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{{Short description|Indian naval battle off south Kerala c. 988 CE}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Kandalur salai<br />Capture of Kandalur salai
| conflict          = Battle of Kandalur salai<br />Capture of Kandalur salai
| partof            =  
| partof            = Chola Expansions under Rajaraja I (late 10th century CE)
| image            = Suchindram inscription of Rajaraja I.jpg
| image            = Suchindram inscription of Rajaraja I.jpg
| image_size        =  
| image_size        =  
| caption          = Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from [[Suchindram]], [[Kanyakumari]] (15th regnal year)
| caption          = Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from [[Suchindram]], [[Kanyakumari]] (15th regnal year)
| date              = c. 988 CE<ref name=":1" />
| date              = {{circa}} 988 CE<ref name=":32" />
| place            = Kandalur, south [[Kerala]].
| place            = Kandalur, south [[Kerala]]
| casus            =  
| casus            =  
| territory        = Fall of Kandalur salai and annexed by Cholas
| territory        = Fall of Kandalur salai and annexation  by Cholas
| result            = Decisive [[Chola]] victory
| result            = Decisive [[Chola]] victory
| combatant1        = [[Chola Dynasty]]
| combatant1        = {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}}[[Chola Empire]]
| combatant2        = * Soldier Members of Kandalur salai
| combatant2        = * Members of Kandalur salai
* [[Chera Perumal dynasty|Chera Perumals]]  
* [[Chera Perumal dynasty|Chera Kingdom (Mahodayapuram)]] (?) or  {{flagicon image|Twin_fish_flag_of_Pandyas.svg}}[[Pandya dynasty|Pandya Kingdom]] (?)
* {{flagicon image|Twin_fish_flag_of_Pandyas.svg}}[[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]]
| commander1        = * {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}}[[Rajaraja Chola I]]
| commander1        = * [[Rajaraja Chola I]]
| commander2        = * Pandya ruler (?)
* Aprameyan pallavan (commander)
* Bhaskara Ravi "Manukuladitya" (?)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yE85EAAAQBAJ&dq=chola+army+sri+lanka+garrisons&pg=PT189 |title=A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare |date= |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781000432121 |pages=189-90}}</ref>
| commander2        = * Bhaskara Ravi Varman <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/A_Global_History_of_Pre_Modern_Warfare/yE85EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=chola+army+sri+lanka+garrisons&pg=PT189&printsec=frontcover|isbn = 9781000432121|title = A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE|date = 14 September 2021|publisher = Routledge}}</ref>
| units1            = * {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola army|Chola Army]] (?)
* Amarabuyanga pandiyan
*{{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola Navy]]
| units1            = * {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola army]]
| units2            = * Chera Army (?)
*{{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola Navy]]  
* Chera Navy (?)
 
| strength1        =  
| units2            = * Chera army
| strength2        =  
* Chera Navy
| strength1        = 1 Fleet
| strength2        = 1 Fleet
| casualties1      = Unknown
| casualties1      = Unknown
| casualties2      = Destruction of Chera navy, ports
| casualties2      = Destruction of Kandalur Salai
| notes            =  
| notes            =  
}}
}}


The '''battle of Kandalur salai''' (c. 988 CE), also spelled '''Kanthaloor salai,''' was a naval engagement of the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] under [[Raja Raja Chola I|Rajaraja I]] (985—1014 CE) against the "salai" at Kandalur in [[Trivandrum]] [[Kerala]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 122-24.</ref> The exact location of Kandalur—somewhere south [[Kerala]]—is a subject of scholarly debate.<ref name=":1">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&dq=perumals+of+kerala&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3zvqI1b3uAhVBgOYKHcR9D8MQ6AEwAXoECAoQAQ Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy].'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 115 - 117.</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 135.</ref> The above (988 CE) event is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of [[Vizhinjam]] by a general of [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja [I]]]", before the burning of [[Sri Lanka|Lanka]], given in the [[Thiruvalangadu|Tiruvalangadu]] Grant/Plates.<ref name=":1" />
'''The battle of Kandalur salai''' (c. 988 CE<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages=115–117 and 135 |orig-date=1972}}</ref>), also spelled '''Kanthaloor salai''', was a decisive military assault carried out the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] under [[Raja Raja Chola I|Rajaraja I]] (985—1014 CE) against the "salai" at Kandalur in south [[Kerala]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":42">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-concise-history-of-south-india-9780198099772?cc=us&lang=en& |title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |editor-last=Karashima |editor-first=Noburu |pages=125-26 |chapter=The Balance of Two Powers}}</ref> The exact location of Kandalur, somewhere south [[History of Kerala|Kerala]], is a subject of scholarly debate.<ref name=":32" /> The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamaruttaruli" is again used to refer to the same feat in the reigns of three later Chola rulers — [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]], [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |date=1970 |title=Kandalur Salai: New Light on the Nature of Aryan Expansion in South India |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141058 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=32 |pages=125–136 |issn=}}</ref>


The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta" is again used as a title with distinction of three other Chola kings also ([[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]], [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga]]).<ref name=":4">Narayanan, M.G.S. 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India.' ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 32, 1970, pp. 125–136.</ref>
The battle is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of [[Vizhinjam]] by a general of [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja [I]]]", which occurred prior to the "burning of [[History of Sri Lanka|Lanka]]", as described in the Tiruvalangadu Plates.<ref name=":32" />


== Assessment of the title ==
== Assessment of the phrase ==
"Salais" were considered prized possessions as they are claimed to have been sacked by many kings of south India.<ref name=":1" /> The character of the salais were re-examined in the 1970 paper 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Brahmin Expansion in South India' by historian M. G. S. Narayanan.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S., 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India,' Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 1970. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141058</ref>


{{cquote|It is now clear that the salai (or ghatika or kalakam or kalam) was a peculiar institution... A multipurpose training centre for celibate arms-bearing Brahmins (Chathar/Chathirar) in material and spiritual fields (including military training to equip them to serve the chieftain or the king and vedic and sastraic studies)...
=== Different interpretations ===
| author = M. G. S. Narayanan (1970)
Early scholars expressed differing views regarding the character of the Kandalur salai, variously identifying it as a Brahmin feeding house, a royal hall, or a naval base.<ref name=":32" /> Consequently, the meaning of the phrase "Kandalur salai kalamaruttaruli" was also interpreted in different ways.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":s24">{{Cite book |last=Veluthat |first=Kesavan |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-early-medieval-in-south-india-9780198069140 |title=The Early Medieval in South India |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |pages=159-60 |chapter=Epigraphy in the Historiography of Kerala}}</ref>
| book = Perumals of Kerala
# [[E. Hultzsch]]<ref name=":0" />
}}
#* "Destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur"<ref name=":0" /> or
#* "Cut the vessel [kalam] in the hall at Kandalur"<ref name=":0" /> or
#* "Built a jewell-like hall at Kandalur"<ref name=":0" />
# [[T. A. Gopinatha Rao]] -
#* "Transferred the kalam [Brahmin feeding] at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"<ref name=":0" />
#* "Discontinued the kalam [Brahmin feeding] at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"<ref name=":0" />
# Desikavinayakam Pillai - "Regulated of the kalam [Brahmin feeding] at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"<ref name=":0" />
#[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] - "Destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur" (?)<ref name=":0" />
# Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "Discontinued/Destroyed the Brahmin feeding [kalam] at Kandalur"<ref name=":0" />
# M. G. S. Narayanan/[[Kesavan Veluthat]] - "Destroyed the Brahmin ghatika [=salai; military training centre] at Kandalur".<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":s24" /> Narayanan identified the Tamil term "kalam" with Sanskrit "ghatika" or "ghataka" (also kazhakam/kalam in Tamil or Malayalam). The salai, or the ghatika, was a distinctive medieval institution — a multipurpose training centre for celibate, arms-bearing [[Brahmins]] (called "Chathar" or "Chathirar"), providing instruction in both material and spiritual fields.<ref name=":0" /> This included military training to prepare them for service under a chieftain or king, as well as Vedic and sastraic studies.<ref name=":0" /> The "salais" were considered prized possessions, as they are said to have been sacked by many medieval rulers of southern India.<ref name=":32" />
# Chengam hero stone inscription - "Destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur"<ref name="hindu1" />


=== Older assessments ===
== Location of Kandalur Salai ==
Different views were expressed by early scholars regarding the character of "salai" (such as naval base - military training centre - cantonment - ammunition depot).<ref name=":2" />
The exact location of Kandalur remains a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible that the original Kandalur salai was situated near the [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] headquarters at [[Vizhinjam]], and that the deity (the Kandalur Mahadeva) was later relocated to [[Trivandrum]] following the Chola raids of the tenth and eleventh centuries.<ref name=":32" />


# Dr. Hultzsch - (1) "built a jewell-like hall at Kandalur" or (2)  "cut the vessel [kalam] in the hall at Kandalur" (3) "destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur [harbour]"<ref name=":4" />
* Original (?) location:— A village approximately 20 km east of Vizhinjam, with a [[Valiyasala Mahadeva Temple|Shiva temple]] known as "Kandalur Salai".<ref name=":32" />
# Gopinatha Rao - "destroyed/discontinued/transferred the Brahmin feeding [kalam] at Kandalur Feeding House or Hall [salai] "<ref name=":4" />
* Shifted (?) location:— Within the city of [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (Valiya Salai or Valiassala Temple).<ref name=":32" />
# Desikavinayakam Pillai - "regulation of the Brahmin feeding at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"<ref name=":4" />
#[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] - "destroyed ships at Kandalur [harbour]"<ref name=":4" />
# Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "discontinued/destroyed the feeding [kalam] of the armed Brahmins [Chathar] at Kandalur".<ref name=":4" />


== Location of Kandalur salai ==
== Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE) ==
The exact location of Kandalur is a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible the original Kandalur salai was located near the [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] headquarters [[Vizhinjam]] and the deity was later shifted to [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (after the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] raids of the 10th-11th centuries).<ref name=":1" />
The capture of the Kandalur salai on the Malabar Coast was the first military success of emperor [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja]]'s reign. This victory was commemorated in the well-known phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n8/mode/1up |title=The Colas |publisher=University of Madras |year=1955 |edition=Revised 2nd |location=Madras |pages=169-70}}</ref>
 
* Original location:— a village around 20&nbsp;km east of Vizhinjam with a [[Valiyasala Mahadeva Temple|Shiva temple]] called Kandalur Salai.<ref name=":1" />
* Shifted location:— within the city of [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (Valiya Salai Temple)<ref name=":1" />


== Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE) ==
* The Kandalur salai belonged to the [[Ay dynasty|Ay ruler]], a vassal of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] king at [[Madurai]], in the mid-860s (865 CE).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":S">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2vp0SW6Gj3IC |title=Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |year=1972 |location=Trivandrum |pages=10–13, 45 |chapter=Vikramaditya Varaguna and Srimulavasa Vihara}}</ref> It is possible that, at the time of the Chola raid, the salai was under the control of the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|medieval Chera ruler of Kerala]], Bhaskara Ravi. If so, the battle may be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early campaigns against the Cheras, the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]], and the rulers of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":42" />
As per historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the capture was the first military achievement of king [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja]]'s reign. The success was summed up in the famous phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.<ref name=":1" /><ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955. p. 164-9.</ref>
* However, some historians argue that the Kandalur salai, which is claimed in later Chola inscriptions (c. 1048 CE) to have belonged to the Cheras of Kerala, may in fact have been held by the Pandyas when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/history-south-india-prehistoric-times-fall-vijayanagar |title=A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagara |date=1955 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=164-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Venkayya |first=V. |title=Introduction |journal=South Indian Inscriptions |location=Madras |volume=2 |page=2}}</ref>


* The Kandalur salai belonged to the [[Ay dynasty|Ay chief]], a vassal of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] king at [[Madurai]], in the mid-860s (865 CE).<ref name=":4" />
=== Chengam hero stone inscription ===
*It is possible that at the time of the raid, the salai may have been under control of the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] king of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravi.<ref name=":1" /> If that was the case, the campaign can be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early battles against the Cheras, Pandyas and the rulers of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":0" />
A hero-stone inscription, dated to the fourteenth regnal year of Rajaraja I, was unearthed at Chengam in [[Tiruvannamalai]] in November 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement did indeed take place at Kandalur.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web |last=Subramanian |first=T. S. |date=2009-11-27 |title=Unearthed Stone Ends Debate |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624131513/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece |archive-date=24 June 2018 |website=The Hindu |publisher=}}</ref> The inscription contains a eulogy describing Rajaraja I as having "beheaded the Malai Alarkal of Kandalur Salai".<ref name="hindu1" /> According to the newspaper report, it also states that Rajaraja I built a mantapa platform there, split in two a naval vessel belonging to the Chera king, and destroyed a number of "boats".<ref name="hindu1" />
* However, some historians argue that Kandalur salai, which only later Chola inscriptions (1048 CE) claim to have belonged to the Chera Perumals, may have been held by the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyas]] when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.<ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955.</ref><ref name=":3">Venkayya, V., ''South Indian Inscriptions'', (Madras), Vol II, Intn, p. 2.</ref>
*A hero stone inscription was unearthed from a village near [[Tiruvannamalai]] in November, 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement indeed took place at Kandalur.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=2009-11-27|title=Unearthed Stone Ends Debate|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624131513/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece |archive-date=24 June 2018 |website=The Hindu|publisher=}}</ref> It has a eulogy that talks about Rajaraja "beheading the Malai Alargal of Kandalur Salai".<ref name="hindu1" />


== References to Kandalur salai ==
== References to Kandalur salai ==
''Corrections by [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] on [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] are employed.''
A range of inscriptional and literary sources refer to the Kandalur salai. The earliest reference occurs in 865/66 CE in the Trivandrum Huzur Office or Parthivapuram Plates of the [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] ruler Karunanthadakkan Srivallabha, a vassal of the Pandya king [[Srimara Srivallabha]].<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":0" /> The first Chola reference to the fall of the Kandalur salai appears in 988 CE, in the phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta".<ref name=":32" />


* 865 CE — Huzur Office/Parthivapuram Plates of [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] chieftain Karunantatakkan Srivallabha (a vassal of the Pandya king [[Srimara Srivallabha]]).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
Inscriptional references to Chola campaigns in Kerala under [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] or [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]], dated to around 1018–19 CE, state that the Cholas "confined the undaunted king of Venatu to Che[ra]natu … and put on a fresh garland of [[Thiruvanchikulam Temple|Vanchi]] after capturing Kantalur Salai, while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle".''<ref name=":34" />'' The Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions of Rajadhiraja I Chola mention the Kandalur salai as "Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai" (30th regnal year; 1048 CE).''<ref name=":342">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages=135-36 |orig-date=1972}}</ref>'' The Kalingattupparani (III.21) notably records [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga Chola]]'s victory over the Chera Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kandalur Salai, while the inscriptions of Jatavarman Parakrama Pandya refer to the capture of Kandalur Salai (c. 1102–c. 1118 CE) on behalf of his Chola overlord, [[Vikrama Chola]].''<ref name=":34">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages=125–130 |orig-date=1972}}</ref>''
* 988 CE — first Chola reference to the fall of Kandalur salai ("Kandalur salai kalamarutta").<ref name=":1" />
* 1018-19 CE — Chola ([[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]]) campaigns in Kerala.
{{cquote|
"...confined the undaunted king of [[Venad|Venatu]] [back] to Che[ra]natu [from the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]]].... and put on a fresh garland of [[Thiruvanchikulam Temple|Vanchi]] after capturing Kantalur Salai while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle..."
}}
* 1048 CE – Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions – Kandalur salai is mentioned as 'Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai'.<ref name=":3" />
* ''Kalingattupparani'' (III-21) mentions [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga Chola]]'s victory of over the Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kantalur Salai.
* c. 1102 — c.1118 CE – Jatavarman Parakrama [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] mentions the capture of Kantalur Salai (for his Chola overlord [[Vikrama Chola]]).


==References==
==References==
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[[Category:988]]
[[Category:988]]
[[Category:10th century in India]]
[[Category:10th century in India]]
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:Medieval Kerala]]
[[Category:10th-century conflicts|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:980s conflicts|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Chola Empire|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Chola Empire|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Military orders (monastic society)]]
[[Category:Military orders (monastic society)]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Chola Empire]]

Latest revision as of 15:48, 16 March 2026


Battle of Kandalur salai
Capture of Kandalur salai
Part of Chola Expansions under Rajaraja I (late 10th century CE)

Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from Suchindram, Kanyakumari (15th regnal year)
Datec. 988 CE[1]
Location
Kandalur, south Kerala
Result Decisive Chola victory
Territorial
changes		 Fall of Kandalur salai and annexation by Cholas
Belligerents
Chola Empire
Commanders and leaders
  • Rajaraja Chola I
    		•
  • Pandya ruler (?)
  • Bhaskara Ravi "Manukuladitya" (?)[2]
    • Units involved
  • Chola Army (?)
  • Chola Navy
    		•
  • Chera Army (?)
  • Chera Navy (?)
    • Casualties and losses
    Unknown Destruction of Kandalur Salai

    The battle of Kandalur salai (c. 988 CE[1]), also spelled Kanthaloor salai, was a decisive military assault carried out the Cholas under Rajaraja I (985—1014 CE) against the "salai" at Kandalur in south Kerala.[3][4] The exact location of Kandalur, somewhere south Kerala, is a subject of scholarly debate.[1] The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamaruttaruli" is again used to refer to the same feat in the reigns of three later Chola rulers — Rajendra, Rajadhiraja and Kulottunga.[5]

    The battle is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of Vizhinjam by a general of Rajaraja [I]", which occurred prior to the "burning of Lanka", as described in the Tiruvalangadu Plates.[1]

    Assessment of the phrase[edit | edit source]

    Different interpretations[edit | edit source]

    Early scholars expressed differing views regarding the character of the Kandalur salai, variously identifying it as a Brahmin feeding house, a royal hall, or a naval base.[1] Consequently, the meaning of the phrase "Kandalur salai kalamaruttaruli" was also interpreted in different ways.[1][6]

    1. E. Hultzsch[5]
      • "Destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur"[5] or
      • "Cut the vessel [kalam] in the hall at Kandalur"[5] or
      • "Built a jewell-like hall at Kandalur"[5]
    2. T. A. Gopinatha Rao -
      • "Transferred the kalam [Brahmin feeding] at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"[5]
      • "Discontinued the kalam [Brahmin feeding] at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"[5]
    3. Desikavinayakam Pillai - "Regulated of the kalam [Brahmin feeding] at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"[5]
    4. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri - "Destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur" (?)[5]
    5. Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "Discontinued/Destroyed the Brahmin feeding [kalam] at Kandalur"[5]
    6. M. G. S. Narayanan/Kesavan Veluthat - "Destroyed the Brahmin ghatika [=salai; military training centre] at Kandalur".[5][6] Narayanan identified the Tamil term "kalam" with Sanskrit "ghatika" or "ghataka" (also kazhakam/kalam in Tamil or Malayalam). The salai, or the ghatika, was a distinctive medieval institution — a multipurpose training centre for celibate, arms-bearing Brahmins (called "Chathar" or "Chathirar"), providing instruction in both material and spiritual fields.[5] This included military training to prepare them for service under a chieftain or king, as well as Vedic and sastraic studies.[5] The "salais" were considered prized possessions, as they are said to have been sacked by many medieval rulers of southern India.[1]
    7. Chengam hero stone inscription - "Destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur"[7]

    Location of Kandalur Salai[edit | edit source]

    The exact location of Kandalur remains a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible that the original Kandalur salai was situated near the Ay headquarters at Vizhinjam, and that the deity (the Kandalur Mahadeva) was later relocated to Trivandrum following the Chola raids of the tenth and eleventh centuries.[1]

    • Original (?) location:— A village approximately 20 km east of Vizhinjam, with a Shiva temple known as "Kandalur Salai".[1]
    • Shifted (?) location:— Within the city of Trivandrum (Valiya Salai or Valiassala Temple).[1]

    Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE)[edit | edit source]

    The capture of the Kandalur salai on the Malabar Coast was the first military success of emperor Rajaraja's reign. This victory was commemorated in the well-known phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.[3]

    • The Kandalur salai belonged to the Ay ruler, a vassal of the Pandya king at Madurai, in the mid-860s (865 CE).[5][8] It is possible that, at the time of the Chola raid, the salai was under the control of the medieval Chera ruler of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravi. If so, the battle may be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early campaigns against the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the rulers of Sri Lanka.[4]
    • However, some historians argue that the Kandalur salai, which is claimed in later Chola inscriptions (c. 1048 CE) to have belonged to the Cheras of Kerala, may in fact have been held by the Pandyas when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.[9][10]

    Chengam hero stone inscription[edit | edit source]

    A hero-stone inscription, dated to the fourteenth regnal year of Rajaraja I, was unearthed at Chengam in Tiruvannamalai in November 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement did indeed take place at Kandalur.[7] The inscription contains a eulogy describing Rajaraja I as having "beheaded the Malai Alarkal of Kandalur Salai".[7] According to the newspaper report, it also states that Rajaraja I built a mantapa platform there, split in two a naval vessel belonging to the Chera king, and destroyed a number of "boats".[7]

    References to Kandalur salai[edit | edit source]

    A range of inscriptional and literary sources refer to the Kandalur salai. The earliest reference occurs in 865/66 CE in the Trivandrum Huzur Office or Parthivapuram Plates of the Ay ruler Karunanthadakkan Srivallabha, a vassal of the Pandya king Srimara Srivallabha.[1][5] The first Chola reference to the fall of the Kandalur salai appears in 988 CE, in the phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta".[1]

    Inscriptional references to Chola campaigns in Kerala under Rajadhiraja or Rajendra, dated to around 1018–19 CE, state that the Cholas "confined the undaunted king of Venatu to Che[ra]natu … and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi after capturing Kantalur Salai, while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle".[11] The Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions of Rajadhiraja I Chola mention the Kandalur salai as "Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai" (30th regnal year; 1048 CE).[12] The Kalingattupparani (III.21) notably records Kulottunga Chola's victory over the Chera Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kandalur Salai, while the inscriptions of Jatavarman Parakrama Pandya refer to the capture of Kandalur Salai (c. 1102–c. 1118 CE) on behalf of his Chola overlord, Vikrama Chola.[11]

    References[edit | edit source]

    1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 115–117 and 135. ISBN 9788188765072.
    2. ↑ Roy, Kaushik (2022). A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare. Routledge. pp. 189–90. ISBN 9781000432121.
    3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). The Colas (Revised 2nd ed.). Madras: University of Madras. pp. 169–70.
    4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Karashima, Noburu, ed. (2014). "The Balance of Two Powers". A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–26.
    5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 Narayanan, M. G. S. (1970). "Kandalur Salai: New Light on the Nature of Aryan Expansion in South India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 32: 125–136.
    6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Veluthat, Kesavan (2009). "Epigraphy in the Historiography of Kerala". The Early Medieval in South India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 159–60.
    7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Subramanian, T. S. (27 November 2009). "Unearthed Stone Ends Debate". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018.
    8. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. (1972). "Vikramaditya Varaguna and Srimulavasa Vihara". Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala. Trivandrum: Kerala Historical Society. pp. 10–13, 45.
    9. ↑ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagara. Oxford University Press. pp. 164–9.
    10. ↑ Venkayya, V. "Introduction". South Indian Inscriptions. 2. Madras: 2.
    11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 125–130. ISBN 9788188765072.
    12. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 135–36. ISBN 9788188765072.
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