harmed nor shall he himself break the covenant.
  40. And no refuge shall be given to any one without the permission of the people of the place (i.e., the refugee shall have no right of giving refuge to others).
  41. And that if any murder or quarrel takes place among the people of this code, from which any trouble may be feared, it shall be referred to God and God's Messenger, Muhammad; and God will be with him who will be most particular about what is written in this code and act on it most faithfully.
  42. The Quraish shall be given no protection nor shall they who help them.
  43. And they (i.e., Jews and Muslims) shall have each other's help in the event of any force invading Yathrib.
    1. And if they (i.e., the Jews) are invited to any peace, they also shall offer peace and shall be a party to it; and if they invite the believers to some such affairs, it shall be their (Muslims) duty as well to reciprocate the dealings, excepting that any one makes a religious war.
    2. On every group shall rest the responsibility of (repulsing) the enemy from the place which faces its part of the city.
  45. And the Jews of the tribe of al-Aws, clients as well as original members, shall have the same rights as the people of this code: and shall behave sincerely and faithfully towards the latter, not perpetrating any breach of covenant. As one shall sow so shall he reap. And God is with him who will most sincerely and faithfully carry out the provisions of this code.
  46. And this prescript shall not be of any avail to any oppressor or breaker of covenant. And one shall have security whether one goes out to a campaign or remains in Madina, or else it will be an oppression and breach of covenant. And God is the Protector of him who performs the obligations with faithfulness and care, as also His Messenger Muhammad.[45]

Commentaries[edit | edit source]

Relationship with Jewish tribes[edit | edit source]

According to Jonathan Berkey, one of the constitution's more interesting aspects was the inclusion of the Jewish tribes in the ummah because although the Jewish tribes were "one community with the believers", they also "have their religion and the Muslims have theirs".[46]

L. Ali Khan says that it was a social contract derived from a treaty and not from any fictional state of nature or from behind the Rawlsian veil of ignorance. It was built upon the concept of one community of diverse tribes living under the sovereignty of one God.[15]

It also instituted peaceful methods of dispute resolution among diverse groups living as one people but without assimilating into one religion, language or culture.[47] Welch in Encyclopedia of Islam states: "The constitution reveals Muhammad's great diplomatic skills, for it allows the ideal that he cherished of an ummah (community) based clearly on a religious outlook to sink temporarily into the background and is shaped essentially by practical considerations."[37]

Relationship between Believers[edit | edit source]

Another important feature of the Constitution of Medina is the redefinition of ties between "Believers" (as they are described in the document). It sets faith relationships above blood-ties and emphasizes individual responsibility.[48] Tribal identities are still important to refer to different groups, but the "main binding tie" for the newly created ummah is religion.[49] That contrasts with the norms of pre-Islamic Arabia, which was a thoroughly tribal society, but Serjeant postulates the existence of earlier theocratic communities.[50] According to Denny, "Watt has likened the Ummah as it is described in the document to a tribe, but with the important difference that it was to be based on religion and not on kinship".[49] That is an important event in the development of the small group of Muslims in Medina to the larger Muslim community and empire.[50]

See also[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ "In comparison to our constitution it is obvious that the constitution of Nabi SAW is superior because it is a constitution based on divinity, i.e. Qur’an and Hadith. There is no comparison."[19]
  2. ↑ "The document is not a treaty in the European sense, but rather a unilateral proclamation, its purpose was purely practical and administrative and reveals the cautious, cartful character of the Prophet."[6]
  3. ↑ though "the most skeptical of contemporary 'source-critical' scholars", (Patricia Crone), has endorsed the text's antiquity, saying that in the Sira of Ibn Ishaq, “it sticks out like a piece of solid rock in an accumulation of rubble.”[22]

References[edit | edit source]

Citations[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Donner 2010, p. 227.
  2. ↑ John Burton, Those are the High-flying Cranes, Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol 15 No. 2, pp. 265
  3. ↑ Tarif Khalidi, Arab Historical Thought in The Classical Period, Cambridge University Press, pp. 48
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Al-Dawoody, Ahmed (2011). The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 19. ISBN 9780230111608.
  5. ↑ Rubin 2022, p. 8.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Lewis, Bernard. "The Arabs in History". p. 42. Retrieved 24 November 2023..
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Mohammed?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 22 November 2023. sources dating from the mid-8th century onwards preserve a document drawn up between Mohammed and the inhabitants of Yathrib, which there are good reasons to accept as broadly authentic
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Serjeant, R. B. (1978). "The "Sunnah Jāmi'ah," Pacts with the Yaṯẖrib Jews, and the "Taḥrīm" of Yaṯẖrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the So-Called 'Constitution of Medina'". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 41 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00057761. JSTOR 615621. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Humphreys 1991, p. 92.
  10. ↑ Watt 1956, p. 221.
  11. ↑ Donner 1998, p. 209.
  12. ↑ Cook 2024, p. 69.
  13. ↑ Goudarzi 2024, p. 62–64.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Çakmak, Cenap (2017-05-18). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 324. ISBN 978-1-61069-217-5.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Khan, L. Ali (2006-11-17). "The Medina Constitution". researchgate.net. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
  16. ↑ Serjeant 1964, p. 8.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Anjum 2021.
  18. ↑ Hamidullah 1941, p. title page.
  19. ↑ bin Moulana Yaseen Rahim, Shaakir; Ashraf, Mufti Muhammad (16 October 2012). "The Madinah Constitution". IslamQA.org. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Watt 1956, p. 225: "This document has generally been regarded as authentic...."
  21. ↑ Holland 2012, p. 383.
  22. ↑ Arjomand 2009.
  23. ↑ Cook 1983, p. 65.
  24. ↑ John Burton, Those are the High-flying Cranes, Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol 15 No. 2, pp. 265
  25. ↑ Tarif Khalidi, Arab Historical Thought in The Classical Period, Cambridge University Press, pp. 48
  26. ↑ Watt 1956, p. 227.
  27. ↑ Abbott, Nabia (1967). Studies in Arabic Literary Papyri: Qur'anic Commentary and Tradition. Vol. 2. Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press.
  28. ↑ T̤āhirulqādrī Muḥammad and Muḥammad Muḥammad. The Constitution of Medina (63 Constitutional Articles). Minhaj-Ul-Quran International 2012. INSERT-MISSING-DATABASE-NAME http://www.aspresolver.com/aspresolver.asp?TCR2;3211718. Worldcat website Accessed 20 Dec. 2023.
  29. ↑ Din, Fadzilah and Mohamed Noh Abdul Jalil. “Nationhood and loyalty in Islam: Between Dustur al-Madinah and the Bukit Seguntang Covenant.” (2018). Semantic Scholar website Retrieved 20 December 2023.
  30. ↑ Watt 1956, pp. 225–226.
  31. ↑ "The Constitution of Medina". obo. Retrieved 2023-04-21.
  32. ↑ Newby, Gordon Darnell (2009). A History of the Jews of Arabia: From Ancient Times to Their Eclipse Under Islam. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 80–2. ISBN 978-1-57003-885-3.
  33. ↑ Ibn Kathir, p. 2.
  34. ↑ Watt (1956), p.227
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 39
  36. ↑ Esposito, John L. (1998). Islam : the straight path (3rd ed.). New York. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-511233-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Welch, Alford. "Muhammad". Encyclopedia of Islam.[page needed]
  38. ↑ Watt 1956, p. 153.
  39. ↑ Sallābi, A. (2001) Ar‑Rahmatul‑lil‑‘Alameen. Cairo: Dar al-Tawheed.
  40. ↑ Ibn Hishām, A. (1955) As‑Sīrah an‑Nabawiyyah, Vol. 1–2. Cairo: Dar al‑Kutub.
  41. ↑ Mubārakfūrī, S. (1996) Ar‑Raheeq al‑Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Darussalam.
  42. ↑ Al‑Bukhārī, M. (n.d.) Ṣaḥīḥ al‑Bukhārī, Kitāb al‑Sulḥ and Kitāb al‑Aḥkām (reports of people seeking the Prophet’s arbitration).
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Lecker 2004.
  44. ↑ Ibn Kathir, pp. 224–226, vol. 3.
  45. ↑ Hamidullah 1941, pp. 31–42.
  46. ↑ Berkey, Jonathan, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800, Cambridge University Press, p. 64
  47. ↑ Ramadan, Hisham M (2006). Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7591-0990-2.
  48. ↑ Williams, John Alden, Themes of Islamic Civilization, p. 12.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Denny, Frederick (Jan 1977), "Umma in the Constitution of Medina", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 36, The University of Chicago Press, p. 44.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Serjeant 1964, p. 4.

Sources[edit | edit source]

Constitution translations[edit | edit source]

Further reading[edit | edit source]

  • Bellahcene, Yahia (2021). La Şaḥīfa de Médine (VIIe siècle): une reflecture critique. Gorgias Press.
  • Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak. The Exiled and the Redeemed. Jewish Publication Society, 1957
  • Donner, Fred M. "Muhammad's Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca". Muslim World 69: 229–47, 1979.
  • Peters, Francis E. Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. State University of New York Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7914-1875-8
  • Walker, Adam, "Constitution of Medina", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp. 113–115.
  • Yildirim, Yetkin. "Peace and Conflict Resolution in the Medina Charter", Peace Review, Vol. 18, Issue 1, 2006, pp. 109–117.
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