Yijing (monk): Difference between revisions

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| module    = {{Infobox religious biography
| module    = {{Infobox religious biography
| embed    = yes
| embed    = yes
| education = [[Nalanda]]
| religion  = [[Buddhism]]
| religion  = [[Buddhism]]
| teacher = Shi Huen{{clarify|date=February 2019}}
| teacher = Shi Huen{{clarify|date=February 2019}}
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{{Chinese  
{{Infobox Chinese  
|pic    = Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia.jpg
|pic    = Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia.jpg
|caption=Excerpt of a scroll from Yijing's ''[[Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia]]''. [[Tenri, Nara]], [[Japan]]
|caption=Excerpt of a scroll from Yijing's ''[[Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia]]''. [[Tenri, Nara]], [[Japan]]
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[[File:YiJingMap2.jpg|thumb|right|Yijing's travel map of the 7th century.]]
[[File:YiJingMap2.jpg|thumb|right|Yijing's travel map of the 7th century.]]
{{family name hatnote|[[Zhang (surname)|Zhang]]|lang=Chinese}}
{{family name hatnote|[[Zhang (surname)|Zhang]]|lang=Chinese}}
'''Yijing'''<!--Chinese in infoboxes; see [[WP:MOS-ZH]]--> (635–713{{nbsp}}CE), formerly [[romanization of Chinese|romanized]] as {{nowrap|'''I-ching'''}} or {{nowrap|'''I-tsing'''}},<ref>{{citation |editor-last=Schoff |editor-first=Wilfred Harvey |title=[[:s:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] |date=1912 |page=[[:s:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea/Notes#213|213]] |publisher=Commercial Museum |location=Philadelphia }}.</ref> born '''Zhang Wenming''', was a [[Tang dynasty|Tang-era]] [[Chinese people|Chinese]] [[bhikkhu|Buddhist monk]] famed as a traveller and translator. His account of his travels is an important source for the history of the medieval kingdoms along the [[maritime Silk Road|sea route]] between China and India, especially [[Srivijaya]] in [[Indonesia]]. He also gave accounts of the Gupta Period. A student of the Buddhist university at [[Nālandā]] (now in [[Bihar]], India), he was also responsible for the translation of many [[Buddhist texts]] from [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] into [[Chinese language|Chinese]].
'''Yijing'''<!--Chinese in infoboxes; see [[WP:MOS-ZH]]--> (635–713{{nbsp}}CE), formerly [[romanization of Chinese|romanized]] as {{nowrap|'''I-ching'''}} or {{nowrap|'''I-tsing'''}},<ref>{{citation |editor-last=Schoff |editor-first=Wilfred Harvey |title=[[:s:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] |date=1912 |page=[[:s:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea/Notes#213|213]] |publisher=Commercial Museum |location=Philadelphia }}.</ref> born '''Zhang Wenming''', was a [[Tang dynasty|Tang-era]] [[Chinese people|Chinese]] [[bhikkhu|Buddhist monk]] and renowned travel writer. His account of his travels are an important source for the history of the medieval kingdoms along the [[maritime Silk Road|sea route]] between China and India, especially [[Srivijaya]] in [[Indonesia]]. He also gave accounts of the [[Gupta Period]] in ancient India. A student of the Buddhist university at [[Nālandā]] (now in [[Bihar]], India), he was also responsible for the translation of many [[Buddhist texts]] from [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] into [[Chinese language|Chinese]].


==Journey==
==Biography==


===To Srivijaya and Nālandā===
Yijing was born {{nowrap|Zhang Wenming}} in 635 CE and was ordained as a monk at the age of 20. Growing up, he was an admirer of both [[Faxian]] and [[Xuanzang]] who both achieved fame travelling in India. In 671 he began his journey to India travelling along the "[[Maritime Silk Road]]" which took him through much of [[South East Asia]]. When he finally reached India he visited the main [[Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India|sites associated with the life of the Buddha]] and then came to the famed monastery of [[Nalanda]] where he remained for the next ten years.<ref name=Princeton>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Lopez |first=Donald |date= |title=Yijing |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-5122?rskey=cR5gdT&result=2 |encyclopedia=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |location= |publisher=Princeton University Press |access-date=}}</ref>
Yijing was born {{nowrap|Zhang Wenming}}. He became a monk at age 14 and was an admirer of [[Faxian]], a famed monk who traveled to India in the 4th and 5th centuries CE. Provided funding by an otherwise unknown benefactor named Fong, he decided to visit the renowned Buddhist university of [[Nālandā]], in [[Bihar]], India, to further study [[Buddhism]]. Traveling by a  boat out of [[Guangzhou]], he arrived in [[Srivijaya]] (today's [[Palembang]] of Sumatra) after 22 days, where he spent the next six months learning [[Sanskrit]] grammar and the [[Malay language]]. He went on to record visits to the nations of [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] and Kiteh ([[Kedah]]).


In 673 after ten days of additional travel reached the "naked kingdom" (south west of [[Sichuan|Shu]]). Yijing recorded his impression of the "Kunlun peoples", using an ancient Chinese word for Malay peoples. "Kunlun people have curly hair, dark bodies, bare feet and wear [[sarong]]s." He then arrived at the East coast of [[India]], where he met a senior monk and stayed a year to study [[Sanskrit]]. Both later followed a group of merchants and visited 30 other principalities. Halfway to Nālandā, Yijing fell sick and was unable to walk. Gradually he was left behind by the group. He walked to Nālandā where he stayed for 11 years.{{fact|date=March 2023}}
Yijing also wrote in his travelogue that an emperor by the name of "Che-li-ki-to" had built a Buddhist monastery in [[Bengal]] 500 years ago. Che-li-ki-to is identified as [[Gupta (king)|Sri Gupta]], however Yijing's account is largely wrong, as it goes against the dates proposed for Sri Gupta. However, he should not be taken literally as he was just "stating the tradition told to him by older men".<ref>{{Cite book |last=R.S. Tripathi |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000rstr |title=History of Ancient India |date=1999-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, India |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-81-208-0018-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Filliozat |first=Jean |url=http://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000unse_e4k8 |title=Political history of India from the earliest times to the 7th centuary [sic] A.D |date=1957 |publisher=Calcutta, S. Gupta (India) Ltd |others=Internet Archive}}</ref> Many modern scholars reject his account of the Buddhist monastery as well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=R.S. Tripathi |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000rstr |title=History of Ancient India |date=1999-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, India |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-81-208-0018-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Filliozat |first=Jean |url=http://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000unse_e4k8 |title=Political history of India from the earliest times to the 7th centuary [sic] A.D |date=1957 |publisher=Calcutta, S. Gupta (India) Ltd |others=Internet Archive}}</ref>


===Returning to Srivijaya===
After completing his studies in Nalanda, he began his journey back to [[China]] by travelling through South East Asia, arriving in the [[Srivijaya]] realm (modern [[Sumatra]]). He remained here for some time to continue his studies and described the monks of this region as being [[Theravada]]s.<ref name= Princeton /> It was during his time here that he began to compose his travelogue which was the A [[Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea|Nanhai Jigui Neifa Zhuan]] (''Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea''). He also engaged in translation work while in Srivijaya. In 689, after running out of supplies, he briefly returned to China to retrieve paper and ink before returning to Srivijaya.<ref name= Princeton />
In 687, Yijing stopped in the kingdom of Srivijaya on his way back to Tang China. At that time, [[Palembang]] was a centre of Buddhism where foreign scholars gathered, and Yijing stayed there for two years to translate original Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. In the year 689 he returned to Guangzhou to obtain ink and papers{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} (note: Srivijaya then had no paper and ink{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}) and returned again to Srivijaya the same year.{{fact|date=March 2023}}


===Return to China===
In 695, he completed all translation works and finally returned to China at [[Luoyang]] and received a grand welcome back by Empress [[Wu Zetian]]. His total journey took 25 years. He brought back some 400 Buddhist texts translated into Chinese.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T540204c.htm |title=南海寄歸內法傳 ''Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas'' |access-date=8 July 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223162818/http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T540204c.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T510006c.htm |title=大唐西域求法高僧傳 ''Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty'' |access-date=8 July 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223162559/http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T510006c.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In 695, he completed all translation works and finally returned to China at [[Luoyang]] and received a grand welcome back by Empress [[Wu Zetian]]. His total journey took 25 years. He brought back some 400 Buddhist texts translated into Chinese.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T540204c.htm |title=南海寄歸內法傳 ''Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas'' |access-date=8 July 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223162818/http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T540204c.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T510006c.htm |title=大唐西域求法高僧傳 ''Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty'' |access-date=8 July 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223162559/http://www.buddhist-canon.com/history/T510006c.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>  


The ''[[A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea|Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas]]'' and ''Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty'' are two of Yijing's best travel diaries, describing his adventurous journey to Srivijaya and India, reporting on the society of India, the lifestyles of various local peoples, and more.
The ''[[A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea]]'' and ''Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty'' are two of Yijing's best travel diaries, describing his adventurous journey to Srivijaya and India, reporting on the society of India, the lifestyles of various local peoples, and more.<ref name= Princeton />


==Distribution of Buddhist traditions==
==Distribution of Buddhist traditions==
In the great majority of areas in India, Yijing writes that there were followers of both "vehicles" (Skt. ''[[Yana (Buddhism)|Yana]]''), with some Buddhists practicing according to the "[[Hinayana]]" and others practicing according to the [[Mahayana]].<ref>Yijing. Takakusu, J. (tr.) ''A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago.'' 1896. p. xxv</ref> However, he describes Northern India and most of the islands of the South Seas (i.e. [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], etc.) as principally "Hīnayāna." In contrast, the Buddhists in China and Malayu are described as principally following the Mahāyāna.<ref>Yijing. Takakusu, J. (tr.) ''A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago.'' 1896. p. xxv</ref>
In the great majority of areas in India, Yijing writes that there were followers of both "vehicles" (Skt. ''[[Yana (Buddhism)|Yana]]''), with some Buddhists practicing according to the [[Hinayana]] and others practicing according to the [[Mahayana]].<ref>Yijing. Takakusu, J. (tr.) ''A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago.'' 1896. p. xxv</ref> He describes northern India and most of the islands of the South Seas (i.e. [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], etc.) as principally "Hīnayāna." In contrast, the Buddhists in China and Malayu are described as principally following the Mahāyāna.<ref>Yijing. Takakusu, J. (tr.) ''A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago.'' 1896. p. xxv</ref>


Yijing wrote about relationship between the various "vehicles" and the [[early Buddhist schools]] in India. He wrote, "There exist in the West numerous subdivisions of the schools which have different origins, but there are only four principal schools of continuous tradition." These schools are namely the [[Mahāsāṃghika]], [[Sthavira nikāya|Sthavira]], [[Mulasarvastivada]], and [[Saṃmitīya]] nikāyas.<ref>Walser, Joseph (2005) ''Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture'': pp. 41</ref> Explaining their doctrinal affiliations, he then writes, "Which of the four schools should be grouped with the Mahāyāna or with the Hīnayāna is not determined." That is to say, there was no simple correspondence between a [[Monasticism|monastic]] sect and whether its members learned "Hīnayāna" or "Mahāyāna" teachings.<ref>Walser, Joseph (2005) ''Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture'': pp. 41-42</ref>
Yijing wrote about relationship between the various "vehicles" and the [[early Buddhist schools]] in India. He wrote, "There exist in the West numerous subdivisions of the schools which have different origins, but there are only four principal schools of continuous tradition." These schools are namely the [[Mahāsāṃghika]], [[Sthavira nikāya|Sthavira]], [[Mulasarvastivada]], and [[Saṃmitīya]] nikāyas.<ref>Walser, Joseph (2005) ''Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture'': pp. 41</ref> Explaining their doctrinal affiliations, he then writes, "Which of the four schools should be grouped with the Mahāyāna or with the Hīnayāna is not determined." That is to say, there was no simple correspondence between a [[Monasticism|monastic]] sect and whether its members learned "Hīnayāna" or "Mahāyāna" teachings.<ref>Walser, Joseph (2005) ''Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture'': pp. 41-42</ref>
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==Buddhism in Srivijaya==
==Buddhism in Srivijaya==
{{Main|Srivijaya}}
{{Main|Srivijaya}}
[[File:Yi Jing Srivijaya 1.jpg|right|thumb|The depiction of I-Tsing (Yi Jing) 7th century pilgrim that visited [[Srivijaya]]. Displayed in ''Kedatuan Sriwijaya'' temporary exhibition, November 2017, in the [[National Museum of Indonesia]].]]
[[File:Yi Jing Srivijaya 1.jpg|right|thumb|A depiction of Yijing displayed at the ''Kedatuan Sriwijaya'' temporary exhibition, [[National Museum of Indonesia]] <small>(November 2017)</small>]]
Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya (modern-day [[Sumatra]]) and advised Chinese monks to study there prior to making the journey to Nalanda in India.
Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya (modern-day [[Sumatra]]) and advised Chinese monks to study there prior to making the journey to Nalanda in India.
{{quote|In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two years and practice the proper rules....}}
{{blockquote|In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two years and practice the proper rules....}}
Yijing's visits to Srivijaya gave him the opportunity to meet with others who had come from other neighboring islands. According to him, the [[Java]]nese kingdom of Ho-ling ([[Kalingga Kingdom]]) was due east of the city of Bhoga at a distance that could be spanned by a four or five days' journey by sea. He also wrote that Buddhism was flourishing throughout the islands of Southeast Asia. "Many of the kings and chieftains in the islands of the Southern Sea admire and believe in Buddhism, and their hearts are set on accumulating good actions."
Yijing's visits to Srivijaya gave him the opportunity to meet with others who had come from other neighboring islands. According to him, the [[Java]]nese kingdom of Ho-ling ([[Kalingga Kingdom]]) was due east of the city of Bhoga at a distance that could be spanned by a four or five days' journey by sea. He also wrote that Buddhism was flourishing throughout the islands of Southeast Asia. "Many of the kings and chieftains in the islands of the Southern Sea admire and believe in Buddhism, and their hearts are set on accumulating good actions."


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==See also==
==See also==
 
{{Portal|China|Religion}}
* [[Faxian]]
* [[Faxian]]
* [[Chinese Buddhism]]
* [[Chinese Buddhism]]
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==External links==
==External links==
* http://www.buddhanet.net/bodh_gaya/bodh_gaya01.htm
* http://www.buddhanet.net/bodh_gaya/bodh_gaya01.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201023125/http://www.buddhanet.net/bodh_gaya/bodh_gaya01.htm |date=1 December 2018 }}
* http://www.iranchamber.com/culture/articles/iranian_cultural_impact_southeastasia.php
* http://www.iranchamber.com/culture/articles/iranian_cultural_impact_southeastasia.php


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[[Category:Tang dynasty translators]]
[[Category:Tang dynasty translators]]
[[Category:Monks of Nalanda]]
[[Category:Monks of Nalanda]]
[[Category:History of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Sanskrit–Chinese translators]]
[[Category:Sanskrit–Chinese translators]]
[[Category:Tang dynasty Buddhist monks]]
[[Category:Tang dynasty Buddhist monks]]
[[Category:Pilgrimage accounts]]
[[Category:Pilgrimage accounts]]
[[Category:Writers from Jinan]]
[[Category:Writers from Jinan]]
[[Category:Chinese spiritual writers]]
[[Category:Chinese religious writers]]
[[Category:Explorers of India]]
[[Category:Explorers of South Asia]]
[[Category:7th-century Chinese translators]]
[[Category:7th-century Chinese writers]]
[[Category:7th-century translators]]
[[Category:Chinese translators]]
[[Category:Srivijaya]]
[[Category:Srivijaya]]

Latest revision as of 02:17, 30 January 2026


Yijing
Artist impression of Yijing
Born635 CE
Fanyang (Yanjing), Tang Empire
Died713 CE
Chang'an (now Xi'an)
OccupationBuddhist monk, traveler
Personal
ReligionBuddhism
EducationNalanda
Senior posting
TeacherShi Huen[clarification needed]
Yijing
Script error: No such module "Infobox multi-lingual name".
Yijing's travel map of the 7th century.
In this article, the family name is Zhang.

Yijing (635–713 CE), formerly romanized as I-ching or I-tsing,[1] born Zhang Wenming, was a Tang-era Chinese Buddhist monk and renowned travel writer. His account of his travels are an important source for the history of the medieval kingdoms along the sea route between China and India, especially Srivijaya in Indonesia. He also gave accounts of the Gupta Period in ancient India. A student of the Buddhist university at Nālandā (now in Bihar, India), he was also responsible for the translation of many Buddhist texts from Sanskrit and Pali into Chinese.

Biography[edit | edit source]

Yijing was born Zhang Wenming in 635 CE and was ordained as a monk at the age of 20. Growing up, he was an admirer of both Faxian and Xuanzang who both achieved fame travelling in India. In 671 he began his journey to India travelling along the "Maritime Silk Road" which took him through much of South East Asia. When he finally reached India he visited the main sites associated with the life of the Buddha and then came to the famed monastery of Nalanda where he remained for the next ten years.[2]

Yijing also wrote in his travelogue that an emperor by the name of "Che-li-ki-to" had built a Buddhist monastery in Bengal 500 years ago. Che-li-ki-to is identified as Sri Gupta, however Yijing's account is largely wrong, as it goes against the dates proposed for Sri Gupta. However, he should not be taken literally as he was just "stating the tradition told to him by older men".[3][4] Many modern scholars reject his account of the Buddhist monastery as well.[5][6]

After completing his studies in Nalanda, he began his journey back to China by travelling through South East Asia, arriving in the Srivijaya realm (modern Sumatra). He remained here for some time to continue his studies and described the monks of this region as being Theravadas.[2] It was during his time here that he began to compose his travelogue which was the A Nanhai Jigui Neifa Zhuan (Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea). He also engaged in translation work while in Srivijaya. In 689, after running out of supplies, he briefly returned to China to retrieve paper and ink before returning to Srivijaya.[2]

In 695, he completed all translation works and finally returned to China at Luoyang and received a grand welcome back by Empress Wu Zetian. His total journey took 25 years. He brought back some 400 Buddhist texts translated into Chinese.[7][8]

The A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea and Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty are two of Yijing's best travel diaries, describing his adventurous journey to Srivijaya and India, reporting on the society of India, the lifestyles of various local peoples, and more.[2]

Distribution of Buddhist traditions[edit | edit source]

In the great majority of areas in India, Yijing writes that there were followers of both "vehicles" (Skt. Yana), with some Buddhists practicing according to the Hinayana and others practicing according to the Mahayana.[9] He describes northern India and most of the islands of the South Seas (i.e. Sumatra, Java, etc.) as principally "Hīnayāna." In contrast, the Buddhists in China and Malayu are described as principally following the Mahāyāna.[10]

Yijing wrote about relationship between the various "vehicles" and the early Buddhist schools in India. He wrote, "There exist in the West numerous subdivisions of the schools which have different origins, but there are only four principal schools of continuous tradition." These schools are namely the Mahāsāṃghika, Sthavira, Mulasarvastivada, and Saṃmitīya nikāyas.[11] Explaining their doctrinal affiliations, he then writes, "Which of the four schools should be grouped with the Mahāyāna or with the Hīnayāna is not determined." That is to say, there was no simple correspondence between a monastic sect and whether its members learned "Hīnayāna" or "Mahāyāna" teachings.[12]

Buddhism in Srivijaya[edit | edit source]

Main article: Srivijaya
A depiction of Yijing displayed at the Kedatuan Sriwijaya temporary exhibition, National Museum of Indonesia (November 2017)

Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya (modern-day Sumatra) and advised Chinese monks to study there prior to making the journey to Nalanda in India.

In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two years and practice the proper rules....

Yijing's visits to Srivijaya gave him the opportunity to meet with others who had come from other neighboring islands. According to him, the Javanese kingdom of Ho-ling (Kalingga Kingdom) was due east of the city of Bhoga at a distance that could be spanned by a four or five days' journey by sea. He also wrote that Buddhism was flourishing throughout the islands of Southeast Asia. "Many of the kings and chieftains in the islands of the Southern Sea admire and believe in Buddhism, and their hearts are set on accumulating good actions."

Translations into Chinese[edit | edit source]

Yijing translated more than 60 texts into Chinese, including:

  • Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (一切有部毗奈耶)
  • Golden Light Sutra (金光明最勝王經) in 703
  • Diamond Sutra (能斷金剛般若波羅蜜多經, T. 239) in 703
  • Sūtra of the Original Vows of the Medicine Buddha of Lapis Lazuli Radiance and the Seven Past Buddhas (藥師琉璃光七佛本願功德經, T. 451), in 707
  • Avadanas (譬喻經) in 710

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

Citations[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Schoff, Wilfred Harvey, ed. (1912), Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Philadelphia: Commercial Museum, p. 213.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Lopez, Donald. "Yijing". Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press.
  3. ↑ R.S. Tripathi (1 January 1999). History of Ancient India. Internet Archive. Motilal Banarsidass, India. ISBN 978-81-208-0018-2.
  4. ↑ Filliozat, Jean (1957). Political history of India from the earliest times to the 7th centuary [sic] A.D. Internet Archive. Calcutta, S. Gupta (India) Ltd.
  5. ↑ R.S. Tripathi (1 January 1999). History of Ancient India. Internet Archive. Motilal Banarsidass, India. ISBN 978-81-208-0018-2.
  6. ↑ Filliozat, Jean (1957). Political history of India from the earliest times to the 7th centuary [sic] A.D. Internet Archive. Calcutta, S. Gupta (India) Ltd.
  7. ↑ "南海寄歸內法傳 Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas". Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2006.
  8. ↑ "大唐西域求法高僧傳 Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty". Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2006.
  9. ↑ Yijing. Takakusu, J. (tr.) A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago. 1896. p. xxv
  10. ↑ Yijing. Takakusu, J. (tr.) A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago. 1896. p. xxv
  11. ↑ Walser, Joseph (2005) Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture: pp. 41
  12. ↑ Walser, Joseph (2005) Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture: pp. 41-42

Sources[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

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