'''Ambashtha''' or '''Ambastha''' may refer to an ancient Indian tribe or several communities of [[Hindu]]s in present-day India and Sri Lanka.<ref name="Sinha BP">{{cite book|title=Kayastha in making of modern Bihar|last=Sinha|first=BP|publisher=Impression Publisher|year=2003|location=Patna|pages=14–15|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Changing Identities">{{cite book|title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia|last=David|first=Kenneth|date=2011-06-03|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=9783110807752|location=|pages=189|language=en}}</ref> In South India Ambastha may be rendered as '''Ambattan''' or ''' Ambattar'''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TekcAAAAMAAJ|title=The Karāva of Ceylon: Society and Culture|last=Raghavan|first=M. D.|date=1961|publisher=K.V.G. De Sīlva|pages=89|language=en}}</ref> They have traditionally been associated with Indian medicine and the profession of [[physician]].<ref name="Leslie2">{{cite book|last=Leslie|first=Charles M.|title=Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarasidass Publishers|isbn=81-208-1537-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pcgQSKFL-DsC&q=Ambastha&pg=PA38}}</ref>
'''Ambashtha''' or '''Ambastha''' is a [[caste]] or sub-caste or a community of [[Hindu]]s in [[India]]. According to Hindu scriptures, the term Ambastha refers to the offspring of a [[Brahmin]] father and a [[Vaishya]] mother, whose traditional occupation was the practice of medicine.<ref name="Ridgeon">{{cite book|last=Ridgeon|first=Lloyd|title=Major World Religions: From Their Origins To The Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFKBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA45|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|year=2003|page=45|isbn=978-1-13442-935-6}}</ref><ref name="Manu">{{cite book|author =Manu, Patrick Olivelle |author2=Suman Olivelle|title=Manu's Code of Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnHo02RtONMC&pg=PA208|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|page=208|isbn=978-0-19517-146-4}}</ref>
== Ambashtha in Ayurveda ==
The term Ambastha is now used to describe a particular sub-caste within the [[Chitraguptavanshi Kayastha]] community, now found mainly in [[North India|North-Indian region]] ([[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MihuAAAAMAAJ|title=The Kāyasthas: a study in the formation and early history of a caste|last=Gupta|first=Chitrarekha|date=1996|publisher=K.P. Bagchi & Co.|isbn=9788170741565|location=|pages=60|language=en|quote=But Bihar was not the original homeland of the Ambashthas. The Ambashthas were a famous tribe from Western Punjab and have been mentioned in the Mahabharata.}}</ref>
Leslie in his comparative study of Asian medical systems has detailed the role of Ambashthas in the Ayurvedic system of ancient Indian medicine. Vaidyas in ancient India were a group who were committed to human health and welfare as depicted in early medical texts. In modern times, the term Ambashtha is usually interchangeably used as Vaidya, though in earlier times it seems to be only a part of Vaidyas who were preferred by orthodox Brahmins.<ref name="Leslie2">{{cite book|last=Leslie|first=Charles M.|title=Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarasidass Publishers|isbn=81-208-1537-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pcgQSKFL-DsC&q=Ambastha&pg=PA38}}</ref> Sahay mentions that the mythological pioneer of Ayurvedic medicine, Dhanvatari, was said to be an Ambashtha.<ref name="Sahay"></ref>
In Bengal, the Vaidyas/Baidyas have a history of several centuries as physicians, where they hold good social position with high rate of literacy and professionalism. In Kerela, one of the six subdivisions of [[Nambudiri]] brahmins is the Vaidyams which is also a class of physicians with eight component clans. They have high social status but are looked down upon by other Nambudiri brahmins due to lesser interest in Vedic knowledge. In Madhya Pradesh, there are certain subgroup of Brahmins called Baids, who practice medicine. In Tamil Nadu, there are several such groups with more than thousand years of history. Most villages had Vaithiyans who had high social prestige and held land in service tenure. Most Ayurvedic practitioners where of higher social status but a Pariyan group with lower rank in social hierarchy also held the title of Vaithiyans. Vaidya title is adopted by all members of Ambathans in Tamil Nadu, only some of them practice medicines and are more highly esteemed than the others who are barbers. In Orissa, the '''Baidyo'''s cure curses and claim to be [[Kshatriya]]s with small landholdings. In Maharashtra, the Vaidya title is used by the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu<ref>{{cite news|quote=Like the Thackerays, Vaidya also belonged to the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu (CKP) community. The CKPs are a small but literate and influential caste, with a high occupational status that equals the Brahmins.|publisher=DNA India|title=Book on Thackerays traces ghar vapasi, rivalry between brothers|date=Sep 17, 2019|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-book-on-thackerays-traces-ghar-vapasi-rivalry-between-brothers-2790284}}</ref> and Chitpawan brahmins.<ref>{{cite book|title=Organiser, Volume 32|publisher=Bharat Prakashan|year=1980|page=6}}</ref>
==Origin==
In addition to these there are several untrained practitioners of local medicine in contemporary India who claim to be Vaid/Baid, are the Kusavans in South India who set fractures, Madulas in Telugu land who sell drugs, barbers extracting teeths and lancing boils and Mahawats of Uttar Pradesh who are wandering medicine-men. Their claim is not supported by any medical texts or any of the ancient philosophers like [[Charaka]] or [[Susruta]].
=== Hindu Scriptures ===
In the ancient Indian epic [[Mahabharata]], a warrior tribe named Ambastha has been mentioned. During Alexander's invasion, they had 60000 infantry, 6000 horsemen and 500 chariots. They have been described as inhabitants of northwestern part of Indian subcontinent (near Lahore), and they were conquered by Nakula and paid tribute to Yudisthira. They fought in the Kurukhetra war (initially for the Pandavas but later for Drona). They took to different professions like priesthood, farming and medicine, and are assumed to have migrated to eastern India later on.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sircar |first=Dineschandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mh1y1eMgGBMC |title=Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India |date=1971 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-2790-5 |language=en}}</ref>
==Mythology and varna status==
The term Ambastha also gets mentioned in Hindu text [[Manusmriti]] as the offspring of a union between Brahmin male and Vaishya female.<ref name="Ridgeon" />
Ridgeon mentions about the myth related to the origin of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]] in the [[Rigveda]],<ref name="Ridgeon">{{cite book|last=Ridgeon|first=Lloyd|title=Major World Religions: From Their Origins To The Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFKBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA45|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|year=2003|page=45|isbn=978-1-13442-935-6}}</ref> and says that in order to explain "the great number of castes, a theory was developed that unions between men and women of different varnas produced offspring of various castes".<ref name="Ridgeon"/> According to ''[[Manusmriti]]'', an ancient Hindu text, the Ambattar or Ambashtha are the offspring of a [[Brahmin]] father and a [[Vaishya]] mother.<ref name="Ridgeon">{{cite book|last=Ridgeon|first=Lloyd|title=Major World Religions: From Their Origins To The Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFKBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA45|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|year=2003|page=45|isbn=978-1-13442-935-6}}</ref> Regarding the varna status of the offspring of a brahmin father and a vaishya mother, J. Muir (1868) cites the Mahabharata and says that "A son begotten by a Brahman in the three castes [i.e. on a woman of either of the upper three classes] will be a Brahman" (also suggested by G.S. Ghurye)<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghurye|first=G.S.|title=Caste and Race in India|year=1969|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWkjsvf6_vsC&pg=PA85|page=85|isbn=9788171542055}}</ref>{{full|date=May 2015}}, and mentions that "purity of caste blood was not much regarded among Hindus in early ages".<ref>{{cite book| last=Muir|first=J|title= The People of India, Their religions and institutions|url=http://www.forgottenbooks.com/readbook_text/Original_Sanskrit_Texts_on_the_Origin_and_History_of_the_People_of_India_1000039440/493}}</ref>
Sahay mentions that the Jatakas refers to the Ambashtha as agriculturist while the Pali work, Ambattha Sutta,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ambattha Sutta {{!}} Buddhist text|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ambattha-Sutta|access-date=2021-06-13|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> refers to them as Brahmins.<ref name=Sahay>{{cite book|last=Sahay|first=Uday|title=Kayasth Encyclopedia|publisher=SAUV communications|year=2021|isbn=978-81-941122-3-5|location=Delhi|pages=136|language=en}}</ref> Ambattha Sutta is one of the suttas of [[Dīgha Nikāya|Digha Nikaya]], the Buddhist scripture.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Law|first=Bimala Churn|title=Tribes in Ancient India|date=1973|publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|page=97|language=en}}</ref> S. N Mazumdar mention Ambashtha as [[Brahmakshatriya]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Law|first=Bimala Churn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YApuAAAAMAAJ&q=Ambastha|title=Tribes in Ancient India|date=1973|publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|page=97|language=en}}</ref> Gupta adds that they were also given a high status by Yajnnavalkya, but not that of a full fledged Brahmin.<ref name="Gupta"/>
== Varna status ==
Ridgeon mentions about the myth related to the origin of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]] in the [[Rigveda]],<ref name="Ridgeon" /> and says that in order to explain "the great number of castes, a theory was developed that unions between men and women of different varnas produced offspring of various castes".<ref name="Ridgeon" />
Citing the Hindu text ''Parasara'', Leslie mentions that the Ambastha is supposed to treat the Brahmins only, and hence considered as "a clean caste, definitely below the brahmin, but certainly well within the [[Dvija|twice-born]] group".<ref name="Leslie">{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Charles M. |title=Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study |year=1976 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-52003-511-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/asianmedicalsyst00lesl/page/37 37] |url=https://archive.org/details/asianmedicalsyst00lesl|url-access=registration }}</ref> This differentiates the Ambasthas from the average Vaidyas, who were considered "unclean" and were denied the status accorded to the Ambastha.<ref name="Leslie"/> Gupta mentions that quite in corfirmity with the duty assigned as per the law of Manu, the Ambashthas of Bengal are found to be associated with the profession of medicine.<ref name="Gupta"/> Brihaddharmapurana treats the Baidya and the Ambastha as separate sub-castes (Upabarna) with separate origin history.<ref name="Malakar">{{cite book|last=Malakara|first=Kalipada|title=Inter-communities Relations Through Castes, Rituals & Marriages|year=1979}}</ref>
Citing the Hindu text ''Parasara'', Leslie mentions that the Ambastha is supposed to treat the Brahmins only, and hence considered as "a clean caste, definitely below the brahman, but certainly well within the [[Dvija|twice-born]] group".<ref name="Leslie">{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Charles M. |title=Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study |year=1976 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-52003-511-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/asianmedicalsyst00lesl/page/37 37] |url=https://archive.org/details/asianmedicalsyst00lesl|url-access=registration }}</ref> This differentiates the Ambasthas from the average Vaidyas, who were considered "unclean" and were denied the status accorded to the Ambastha.<ref name="Leslie"/>
In the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata, a warrior tribe named Ambastha has been mentioned. During Alexander's invasion, they had 60000 infantry, 6000 horsemen and 500 chariots. They have been described as inhabitants of northwestern part of Indian subcontinent (near Lahore), and they were conquered by Nakula and paid tribute to Yudisthira. They fought in the Kurukhetra war (initially for the Pandavas but later for Drona). They took to different professions like priesthood, farming and medicine, and are assumed to have migrated to eastern India later on.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garg|first=G.R.|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World|year=1992|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjDcd0cTFxQC&pg=PA377|page=377|isbn=9788170223757}}</ref>{{full|date=May 2015}}
== Ambashthas of Bihar ==
According to [[Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha]] the ancient Ambasthas migrated to Bihar and created a sub-division of the greater Kayastha caste of this region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sinha |first=Bindeshwari Prasad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryhuAAAAMAAJ |title=Kayasthas in Making of Modern Bihar |date=2003 |publisher=Impression Publication |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
Ambastha Kayasthas form a sub-caste of the larger [[Kayastha]] community of India. They may be connected with the old Ambashtha caste, as suggested by Crooke, and were supposed to be involved in the practice of surgery.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MihuAAAAMAAJ|title=The Kāyasthas: a study in the formation and early history of a caste|last=Gupta|first=Chitrarekha|date=1996|publisher=K.P. Bagchi & Co.|isbn=9788170741565|pages=60|language=en|quote=But Bihar was not the original homeland of the Ambashthas. The Ambashthas were a famous tribe from Western Punjab and have been mentioned in the Mahabharata.}}</ref><ref name="Russell">{{cite book|last=Russell|first=R.V.|title=The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume III of IV|date=28 September 2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53qCQY5VzvsC&pg=PT372|publisher=Library of Alexandria|isbn=978-1-46558-303-1}}</ref> The name ''Ambastha'' may also come from the Ameth region of Oudh or their patron deity Ambaji.<ref name="Russell"/> In Bengal, the 17th century work ''Vaidya Kulpanji Chandraprabha'' and the 16th century work ''Suryacharita of Chandrashehar'', claim that Vaidyas are regarded as Ambashtha and the author also refers to himself as a Gaud Ambashtha.<ref name="Sahay"></ref>
==Early medieval Bengal==
In the ''Brihaddharma Purana'' the Ambashthas and the [[Baidya]]s/Vaidyas were considered as the same caste in its list of 36 castes but another text, the [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]] considered them as two separate sub-castes. Bharatmallik (17th century), the author of the ''Chandraprabha'' and ''Bhattitika'' has introduced himself as both Vaidya and Ambashtha, which indicates both the castes may have been considered as one in early medieval Bengal.<ref>Roy, Niharranjan (1993). ''Bangalar Itihas:Adiparba'' (in Bengali), Kolkata:Dey's Publishing, {{ISBN|81-7079-270-3}}, pp.227,246-7</ref>
== Ambashtha in ancient India ==
Mukharji explains that in addition to the term Ambashtha used in connection with Ayurveda, the term was also used for identifying some ethnic groups in Ancient India.<ref name="PBMukharji">{{cite book|last=Mukharji|first=Projit Bihari|title=Doctoring Traditions: Ayurveda, Small Technologies, and Braided Sciences|date=14 October 2016|isbn=9780226381824|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzPqDAAAQBAJ&q=ambastha+ayurved&pg=PA45}}</ref> An Ambashtha king named Narada has been mentioned in Aitreya Brahama in 500 BC. Sahay mentions that they were also called Anava Kshatriya being of the dynasty of Anu who was son of the Paurava King '''Yayati'''.<ref name="Sahay"></ref> Greek and Roman sources also mention a republic kingdom of Ambashtha people in the Chenab region during the time of [[Alexander]]'s invasion. Archeologist Chitrarekha Gupta also mentions that several references to Ambastanoi tribe of the region are found in Greek sources.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite book|last=Gupta|first=Chitrarekha |title=The Kāyasthas: A Study in the Formation and Early History of a Caste|year=1996|publisher=K.P. Bagchi & Company|location=Calcutta|language=en}}</ref> The epic Mahabharata mentions Ambashtha living in Punjab region and Brihaspati ArthaShashtra mentions their region between Kashmir and Sind. Later around 140 AD, [[Ptolemy]] mentions Ambashtha settlement in Mekala region, so does Markandeya Purana and Brihat Samhita. They are mentioned in Mahabharata along with Shivis, Malavas, Kshudrakas and other tribes of Punjab. Gupta details that like the Malavas they too had to migrate South of their homeland.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite book|last=Gupta|first=Chitrarekha |title=The Kāyasthas: A Study in the Formation and Early History of a Caste|year=1996|publisher=K.P. Bagchi & Company|location=Calcutta|language=en}}</ref>
These sources support their chronological southward migration till Mekala.
== Migration from Mekala ==
BP Sinha, an eminent archeologist, details the bifurcation in their migration from Mekala in present-day Madhya Pradesh. One eastward from Mekala and the other, southward.<ref name="Sinha BP"> </ref> Gupta details that a branch of Ambashtha tribe had settled in the Maikala region of Central India by second century AD is corroborated by foreign as well as regional sources.<ref name="Gupta"></ref> Raychaudhari mentions that they settled in Mahakala (Mekala) region by the second century.<ref name="Raychaudhari">{{cite book|last=Raychaudhari|first=Hem Chandra|title=Political History of Ancient India|year=1952|location=Delhi|publisher=Cosmo Publication}}</ref> Sahay mentions that Varahmihir in Brihat Samhita also locates them in Central India and the migration trajectory suggests that after being defeated by Alexander, in the battle of Malav, they were forced to leave western Punjab to reach Mekala and around 150 families moved east to Magadh empire on the invitation of Chandragupta Maurya. They were settled around Rajgriha in Bihar which became their Khasghar. Traces of this migration have been found in Prayagraj.<ref name="Sahay"></ref>
BP Sinha also mentions that most of them migrated from Ujjain to Bihar along the riverbank route and from there a splinter group moved onto Bengal and Odisha.<ref name="Sinha BP"></ref>
== In north India and Bengal ==
Eminent epigraphist of [[Archaeological Survey of India]], [[Dineshchandra Sircar]], mentions that Ambashthas of the Maikala region migrated eastwards towards Bihar.<ref name=Sircar>{{cite book|last=Sircar|first=Dineshchandra|title=Studies in the societies and administration of Ancient India|year=1967|location=Calcutta|language=en}}</ref>
Sinha details that from Mekala the Ambashtha appear to migrate to Bihar and concentrated today in that region, mostly in central districts of Bihar. A community called Ambashtha exists as a sub-caste of [[Kayastha]] in Bihar. Sinha further details that some migrated to Bengal also and a community called [[Baidya|Vaidya]] exists there which according to the code of Manu set for the profession of physicians.<ref name="Sinha BP" />
In the ''Brihaddharma Purana'' the Ambashthas and the Vaidyas were considered as the same caste in its list of 36 castes but another text, the [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]] considered them as two separate sub-castes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mukharji|first=Projit Bihari|title=Doctoring Traditions: Ayurveda, Small Technologies, and Braided Sciences|date=14 October 2016|isbn=9780226381824|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzPqDAAAQBAJ&q=ambastha+ayurved&pg=PA45}}</ref> Bharatmallik (17th century), the author of the ''Chandraprabha'' and ''Bhattitika'' has introduced himself as both Vaidya and Ambashtha, which indicates both the castes were considered as one in early medieval Bengal.<ref>Roy, Niharranjan (1993). ''Bangalar Itihas:Adiparba'' (in Bengali), Kolkata:Dey's Publishing, {{ISBN|81-7079-270-3}}, pp.227,246-7</ref>
At present, Ambashtha Kayasthas exist as a sub-caste of Kayasthas, the [[Chitraguptavanshi Kayastha]]s, mainly in the Hindi-speaking areas of India mostly in U.P, [[Bihar]] and [[West Bengal]].<ref name="Russell"/>
== Tamil, Malayalam and Sri Lankan history ==
Sinha also details the migration of Ambashtha from Punjab and Madhya Pradesh to Tamil and Malayalam countries comparing them with Sivis and Malwas who also migrated to South from Punjab. The Ambashtha who migrated to South initially carried out the profession of physicians but later took up other professions such as that of barbers. The social life of Tamil Ambashtha is regulated by Brahminical code, who act as priest in their marriage ceremonies. Like the orthodox northern Indian upper castes, traditionally widow remarriage was not there and the dead are cremated. They perform as priests in marriage ceremonies of the Vellas of Salem district. They may be Shaiva or Vaishnava. The Vaishnava abstain from meat, fish and liqour. Their population is quite large in Salem district. Similar group is also found in South Travencore who work as physicians, midwives, barbers and priests. They have respectable social status. Ambashtha held high positions during [[Chalukya]] and [[Pandya]] kingdoms.<ref name="Sinha BP" /> According to the folklore of the Ambattar of Sri Lanka, they arrived in the [[Jaffna Kingdom]] as attendants of warriors. Since they came without their wives, they married [[Sri Lankan Vellalar]] women.<ref name="Changing Identities" />
In early Tamil history,
the [[Siddhar]]s who were ancient Tamil physicians who claimed to have attained ''[[siddhi]]'', hailed mostly from the Ambattar community.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wygbAAAAIAAJ|title=Madras District Gazetteers: Tiruchirappalli (pt. 1-2)|last1=State)|first1=Madras (India |last2=Baliga|first2=B. S.|last3=Bahadur.)|first3=B. S. Baliga (Rao|date=1999|publisher=Superintendent, Government Press|isbn=|location=|pages=1447|language=en}}</ref>
==References==
==References==
Latest revision as of 16:55, 13 November 2025
Ambashtha or Ambastha is a caste or sub-caste or a community of Hindus in India. According to Hindu scriptures, the term Ambastha refers to the offspring of a Brahmin father and a Vaishya mother, whose traditional occupation was the practice of medicine.[1][2]
In the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata, a warrior tribe named Ambastha has been mentioned. During Alexander's invasion, they had 60000 infantry, 6000 horsemen and 500 chariots. They have been described as inhabitants of northwestern part of Indian subcontinent (near Lahore), and they were conquered by Nakula and paid tribute to Yudisthira. They fought in the Kurukhetra war (initially for the Pandavas but later for Drona). They took to different professions like priesthood, farming and medicine, and are assumed to have migrated to eastern India later on.[3][4]
The term Ambastha also gets mentioned in Hindu text Manusmriti as the offspring of a union between Brahmin male and Vaishya female.[1]
Ridgeon mentions about the myth related to the origin of the four varnas in the Rigveda,[1] and says that in order to explain "the great number of castes, a theory was developed that unions between men and women of different varnas produced offspring of various castes".[1]
Citing the Hindu text Parasara, Leslie mentions that the Ambastha is supposed to treat the Brahmins only, and hence considered as "a clean caste, definitely below the brahman, but certainly well within the twice-born group".[5] This differentiates the Ambasthas from the average Vaidyas, who were considered "unclean" and were denied the status accorded to the Ambastha.[5]
According to Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha the ancient Ambasthas migrated to Bihar and created a sub-division of the greater Kayastha caste of this region.[6][3]
In the Brihaddharma Purana the Ambashthas and the Baidyas/Vaidyas were considered as the same caste in its list of 36 castes but another text, the Brahma Vaivarta Purana considered them as two separate sub-castes. Bharatmallik (17th century), the author of the Chandraprabha and Bhattitika has introduced himself as both Vaidya and Ambashtha, which indicates both the castes may have been considered as one in early medieval Bengal.[7]
Ambastha Kayastha (The Evolution of a Family and Its Socio-Cultural Dimensions)/K.N. Sahay. New Delhi, Commonwealth, 2001, xxi, 344 p. 42. ISBN81-7169-660-0.
