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{{Main|History of Sri Lanka|Kingdom of Polonnaruwa}}
{{Short description|Period in Sri Lankan history}}
{{Infobox historical era
{{Infobox historical era
| name      = Polonnaruwa period
| name      = Polonnaruwa period
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{{Main|History of Sri Lanka|Kingdom of Polonnaruwa}}
{{History of Sri Lanka}}
{{History of Sri Lanka}}


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==Political history==
==Political history==
===Chola conquest (1017–1056)===
===Chola conquest (1017–1070)===
The Chola conquest began with the invasion in 993 AD, when [[Raja Raja Chola]] sent a large Chola army which conquered the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]], in the north, and added it to the [[Chola Empire]]. Most of the island was subsequently conquered and incorporated as a province of the vast [[Rajendra Chola I#Overseas conquests|Chola empire]] during the reign of his son [[Rajendra Chola]].<ref name="Chattopadhyaya">[[#Chattopadhyaya|Chattopadhyaya]], pp 7–9</ref><ref name="Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59">''Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59''</ref><ref name="KulkeKesavapany2009">{{cite book|editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&pg=PA195|year=2009|location=Singapore|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-937-2|pages=195–}}</ref><ref name="Gunawardena2005">{{cite book|author=Charles A. Gunawardena|title=Encyclopedia of Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWLQSMPddikC&pg=PA71|year=2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-48-5|pages=71–}}</ref>
{{Main|Chola conquest of Anuradhapura}}
 
[[File:Vijayabahu I's battle plan.png|thumb|left|Vijayabāhu I sent three armies to attack Polonnaruwa. One was sent along the western shore to Mahatittha and Polonnaruwa, another from the east across Magama and the third and main force across Mahiyangana.]]
 
A partial consolidation of Chola power in [[Rajarata]] had succeeded the initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=416}} In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire.{{sfn|Sastri|1935|p=199–200}} As per the Sinhalese chronicle ''[[Mahavamsa]]'', the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18.{{sfn|Sastri|1935|p=199–200}} But the south of the island, which lacked large an prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Sri Lanka began to reach a point of diminishing returns.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=416}} According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda V's crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}}{{sfn|Sastri|1935|p=199–200}} After the death of Mahinda V the [[Sinhalese monarchy]] continued to rule from Rohana until the Sinhalese kingdom was re-established in the north by [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabāhu I]]. Mahinda V was succeeded by his son [[Kassapa VI]] (1029–1040).{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=741}}{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}}
 
===High Polonnaruwa period (1055–1196)===
[[File:Relief of Parakramabahu in Polonnaruwa.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The [[Statue of Parakramabahu I|statue]] traditionally held to be of Parākramabāhu the Great]]
 
Following a [[Sinhalese Resistance|long war of liberation]] [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabāhu I]] successfully expelled the Cholas out of Sri Lanka as Chola determination began to gradually falter. Vijayabāhu possessed strategic advantages, even without a unified "national" force behind him. A prolonged war of attrition was of greater benefit to the Sinhalese than to the Cholas. After the accession of [[Virarajendra Chola]] (1063–1069) to the Chola throne, the Cholas were increasingly on the defensive, not only in Sri Lanka, but also in peninsular India, where they were hard-pressed by the attacks of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] from the Deccan.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=81-2}} Vijayabāhu launched a successful two-pronged attack upon Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva, when he could finally establish a firm base in southern Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura quickly fell and Polonnaruva was captured after a prolonged siege of the isolated Chola forces.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}}{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=82}} Virarajendra Chola was forced to dispatch an expedition from the mainland to recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in order to stave off total defeat. What had begun as a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to retain a foothold in the north. After a further series of indecisive clashes the occupation finally ended in the withdrawal of the Cholas. By 1070 when Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabāhu I, he had reunited the country for the first time in over a century.{{sfn|Codrington|1926|p=57}}{{sfn|Lambert|2014}}{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=82}}
 
Vijayabāhu I (1055–1110), descended from, or at least claimed to be descended from the [[House of Lambakanna II]]. He crowned himself in 1055 at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa as it was more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of [[Principality of Ruhuna|Rohana]] much easier.{{sfn|Sastri|1935|p=172–173}} Aside from leading the prolonged resistance to Chola rule Vijayabāhu I proved to be outstanding in administration and economic regeneration after the war and embarked on the rehabilitation of the island's [[Sri Lankan irrigation network|irrigation network]] and the resuscitation of Buddhism in the country.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=82}} Buddhism had suffered severely in the country during the Chola rule, where precedence was given to [[Shaivism|Saivite Hinduism]].{{sfn|Bokay|1966|p=93–95}} The influence of Hinduism on religion and society during this period also saw a hardening of [[Caste system in Sri Lanka|caste]] attitudes in the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=96}} Economic, social structure, art and architecture of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa was a continuation and development of that of the Anuradhapura period. Internal and external trade made the kingdom more prosperous than just relying on its primarily agricultural economy.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=92}} Seafaring crafts were built in Sri Lanka and were known to have sailed as far as [[China]], some may have even been used as troop transport ships to [[Burma]]. However those used in external trade were mostly of foreign construction.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=99}} The island's importance as an important center of international trade attracted many foreign merchants, the most prominent of which were descendants of Arab traders. The south of India also hosted settlements of these Arab merchants, and they would become a dominant influence on the country's external trade, but it was by no means a monopoly.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=99}}
 
Upon Vijayabāhu I's death a succession dispute jeopardized the recovery from the Chola conquest. His successors proved unable to consolidate power plunging the kingdom into a [[First Polonnaruwa War of Succession|period of civil war]], from which [[Parakramabahu I|Parākramabāhu I]] (1153–1186), a closely related royal emerged.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=83}} Parākramabāhu I established control over the island and secured his recognition as Vijayabāhu's heir by obtaining the [[Relic of the tooth of the Buddha|Tooth and bowl relics of the Buddha]], which by now had become essential to the legitimacy of royal authority in Sri Lanka.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=83}}
 
[[File:Royal palace.jpg|300px|left|thumb|Ruins of Parākramabāhu's royal palace at Polonnaruwa]]
 
By the time of the Polonnaruwa period the Sinhalese has centuries of experience in irrigation technology behind them and so the Polonnaruwa kings, especially [[Parakramabahu I|Parākramabāhu the Great]], made distinguished contributions of their own at honing these techniques to cope with the special requirements of the immense irrigation projects at the time.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=93}} Sri Lanka's irrigation network was extensively expanded during the reign of [[Parakramabahu I|Parākramabāhu the Great]].{{sfn|Herath|2002|p=19}} He built 1470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini-reservoirs.{{sfn|Herath|2002|p=19}} His most famous construction is the [[Parakrama Samudra]], the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Having re-established the political unification of the island, Parākramabāhu continued Vijayabāhu policy in keeping a tight check on separatist tendencies within the island, especially in Rohana where particularism was a deeply ingrained political tradition. Parākramabāhu faced a formidable [[Ruhuna Rebellion|rebellion in 1160]] as Rohana did not accept its loss of autonomy lightly. A [[Rajarata Rebellion|rebellion in 1168]] in Rajarata also manifested. Both were put down with great severity and all vestiges of its former autonomy purposefully eliminated. Particularism was now much less tolerated than it was during the Anuradhapura period. This new over-centralization of authority in Polonnaruwa would however work against the Sinhalese in the future and the country would eventually pay dearly as a result.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=84}}
 
Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna ([[Myanmar]]) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.{{sfn|International Lake Environment Committee|2011}}{{sfn|ParakramaBahu I: 1153 - 1186 Eighth massa|2019}} Parākramabāhu I was the last of the great ancient Sri Lankan kings.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=84}} His reign is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.{{sfn|Codrington|1926|p=64}}{{sfn|ParakramaBahu I: 1153 - 1186 Eighth massa|2019}} Parākramabāhu had no sons, which complicated the problem of succession upon his death. Amid the [[Second Polonnaruwa War of Succession|succession crisis]] a scion of a foreign dynasty, [[Nissanka Malla of Polonnaruwa|Niśśaṅka Malla]] established his claims as a Prince of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]],{{NoteTag|The birthplace of [[Prince Vijaya]] and the ancestors of the Sinhalese.}} claiming to be chosen and trained for the succession by Parākramabāhu himself.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=84}} He was also either the son-in-law or nephew of Parākramabāhu.{{sfn|Codrington|1926|p=65}}
 
[[Nissanka Malla of Polonnaruwa|Niśśaṅka Malla]] (1187–1196) was the first monarch of the [[House of Kalinga]] and the only Polonnaruwa monarch to rule over the whole island after Parākramabāhu. His reign gave the country a brief decade of order and stability before the speedy and catastrophic break-up of the hydraulic civilisations of the dry zone.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=84}} With his death there was a renewal of political dissension, now complicated by dynastic disputes.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=85}} Though he and his predecessors Vijayabāhu and Parākramabāhu achieved much in state building. The conspicuous lack of restraint, especially that of Parākramabāhu, in combination with an ambitious and venturesome foreign policy, and an expensive diversion of state resources towards public works projects, sapped the strength of the country and contributed to its sudden and complete collapse.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=84}}
 
===Late Polonnaruwa period (1196–1232)===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| title = Polonnaruwa period (1017–1232)
| image1 = Vatadage.jpg
| caption1 = [[Polonnaruwa Vatadage]]
| image2 = උත්තරාරාමය කළු ගල නෙලා.jpg
| caption2 = [[Gal Vihara]]
| image3 = Nissanka Latha Mandapaya.jpg
| caption3 = [[Nissanka Latha Mandapaya]]
| image4 = Polonnaruwa 0305.jpg
| caption4 = Polonnaruwa Siva Devale No. 2 {{NoteTag|Considered as one of the oldest Hindu shrine in Polonnaruwa founded during Chola occupation built during 1015-1044{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=105}}}}
}}
 
The House of Kalinga would maintain itself in power, but only with the support of an influential faction within the country. Their survival owed much to the inability of the factions opposing them to come up with an aspirant to the throne with a politically viable claim, or sufficient durability once installed in power, therefore the House of Kalinga's hold on the throne was inherently precarious. On three occasions, the queen of Parākramabāhu, [[Lilavati of Polonnaruwa|Lilāvatī]], was raised to the throne out of desperation.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=85}} The factional struggle and political instability attracted the attention of South Indian adventures bent on plunder, culminating in the [[1215 invasion of Polonnaruwa|devastating campaign of pillage]] under [[Kalinga Magha|Māgha of Kalinga]] (1215–1236), claiming the inheritance of the kingdom through his kinsman who reigned before.{{sfn|Codrington|1926|p=67}}{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=85}}
 
Māgha, a bigoted Hindu, persecuted Buddhists, despoiling the temples and giving away lands of the Sinhalese to his followers.{{sfn|Codrington|1926|p=67}} His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of [[Rajarata]] as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of the [[Sinhalese people]] to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.{{sfn|Indrapala|1969|p=16}} Māgha's rule of 21 years and its aftermath are a watershed in the history of the island, creating a new political order.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=85}} After his death in 1255 Polonnaruwa ceased to be the [[Capital of Sri Lanka|capital]], Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power and from then on there were two, or sometimes three rulers existing concurrently.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=85}}{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=87}} [[Parakramabahu VI of Kotte]] (1411–1466) would be the only other Sinhalese monarch to establish control over the whole island after this period.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=85}} The [[Rajarata]], the traditional location of the Sinhalese kingdom and [[Principality of Ruhuna|Rohana]], the previously autonomous subregion were abandoned. Two new centers of political authority emerged as a result of the fall of the Polonnaruwa kingdom.


===Kingdom of Polonnaruwa (1056–1232)===
In the face of repeated South Indian invasions the Sinhalese monarchy and people retreated into the hills of the wet zone, further and further south, seeking primarily security. The capital was abandoned and moved to [[Dambadeniya]] by [[Vijayabahu III of Dambadeniya|Vijayabāhu III]] establishing the [[Kingdom of Dambadeniya|Dambadeniya era]] of the Sinhalese kingdom.{{sfn|Codrington|1926|p=76}}{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=110}} A second poilitical center emerged in the north of the island where [[Tamil immigration to Sri Lanka|Tamil settlers]] from previous Indian incursions occupied the [[Jaffna Peninsula]] and the [[Vanni (Sri Lanka)|Vanni]].{{NoteTag|The land between Anuradhapura and Jaffna}} Many Tamil members of invading armies, mercenaries, joined them rather than returning to India with their compatriots. By the 13th century the Tamils too withdrew from the Vanni almost entirely into the Jaffna peninsula where an independent [[Jaffna Kingdom|Tamil kingdom]] had been established.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=87}}{{sfn|Indrapala|1969|p=16}}
[[Vijayabahu I of Sri Lanka|Vijayabahu I]] (1055–1110), recaptured the whole Island and established [[Polonnaruwa]] as the new capital. King Vijayabahu married a second queen from the [[Kalinga (province)|Kalinga]] ([[Orissa, India|Orissa]]) Royal Family, and had a son, [[Vikramabâhu I of Sri Lanka|Vikramabâhu I]], and a daughter, [[Ratnavali]]. His sister, [[Mitta of Sri Lanka|Mitta]], married a [[Pandya]] Prince who had three sons. His eldest son, Manabharana, married Ratnavali. Their son was [[Parākramabāhu I of Sri Lanka|Parākramabāhu I]] (1153–1186) Grandson of Vijayabahu I, Prince of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]]-[[Pandyan]]-[[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] descent, son of Manabharana and Vijayabahu's sister, Mitta. He was a very powerful king who was noted for his engineering,<ref>Broheir, R. L. (1937) ''Ancient Irrigation Works in Ceylon''. 3 vols.</ref> naval power, art, culture, Sinhala inscriptions, and even a Tamil edict in Uruthota ([[Kayts]]). The [[Chulavamsa]] was written by Dharmakirthi, updating the [[Mahavamsa]] to include Parakramabahu.


==See also==
==See also==
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* [[Sinhala Kingdom]]
* [[Sinhala Kingdom]]
* [[List of Sinhalese monarchs]]
* [[List of Sinhalese monarchs]]
==Notes==
{{NoteFoot}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Citations===
{{reflist|20em}}
 
===Bibliography===
{{Main|Bibliography of Sri Lanka}}
 
===Primary sources===
{{refbegin|40em}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Oldenberg |editor1-first=Hermann |editor1-link=Hermann Oldenberg |title=The Dîpavaṃsa: An Ancient Buddhist Historical Record |date=1879 |publisher=[[Williams and Norgate]] |location=London & Edinburgh |url=https://archive.org/details/dpavasaanancien01oldegoog/page/n5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mahānāma |last2=tr. Geiger |first2=Wilhelm |last3=tr. Bode |first3=Mabel Haynes |author-link1=Mahānāma |author-link2=Wilhelm Geiger |author-link3=Mabel Haynes Bode |title=The Mahāvaṃsa, Or, The Great Chronicle of Ceylon |date=1912 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/mahavamsagreatch00geigrich/page/n6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Dhammakitti |last2=Ger tr. Geiger |first2=Wilhelm |last3=Eng tr. Rickmers |first3=Christian Mabel |author-link1=Dhammakitti |author-link2=Wilhelm Geiger |title=Cūḷavaṃsa: Being the More Recent Part of the Mahāvaṃsa, Part 1 |date=1929 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.277108}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Gunasekara |editor1-first=B. |title=The Rajavaliya: Or a Historical Narrative of Sinhalese Kings |date=1900 |publisher=George J. A. Skeen, Government Printer, Ceylon |location=Colombo |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.42908/page/n3}}
*{{cite book |last1=Knox |first1=Robert |author-link1=Robert Knox (sailor) |title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon |date=1681 |publisher=Richard Chiswell |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.107116/page/n41}}
{{Refend}}
 
===Secondary sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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*{{cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=Cyril Wace |last2=Paranavitana |first2=Senerat |author-link1=Cyril Nicholas |author-link2=Senarath Paranavithana |title=A Concise History of Ceylon: From the Earliest Times to the Arrival of the Portuguese in 1505 |date=1961 |publisher=Ceylon University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMnAAAAMAAJ}}
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;Other Books
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*{{cite book |last1=Anthonisz |first1=Richard Gerald |author-link1=R. G. Anthonisz |title=The Dutch in Ceylon: An Account of Their Early Visits to the Island, Their Conquests, and Their Rule Over the Maritime Regions During a Century and a Half |date=2003 |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788120618459 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2mkUharg6AC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Arseculeratne |first1=S. N. |title=Sinhalese Immigrants in Malaysia & Singapore, 1860-1990: History Through Recollections |date=1991 |publisher=K.V.G. De Silva & Sons |location=Colombo |isbn=9789559112013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9NuAAAAMAAJ}}
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*{{cite book |last1=Bandaranayake |first1=S. D. |title=Sinhalese Monastic Architecture: The Viháras of Anurádhapura |date=1974 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |isbn=9789004039926 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJM3AAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bandaranayake |first1=Senaka |last2=Madhyama Saṃskr̥tika Aramudala |title=Sigiriya: city, palace, and royal gardens |date=1999 |publisher=Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Cultural Affairs |isbn=9789556131116 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vw9uAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bond |first1=George Doherty |title=The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation and Response |date=1992 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass|Motilal Banarsidass Publ.]] |isbn=9788120810471 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q11ID2xfqD8C}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bosma |first1=Ulbe |last2=Raben |first2=Remco |title=Being "Dutch" in the Indies: A History of Creolisation and Empire, 1500-1920 |date=2008 |publisher=[[NUS Press]] |location=Singapore |isbn=9789971693732 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C}}
*{{cite book |last1=Brohier |first1=Richard Leslie |title=The Golden Age Of Military Adventure In Ceylon 1817-1818 |date=1933 |publisher=Plâté limited |location=Colombo |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66468/page/n1}}
*{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Michael Edward |last2=Ganguly |first2=Sumit |author-link1=Michael E. Brown |author-link2=Sumit Ganguly |title=Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia |date=2003 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262523332 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Chattopadhyaya |first1=Haraprasad |title=Ethnic Unrest in Modern Sri Lanka: An Account of Tamil-Sinhalese Race Relations |date=1994 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=9788185880525 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRU6QKPBTFQC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Crusz |first1=Noel |title=The Cocos Islands Mutiny |date=2001 |publisher=[[Fremantle Press|Freemantle Arts Centre Press]] |isbn=9781863683104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTkMAAAACAAJ |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last1=De Silva |first1=R. Rajpal Kumar |title=Illustrations and Views of Dutch Ceylon 1602-1796: A Comprehensive Work of Pictorial Reference With Selected Eye-Witness Accounts |date=1988 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill Archive]] |isbn=9789004089792 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59AUAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last1=Dharmadasa |first1=K. N. O. |author-link1=K. N. O. Dharmadasa |title=Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka |date=1992 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=9780472102884 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NQrTmjpRcC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Garg |first1=Gaṅgā Rām |title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World |date=1992 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=9788170223757 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjDcd0cTFxQC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Gunaratna |first1=Rohan |author-link1=Rohan Gunaratna |title=Sri Lanka's Ethnic Crisis & National Security |date=1998 |publisher=South Asia Network on Conflict Research |isbn=9789558093009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpnhAAAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Gunawardena |first1=Charles A. |title=Encyclopedia of Sri Lanka |date=2005 |publisher=[[Sterling Publishing|Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd]] |isbn=9781932705485 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWLQSMPddikC |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last1=Herath |first1=R. B. |title=Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution |date=2002 |publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] |isbn=9781553697930 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hoffman |first1=Bruce |author-link1=Bruce Hoffman |title=Inside Terrorism |date=2006 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York City |isbn=9780231126991 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ayrAgAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=John |title=Buddha in the Crown: Avalokiteśvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka |date=1991 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195064186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDbnCwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=John |title=The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics |date=2011 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=9780822349822 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kj_aWm4DeFEC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Irons |first1=Edward A. |title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |date=2008 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=9780816054596 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dxCHAAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Jayasuriya |first1=J. E. |title=Education in the Third World: Some Reflections |date=1981 |publisher=Somaiya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=25SfAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Keshavadas |first1=Sadguru Sant |title=Ramayana at a Glance |date=1988 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass|Motilal Banarsidass Publ.]] |isbn=9788120805453 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3XIatVGyjmQC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Kesavapany |first2=K. |last3=Sakhuja |first3=Vijay |author-link1=Hermann Kulke |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |date=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=9789812309372 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Liyanagamage |first1=Amaradasa |title=The Decline of Polonnaruwa and the Rise of Dambadeniya (circa 1180 - 1270 A.D.) |date=1968 |publisher=[[Ministry of Internal Affairs, Wayamba Development and Cultural Affairs|Department of Cultural Affairs]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ7ZtAEACAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mendis |first1=Ranjan Chinthaka |title=The Story of Anuradhapura: Capital City of Sri Lanka from 377 BC - 1017 Ad |date=1999 |publisher=Lakshmi Mendis |isbn=9789559670407 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2VuAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Lennox A. |title=Ceylon Under British Rule, 1795-1932 |date=1964 |publisher=Cass |isbn=9780714620190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyHG9ZKl3bwC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mittal |first1=J. P. |author-link1=Jai Pal Mittal |title=History Of Ancient India (a New Version)From 4250 BC To 637 AD |date=2006 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=9788126906161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrh4tY3v2A4C}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mittermeier |first1=Russell A. |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Cristina Goettsch |last3=Myers |first3=Norman |author-link1=Russell Mittermeier |author-link2=Cristina Mittermeier |author-link3=Norman Myers |title=Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions |date=1999 |publisher=CEMEX |isbn=9789686397581 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EqePQgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Nubin |first1=Walter |title=Sri Lanka: Current Issues and Historical Background |date=2002 |publisher=Nova Publishers |isbn=9781590335734 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iudi2JJLaUAC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Perera |first1=Lakshman S. |title=The Institutions of Ancient Ceylon from Inscriptions: From 831 to 1016 A.D., pt. 1. Political institutions |date=2001 |publisher=International Centre for Ethnic Studies |isbn=9789555800730 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IToaAAAAYAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Pieris |first1=Paulus Edward |author-link1=Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala |title=Ceylon and the Hollanders, 1658-1796 |date=1918 |publisher=American Ceylon Mission Press |location=Tellippalai |url=https://archive.org/details/ceylonhollanders00pieruoft/page/n6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Ponnamperuma |first1=Senani |title=The Story of Sigiriya |date=2013 |publisher=Panique Pty, Limited |isbn=9780987345110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=25zxmgEACAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Rambukwelle |first1=P. B. |title=Commentary on Sinhala kingship: Vijaya to Kalinga Magha |date=1993 |publisher=P.B. Rambukwelle |isbn=9789559556503 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2WduAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Sarachchandra |first1=B. S. |title=අපේ සංස්කෘතික උරුමය | trans-title = Our Cultural Heritage |date=1977 |publisher=V. P. Silva |language=Sinhala}}
*{{cite book |last1=Siriweera |first1=W. I. |title=A study of the economic history of pre-modern Sri Lanka |date=1994 |publisher=Vikas Pub. House |isbn=9780706976212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OubsAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Spencer |first1=Jonathan |author-link1=Jonathan Spencer |title=Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict |date=2002 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=9780203407417 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4b6xmZI_XoC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tambiah |first1=Henry Wijayakone |author-link1=Henry Thambiah |title=The laws and customs of the Tamils of Ceylon |date=1954 |publisher=Tamil Cultural Society of Ceylon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8x5bAAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tinker |first1=Hugh |title=South Asia: A Short History |date=1990 |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |isbn=9780824812874 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5uU2UteUpEC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Wanasundera |first1=Nanda Pethiyagoda |title=Sri Lanka |date=2002 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9780761414773 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ts1khhfXm8C}}
*{{cite book|last1=Sastri | first1= K. A | author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | date=1935 | title= The CōĻas|edition= | publisher= [[University of Madras]] | location= Madras |url=https://archive.org/stream/K.A.NilakantaSastriBooks/K.%20A.%20Nilakanta%20Sastri/Colas}}
 
;Journals
*{{cite journal |last1=Bokay |first1=Mon |title=Relations between Ceylon and Burma in the 11th Century A.D |journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum |date=1966 |volume=23 |pages=93–95 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1522637 |location=JSTOR|doi=10.2307/1522637 |jstor=1522637 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Deraniyagala |first1=S. U. |author-link1=Siran Upendra Deraniyagala |title=Pre- and protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka |journal=XIII U. I. S. P. P. Congress Proceedings |date=8–14 September 1996 |volume=5 |pages=277–285 |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html |location=Lanka Library}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Geiger |first1=Wilhelm |author-link1=Wilhelm Geiger |title=The Trustworthiness of the Mahavamsa |journal=The Indian Historical Quarterly |date=July 1930 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=205–228 |url=http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/gei.htm |location=Digital Library & Museum of Buddhist Studies}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Indrapala |first1=K. |author-link1=K. Indrapala |title=Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon. |journal=The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland |date=1969 |volume=13 |pages=43–63 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43483465 |location=JSTOR|jstor=43483465 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=K. A. R. |last2=Disotell |first2=Todd |last3=Roertgen |first3=W. J. |last4=Chiment |first4=J. |last5=Sherry |first5=J. |title=Biological anthropology of Upper Pleistocene Hominids from Sri Lanka: Batadomba Lena and Beli Lena Caves |journal=Ancient Ceylon |date=1986 |volume=6 |url=https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/en/publications/biological-anthropology-of-upper-pleistocene-hominids-from-sri-la}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Paranavitana |first1=S. |title=Two Royal Titles of the Early Sinhalese, and the Origin of Kingship in Ancient Ceylon |author-link1=Senarath Paranavithana |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1936 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=443–462 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25201355 |location=JSTOR |doi=10.1017/S0035869X0007725X |jstor=25201355 |language=en|url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Sivasundaram |first1=Sujit |title=Ethnicity, Indigeneity, and Migration in the Advent of British Rule to Sri LankaSujit SivasundaramEthnicity, Indigeneity, and Migration in the Advent of British Rule to Sri Lanka |journal=The American Historical Review |date=April 2010 |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=428–452 |doi=10.1086/ahr.115.2.428 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/115/2/428/10555 |issn=0002-8762}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Spencer |first1=George W. |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=1976 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |location=JSTOR|doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Starr |first1=Chester G. |title=The Roman Emperor and the King of Ceylon. |journal=Classical Philology |date=1956 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/266383 |location=JSTOR|doi=10.1086/363981 |jstor=266383 |s2cid=161093319 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Stokke |first1=Kristian |last2=Ryntveit |first2=Anne Kirsti |title=The Struggle for Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka. Growth and Change. |journal=Growth and Change |date=2000 |volume=31 | issue = 2 |pages=285–304 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227681792 |location=ResearchGate |doi=10.1111/0017-4815.00129 |language=en}}
*{{cite journal |last1=van der Kraan |first1=Alfons |title=A Baptism of Fire: The Van Goens Mission to Ceylon and India, 1653-54 |journal=Journal of the UNE Asia Centre |date=1999 |volume=2 |pages=1–50 |url=http://www.une.edu.au/asiacentre/PDF/Alfons.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509145951/http://www.une.edu.au/asiacentre/PDF/Alfons.pdf |archive-date=2010-05-09 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Weerakkody |first1=D. P. M. |title=Sri Lanka and the Roman Empire |journal=Modern Ceylon Studies |date=1987 |volume=2 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=21–32 |url=http://dlib.pdn.ac.lk/handle/123456789/3125 |publisher=University of Peradeniya}}
{{refend}}


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Latest revision as of 15:58, 27 July 2025


Template:Infobox historical era

Main articles: History of Sri Lanka and Kingdom of Polonnaruwa
Part of a series on the
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The Polonnaruwa period was a period in the history of Sri Lanka from 1017, after the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and when the center of administration was moved to Polonnaruwa, to the end of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa in 1232.

The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa was the second major Sinhalese kingdom of Sri Lanka. It lasted from 1055 under Vijayabahu I until 1212 under the rule of Lilavati. The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa came after the Anuradhapura Kingdom, which was invaded by Chola forces under Rajaraja I. It also followed the Kingdom of Ruhuna, in which the Sinhalese Kings ruled during Chola occupation.

Overview[edit | edit source]

Periodization of Sri Lanka history:

Political history[edit | edit source]

Chola conquest (1017–1070)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Chola conquest of Anuradhapura
Vijayabāhu I sent three armies to attack Polonnaruwa. One was sent along the western shore to Mahatittha and Polonnaruwa, another from the east across Magama and the third and main force across Mahiyangana.

A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had succeeded the initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas.[1] In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire.[2] As per the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa, the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18.[2] But the south of the island, which lacked large an prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Sri Lanka began to reach a point of diminishing returns.[1] According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda V's crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.[3][2] After the death of Mahinda V the Sinhalese monarchy continued to rule from Rohana until the Sinhalese kingdom was re-established in the north by Vijayabāhu I. Mahinda V was succeeded by his son Kassapa VI (1029–1040).[4][3]

High Polonnaruwa period (1055–1196)[edit | edit source]

The statue traditionally held to be of Parākramabāhu the Great

Following a long war of liberation Vijayabāhu I successfully expelled the Cholas out of Sri Lanka as Chola determination began to gradually falter. Vijayabāhu possessed strategic advantages, even without a unified "national" force behind him. A prolonged war of attrition was of greater benefit to the Sinhalese than to the Cholas. After the accession of Virarajendra Chola (1063–1069) to the Chola throne, the Cholas were increasingly on the defensive, not only in Sri Lanka, but also in peninsular India, where they were hard-pressed by the attacks of the Chalukyas from the Deccan.[5] Vijayabāhu launched a successful two-pronged attack upon Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva, when he could finally establish a firm base in southern Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura quickly fell and Polonnaruva was captured after a prolonged siege of the isolated Chola forces.[3][6] Virarajendra Chola was forced to dispatch an expedition from the mainland to recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in order to stave off total defeat. What had begun as a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to retain a foothold in the north. After a further series of indecisive clashes the occupation finally ended in the withdrawal of the Cholas. By 1070 when Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabāhu I, he had reunited the country for the first time in over a century.[7][8][6]

Vijayabāhu I (1055–1110), descended from, or at least claimed to be descended from the House of Lambakanna II. He crowned himself in 1055 at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa as it was more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of Rohana much easier.[9] Aside from leading the prolonged resistance to Chola rule Vijayabāhu I proved to be outstanding in administration and economic regeneration after the war and embarked on the rehabilitation of the island's irrigation network and the resuscitation of Buddhism in the country.[6] Buddhism had suffered severely in the country during the Chola rule, where precedence was given to Saivite Hinduism.[10] The influence of Hinduism on religion and society during this period also saw a hardening of caste attitudes in the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa.[11] Economic, social structure, art and architecture of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa was a continuation and development of that of the Anuradhapura period. Internal and external trade made the kingdom more prosperous than just relying on its primarily agricultural economy.[12] Seafaring crafts were built in Sri Lanka and were known to have sailed as far as China, some may have even been used as troop transport ships to Burma. However those used in external trade were mostly of foreign construction.[13] The island's importance as an important center of international trade attracted many foreign merchants, the most prominent of which were descendants of Arab traders. The south of India also hosted settlements of these Arab merchants, and they would become a dominant influence on the country's external trade, but it was by no means a monopoly.[13]

Upon Vijayabāhu I's death a succession dispute jeopardized the recovery from the Chola conquest. His successors proved unable to consolidate power plunging the kingdom into a period of civil war, from which Parākramabāhu I (1153–1186), a closely related royal emerged.[14] Parākramabāhu I established control over the island and secured his recognition as Vijayabāhu's heir by obtaining the Tooth and bowl relics of the Buddha, which by now had become essential to the legitimacy of royal authority in Sri Lanka.[14]

Ruins of Parākramabāhu's royal palace at Polonnaruwa

By the time of the Polonnaruwa period the Sinhalese has centuries of experience in irrigation technology behind them and so the Polonnaruwa kings, especially Parākramabāhu the Great, made distinguished contributions of their own at honing these techniques to cope with the special requirements of the immense irrigation projects at the time.[15] Sri Lanka's irrigation network was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great.[16] He built 1470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini-reservoirs.[16] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Having re-established the political unification of the island, Parākramabāhu continued Vijayabāhu policy in keeping a tight check on separatist tendencies within the island, especially in Rohana where particularism was a deeply ingrained political tradition. Parākramabāhu faced a formidable rebellion in 1160 as Rohana did not accept its loss of autonomy lightly. A rebellion in 1168 in Rajarata also manifested. Both were put down with great severity and all vestiges of its former autonomy purposefully eliminated. Particularism was now much less tolerated than it was during the Anuradhapura period. This new over-centralization of authority in Polonnaruwa would however work against the Sinhalese in the future and the country would eventually pay dearly as a result.[17]

Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[18][19] Parākramabāhu I was the last of the great ancient Sri Lankan kings.[17] His reign is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[20][19] Parākramabāhu had no sons, which complicated the problem of succession upon his death. Amid the succession crisis a scion of a foreign dynasty, Niśśaṅka Malla established his claims as a Prince of Kalinga,[note 1] claiming to be chosen and trained for the succession by Parākramabāhu himself.[17] He was also either the son-in-law or nephew of Parākramabāhu.[21]

Niśśaṅka Malla (1187–1196) was the first monarch of the House of Kalinga and the only Polonnaruwa monarch to rule over the whole island after Parākramabāhu. His reign gave the country a brief decade of order and stability before the speedy and catastrophic break-up of the hydraulic civilisations of the dry zone.[17] With his death there was a renewal of political dissension, now complicated by dynastic disputes.[22] Though he and his predecessors Vijayabāhu and Parākramabāhu achieved much in state building. The conspicuous lack of restraint, especially that of Parākramabāhu, in combination with an ambitious and venturesome foreign policy, and an expensive diversion of state resources towards public works projects, sapped the strength of the country and contributed to its sudden and complete collapse.[17]

Late Polonnaruwa period (1196–1232)[edit | edit source]

Polonnaruwa period (1017–1232)
Polonnaruwa Vatadage
Gal Vihara
Nissanka Latha Mandapaya
Polonnaruwa Siva Devale No. 2 [note 2]

The House of Kalinga would maintain itself in power, but only with the support of an influential faction within the country. Their survival owed much to the inability of the factions opposing them to come up with an aspirant to the throne with a politically viable claim, or sufficient durability once installed in power, therefore the House of Kalinga's hold on the throne was inherently precarious. On three occasions, the queen of Parākramabāhu, Lilāvatī, was raised to the throne out of desperation.[22] The factional struggle and political instability attracted the attention of South Indian adventures bent on plunder, culminating in the devastating campaign of pillage under Māgha of Kalinga (1215–1236), claiming the inheritance of the kingdom through his kinsman who reigned before.[24][22]

Māgha, a bigoted Hindu, persecuted Buddhists, despoiling the temples and giving away lands of the Sinhalese to his followers.[24] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of the Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.[25] Māgha's rule of 21 years and its aftermath are a watershed in the history of the island, creating a new political order.[22] After his death in 1255 Polonnaruwa ceased to be the capital, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power and from then on there were two, or sometimes three rulers existing concurrently.[22][26] Parakramabahu VI of Kotte (1411–1466) would be the only other Sinhalese monarch to establish control over the whole island after this period.[22] The Rajarata, the traditional location of the Sinhalese kingdom and Rohana, the previously autonomous subregion were abandoned. Two new centers of political authority emerged as a result of the fall of the Polonnaruwa kingdom.

In the face of repeated South Indian invasions the Sinhalese monarchy and people retreated into the hills of the wet zone, further and further south, seeking primarily security. The capital was abandoned and moved to Dambadeniya by Vijayabāhu III establishing the Dambadeniya era of the Sinhalese kingdom.[27][28] A second poilitical center emerged in the north of the island where Tamil settlers from previous Indian incursions occupied the Jaffna Peninsula and the Vanni.[note 3] Many Tamil members of invading armies, mercenaries, joined them rather than returning to India with their compatriots. By the 13th century the Tamils too withdrew from the Vanni almost entirely into the Jaffna peninsula where an independent Tamil kingdom had been established.[26][25]

See also[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ The birthplace of Prince Vijaya and the ancestors of the Sinhalese.
  2. ↑ Considered as one of the oldest Hindu shrine in Polonnaruwa founded during Chola occupation built during 1015-1044[23]
  3. ↑ The land between Anuradhapura and Jaffna

References[edit | edit source]

Citations[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Spencer 1976, p. 416.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Sastri 1935, p. 199–200.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Spencer 1976, p. 417.
  4. ↑ De Silva 2005, p. 741.
  5. ↑ De Silva 2005, p. 81-2.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 De Silva 2005, p. 82.
  7. ↑ Codrington 1926, p. 57.
  8. ↑ Lambert 2014.
  9. ↑ Sastri 1935, p. 172–173.
  10. ↑ Bokay 1966, p. 93–95.
  11. ↑ De Silva 2005, p. 96.
  12. ↑ De Silva 2005, p. 92.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 De Silva 2005, p. 99.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 De Silva 2005, p. 83.
  15. ↑ De Silva 2005, p. 93.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Herath 2002, p. 19.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 De Silva 2005, p. 84.
  18. ↑ International Lake Environment Committee 2011.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 ParakramaBahu I: 1153 - 1186 Eighth massa 2019.
  20. ↑ Codrington 1926, p. 64.
  21. ↑ Codrington 1926, p. 65.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 De Silva 2005, p. 85.
  23. ↑ De Silva 2005, p. 105.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Codrington 1926, p. 67.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Indrapala 1969, p. 16.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 De Silva 2005, p. 87.
  27. ↑ Codrington 1926, p. 76.
  28. ↑ De Silva 2005, p. 110.

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

Main article: Bibliography of Sri Lanka

Primary sources[edit | edit source]

  • Oldenberg, Hermann, ed. (1879). The Dîpavaṃsa: An Ancient Buddhist Historical Record. London & Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate.
  • Mahānāma; tr. Geiger, Wilhelm; tr. Bode, Mabel Haynes (1912). The Mahāvaṃsa, Or, The Great Chronicle of Ceylon. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Dhammakitti; Ger tr. Geiger, Wilhelm; Eng tr. Rickmers, Christian Mabel (1929). Cūḷavaṃsa: Being the More Recent Part of the Mahāvaṃsa, Part 1. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Gunasekara, B., ed. (1900). The Rajavaliya: Or a Historical Narrative of Sinhalese Kings. Colombo: George J. A. Skeen, Government Printer, Ceylon.
  • Knox, Robert (1681). An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon. London: Richard Chiswell.

Secondary sources[edit | edit source]

Histories
Other Books
Journals

Template:Polonnaruwa period topics

Template:History of Asia

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