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{{Short description|Grammatical rules of the Vedic Sanskrit language}}
{{Short description|Grammatical rules of the Vedic Sanskrit language}}
{{refimprove|date=March 2016}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2016}}
[[Vedic Sanskrit]] is the name given by modern scholarship to the oldest, attested form of the [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language]]. This is the language that was used in the religious hymns known as the [[Vedas]], in particular, the [[Rigveda|Ṛg-Veda]], the oldest of them, dated to have been composed roughly over the period from 1500 to 1000 BCE. It was a purely spoken language during that period used before the introduction of writing in the language.<ref>Fortson, §10.20-10.28.</ref><ref>Macdonnell, §1.2.</ref><ref>Reich, p. 122.</ref>  
[[Vedic Sanskrit]] is the name given by modern scholarship to the oldest attested descendant of the [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language]]. Sanskrit is the language that is found in the four [[Vedas]], in particular, the [[Rigveda]], the oldest of them, dated to have been composed roughly over the period from 1500 to 1000 BCE. Before its standardization as [[Sanskrit]], the Vedic language was a purely spoken language during that period used before the introduction of writing in the language.<ref>Fortson, §10.20–10.28.</ref><ref>Macdonnell, §1.2.</ref><ref>Reich, p. 122.</ref>


Vedic Sanskrit has inherited from its parent the [[Proto-Indo-European_language|Proto-Indo-European]] language an elaborate system of morphology, much of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole than in other kindred languages such as [[Ancient Greek]] or [[Latin]].<ref>Fortson, §10.41.</ref><ref>Whitney p. 100 ch. 8.</ref>
The Vedic language has inherited from its ultimate-parent (the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]) an elaborate system of [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], more of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole than in other kindred languages such as [[Ancient Greek]] or [[Latin]].<ref>Fortson, §10.41.</ref><ref>Whitney p. 100 ch. 8.</ref> Its grammar differs greatly from the later [[Classical Sanskrit]] in many regards, one being that this complex inherited morphology simplified over time.
 
Its grammar differs in certain respects from the grammar of the later Classical [[Sanskrit]].


== History ==
== History ==


The language descended from [[Proto-Indo-European]] named ''Indic'' or [[Proto-Indo-Aryan]] entered the [[Indian subcontinent]] with the arrival of the [[Indo-Aryan_peoples|Indo-Aryan]]s dated to be around 1800-1500 BCE.<ref>Fortson, §10.20.</ref><ref>Reich, ch. 6.</ref> The Vedic hymns are estimated to have been composed between 1500 and 1000 BCE, with the language of each hymn fixed at the time of its oral composition,<ref>Jamison & Brereton, pp.14ff.</ref> establishing a religious canon around a literary tradition.  
The language descended from the  [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language]], which entered the [[Indian subcontinent]] with the [[Indo-Aryan migrations|arrival of the Proto-Indo-Aryans]] dated to be around 1800–1500 BCE.<ref>Fortson, §10.20.</ref><ref>Reich, ch. 6.</ref> The Vedic hymns are estimated to have been composed between 1500 and 1000 BCE, with the language of each hymn fixed at the time of its oral composition,<ref>Jamison & Brereton, pp.14ff.</ref> establishing a religious canon around a literary tradition.


As the popular speech unavoidably [[language change|evolved]] over the centuries the Vedic hymns began to be increasingly inaccessible. In order to "arrest" language change, there arose a rigorous linguistic tradition aimed at preserving the literary language, culminating in the work of [[Pāṇini]]'s Aṣṭādhyayī, dated around 600-400 BCE, which marks the beginning of 'Sanskrit', referred to in contradistinction to the Vedic language as 'Classical Sanskrit'.
As the popular speech unavoidably [[language change|evolved]] over the centuries the Vedic hymns began to be increasingly inaccessible. In order to "arrest" language change, there arose a rigorous linguistic tradition aimed at preserving the literary language, culminating in the work of [[Pāṇini]]'s Aṣṭādhyayī, dated around 600–400 BCE, which marks the beginning of 'Sanskrit', referred to in contradistinction to the Vedic language as 'Classical. {{Verify source|date=March 2024}}


Despite these efforts, by the time of Pāṇini's final definition, the language had undergone some changes, especially in grammar. The following sections will focus on these differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Those features that were incorporated into the 'official definition' by Panini can be seen in [[Sanskrit grammar | Classical Sanskrit]] and related pages.<ref>Burrow, §2.1.</ref><ref>Whitney, p. xi-xv.</ref>{{efn|[[Sanskrit nouns]], [[Sanskrit verbs]]}}
Despite these efforts, by the time of Pāṇini's final definition, the language had undergone some changes, especially in grammar. The following sections will focus on these differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Those features that were not incorporated into the Classical Language by Panini can be seen in [[Sanskrit grammar|Classical Sanskrit]] and related pages.<ref name="Burrow, §2.1">Burrow, §2.1.</ref><ref>Whitney, p. xi–xv.</ref>{{efn|[[Sanskrit nouns]], [[Sanskrit verbs]]}}


==Differences between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit==
==Differences between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit==


[[Morphology_(linguistics)|Morphologically]], as a general rule, the later language has fewer forms and is more regular.<ref>Burrow, §2.1.</ref><ref>Coulson, p. xv-xvi.</ref>  
Over time, the language that would become [[Classical Sanskrit]] reduced and regularized much of the complex morphology that it had originally inherited from its parent the [[Proto-Indo-European]] language:<ref name="Burrow, §2.1"/><ref>Coulson, p. xv–xvi.</ref>


* Vedic used the older athematic approach to inflexion far more than the classical language, which tended to replace them using [[Thematic vowel|thematic]] forms in their place.
* Vedic used the older athematic approach to inflection far more than the classical language, which tended to replace them using [[Thematic vowel|thematic]] forms in their place.
* The [[subjunctive mood]] of Vedic was also lost in Classical Sanskrit.
* The three [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] past tenses<ref>Macdonell, §122</ref> ([[imperfect]], [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] and [[aorist]]) were still clearly distinguished semantically in Vedic.
* The three [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] past tenses<ref>Macdonell, §122</ref> ([[imperfect]], [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] and [[aorist]]) were still clearly distinguished semantically in Vedic.
* A fifth mood, the [[Injunctive mood|injunctive]], also existed.
** It is important to note that the imperfect, perfect, and aorist didn't have the values of their English namesakes:
*** The imperfect was used as a general past tense.
*** The perfect was used like a proximal present perfect, general past, and as a present tense
*** The aorist was used like a proximal present perfect.<ref name=":0">Whitney §779 §823 §926</ref>
* A fifth mood, the [[Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]/[[Injunctive mood|injunctive]], also existed.
* There were more than 12 ways of forming [[infinitive]]s in Vedic, of which Classical Sanskrit retained only one form.
* There were more than 12 ways of forming [[infinitive]]s in Vedic, of which Classical Sanskrit retained only one form.
* ī-stems differentiate the devī́ and vrkī́s feminines, a difference lost in Classical Sanskrit.
* ī-stems differentiate the devī́ and vrkī́s feminines, a difference lost in Classical Sanskrit.
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=== Basics ===
=== Basics ===


[[Declension]] of a noun in Sanskrit involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': 3 numbers and 8 cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to [[Syncretism_(linguistics)|syncretism]] of some forms, the practical number can be lower.<ref>Bucknell, p. 11.</ref> {{efn|Though in [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]], formal gender differentiation was low, with masculine/feminine nouns showing identical inflections, and the neuter class differing from them only with regard to the nominative and accusative,<ref>[[Andrew Sihler|Andrew L. Sihler]], ''New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin,'' [[Oxford University Press]]1995 p.244.</ref> in Sanskrit, nouns are classified as belonging to any one of three genders.}}  
[[Declension]] of a noun in Sanskrit involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': 3 numbers and 8 cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to [[Syncretism (linguistics)|syncretism]] of some forms, the practical number can be lower.<ref>Bucknell, p. 11.</ref> {{efn|Though in [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]], formal gender differentiation was low, with masculine/feminine nouns showing identical inflections, and the neuter class differing from them only with regard to the nominative and accusative,<ref>[[Andrew Sihler|Andrew L. Sihler]], ''New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin,'' [[Oxford University Press]]1995 p.244.</ref> in Sanskrit, nouns are classified as belonging to any one of three genders.}}


In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the [[Agreement_(linguistics)|basis]] of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:<ref>Bucknell, p. 12-16.</ref><ref>Whitney, §261-266.</ref>
In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the [[Agreement (linguistics)|basis]] of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:<ref>Bucknell, p. 12-16.</ref><ref>Whitney, §261–266.</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Sanskrit !! Latin !! [[Proto-Indo-European|PIE]] !! Glossary
! Sanskrit !! Latin !! [[Proto-Indo-European|PIE]] !! Glossary
|-
|-
| pā́d- || pē(d)s, ped- || *póds || foot
| {{Transliteration|vsn|pā́d-}} || {{lang|la|pē(d)s, ped-}} || {{lang|ine-x-proto|*póds}} || foot
|-
|-
| vā́c- || vōx, vōc- || *wṓkʷs || speech
| vā́c- || vōx, vōc- || *wṓkʷs || speech
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==== Stems ====
==== Stems ====


In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: ''*-o-'' which in Sanskrit becomes ''-a-'', producing the thematic stem.  
In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: ''*-o-'' which in Sanskrit becomes ''-a-'', producing the thematic stem.


Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated owing to the fact that a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic ''pā́da-s'' is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor. <ref>Fortson, §6.43.</ref><ref>Burrow, §4.3</ref>
Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated as a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic ''pā́da-s'' is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor.<ref>Fortson, §6.43.</ref><ref>Burrow, §4.3</ref>


==== Cases ====
==== Cases ====
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==== Endings ====
==== Endings ====


The basic scheme of suffixation is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.  
The basic scheme of suffixation is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.


However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi.{{efn|such as, the mutation of ''-s'' to ''-ḥ'' or ''-r'' etc.}}<ref>MacDonell, III.71, p. 33.</ref><ref>Whitney, §164-179.</ref>
However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi.{{efn|such as, the mutation of ''-s'' to ''-ḥ'' or ''-r'' etc.}}<ref>MacDonell, III.71, p. 33.</ref><ref>Whitney, §164–179.</ref>


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |
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===Root Declension===
===Root Declension===


This is the old athematic method of [[Proto-Indo-European]] declension still in active use in Vedic.<ref>Whitney, §383-399.</ref>{{refn|Macdonnell (1910) §6.}}{{efn|Note how the vowel in ''pád-'' is elongated when accented.}}
This is the old athematic method of [[Proto-Indo-European]] declension still in active use in Vedic.<ref>Whitney, §383–399.</ref>{{refn|Macdonnell (1910) §6.}}{{efn|Note how the vowel in ''pád-'' is elongated when accented.}}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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===Root ī-stem,  vṛkī́s and devī́- feminines===<!---[[Devi and Vrkis feminines]] redirects here--->
===Root ī-stem,  vṛkī́s and devī́- feminines===<!---[[Devi and Vrkis feminines]] redirects here--->


A group of 80 polysyllabic ī-stems, most of which are feminine, are accented on the final vowel. Known as vṛkī́s feminines,<ref>Beekes, §13.2.5.</ref> these exhibit different behavior during declension compared to the later language, such as the nominative singular retaining the ''-s'' ending, and in the accent staying on the -i-.  
A group of 80 polysyllabic ī-stems, most of which are feminine, are accented on the final vowel. Known as vṛkī́s feminines,<ref>Beekes, §13.2.5.</ref> these exhibit different behavior during declension compared to the later language, such as the nominative singular retaining the ''-s'' ending, and in the accent staying on the -i-.


Further, a number of largely feminine ī-stems, known as the devī́-feminines, also exhibit some differences compared to the later language.
Further, a number of largely feminine ī-stems, known as the devī́-feminines, also exhibit some differences compared to the later language.


These, along with root stems in -ī,{{efn|the change of -ī to -iy- applies only to these}} can be seen below:{{refn|Macdonnell (1910), §375-376.}}{{refn|Macdonnell, §100.}}
These, along with root stems in -ī,{{efn|the change of -ī to -iy- applies only to these}} can be seen below:{{refn|Macdonnell (1910), §375–376.}}{{refn|Macdonnell, §100.}}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant-stem singular
|+ Root ī-stem singular
|-
|-
! Case !! Std Ending !! Treatment !! Ending !! dhī́-{{efn-ua|thought, f}} !! rathī́-{{efn-ua| charioteer, m.f.}} || devī́-{{efn-ua|goddess, f}}
! Case !! Std Ending !! Treatment !! Ending !! dhī́-{{efn-ua|thought, f}} !! rathī́-{{efn-ua| charioteer, m.f.}} || devī́-{{efn-ua|goddess, f}}
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| Ablative, Genitive || -as || (y) || -yas || dhiy·ás || rathí·ás || devy·ā́s
| Ablative, Genitive || -as || (y) || -yas || dhiy·ás || rathí·ás || devy·ā́s
|-
|-
| Locative || -i || - |||| || || devy·ā́m
| Locative || -i || – |||| || || devy·ā́m
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant-stem dual
|+ Root ī-stem dual
|-
|-
! Case !! Std Ending !! Treatment !! Ending !! dhī- !! rathī́- || devī́-
! Case !! Std Ending !! Treatment !! Ending !! dhī- !! rathī́- || devī́-
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| Nominative <br/> Accusative <br/> Vocative || -au || <s>-au</s> -ā || -ā || dhi·yā́ || rathí·ā || devī́
| Nominative <br/> Accusative <br/> Vocative || -au || <s>-au</s> -ā || -ā || dhi·yā́ || rathí·ā || devī́
|-
|-
| Instrumental <br/> Dative <br/> Ablative || -bhyām || - || -bhyām || dhī·bhyā́m || rathī́·bhyām || deví·bhyām
| Instrumental <br/> Dative <br/> Ablative || -bhyām || – || -bhyām || dhī·bhyā́m || rathī́·bhyām || deví·bhyām
|-
|-
| Genitive <br/> Locative || -os || - || -os || dhiy·ós || rathí·os || devy·ós
| Genitive <br/> Locative || -os || – || -os || dhiy·ós || rathí·os || devy·ós
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant-stem plural
|+ Root ī-stem plural
|-
|-
! Case !! Std Ending !! Treatment !! Ending !!  dhī- !! rathī́- || devī́-
! Case !! Std Ending !! Treatment !! Ending !!  dhī- !! rathī́- || devī́-
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| Accusative || -as || (y) || -s || dhíy·as || rathí·s || devī́·s
| Accusative || -as || (y) || -s || dhíy·as || rathí·s || devī́·s
|-
|-
| Instrumental || -bhis || - || -bhis || dhī·bhís || rathī́·bhs || devī́·bhis
| Instrumental || -bhis || – || -bhis || dhī·bhís || rathī́·bhs || devī́·bhis
|-
|-
| Dative <br> Ablative || -bhyas || - || -bhyas || || rathī́·bhyas || devī́·bhyas
| Dative <br> Ablative || -bhyas || – || -bhyas || || rathī́·bhyas || devī́·bhyas
|-
|-
| Genitive || -ām || (n) || -nām || dhī·nā́m || rathī́·nā́m || devī́·nām
| Genitive || -ām || (n) || -nām || dhī·nā́m || rathī́·nā́m || devī́·nām
|-
|-
| Locative || -su || - || -su || dhī·sú || rathī́·ṣu || devī́·ṣu
| Locative || -su || – || -su || dhī·sú || rathī́·ṣu || devī́·ṣu
|}
|}


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{{main|Sanskrit compound}}
{{main|Sanskrit compound}}


Vedic Sanskrit inherits from the Proto-Indo-European period the ability to combine two or more words into a single one treated as a simple word with regard to accent, inflexion and construction.  
Vedic Sanskrit inherits from the Proto-Indo-European period the ability to combine two or more words into a single one treated as a simple word with regard to accent, inflexion and construction.


The Vedic language, both in the frequency and the length of the compounds is very similar to the [[Homeric Greek|Greek of Homer]]. In the [[Rigveda|Ṛg-veda]] and the [[Atharvaveda]], no compounds of more than 3 independent members are found, and even compounds of 3 members are rare: ''pūrva·kāma·kṛ́tvan'', "fulfilling former wishes."<ref>Macdonnell,  §185</ref> In the later language, both the frequency and the number of words used to form compounds greatly increases.<ref>Coulson p xxi</ref>
The Vedic language, both in the frequency and the length of the compounds is very similar to the [[Homeric Greek|Greek of Homer]]. In the [[Rigveda]] and the [[Atharvaveda]], no compounds of more than 3 independent members are found, and even compounds of 3 members are rare: ''pūrva·kāma·kṛ́tvan'', "fulfilling former wishes."<ref>Macdonnell,  §185</ref> In the later language, both the frequency and the number of words used to form compounds greatly increases.<ref>Coulson p xxi</ref>


The main types of compound-forming were the co-ordinative {{efn-lg|''dvandva''}}, determinative {{efn-lg|''tatpuruṣa''}}, possessive {{efn-lg|''bahuvrīhi''}} and the adverbial {{efn-lg|''avyayībhava''}}.<ref>Whitney, §480.</ref>
The main types of compound-forming were the co-ordinative,{{efn-lg|''dvandva''}} determinative,{{efn-lg|''tatpuruṣa''}} possessive,{{efn-lg|''bahuvrīhi''}} and the adverbial.{{efn-lg|''avyayībhava''}}<ref>Whitney, §480.</ref>


==Numerals==
==Numerals==


See [[Sanskrit_nouns#Numerals|Sanskrit Numerals]]
{{See|Sanskrit nouns#Numerals|label1=Sanskrit numerals}}


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
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{{See also|Sanskrit verbs#Basics}}
{{See also|Sanskrit verbs#Basics}}


[[Grammatical_conjugation|Verb conjugation]] in Sanskrit involves the interplay of number{{efn-lg| ''vacana''}}, person{{efn-lg| ''puruṣa''}}, voice{{efn-lg|''prayoga''}}, mood{{efn-lg|''artha''}} and tense{{efn-lg|''kāla''}}, with the following variables:<ref>Bucknell, p. 34.</ref><ref>Macdonnell, §121-122.</ref>
[[Grammatical conjugation|Verb conjugation]] in Sanskrit involves the interplay of number{{efn-lg| ''vacana''}}, person{{efn-lg| ''puruṣa''}}, voice{{efn-lg|''prayoga''}}, mood{{efn-lg|''artha''}} and tense{{efn-lg|''kāla''}}, with the following variables:<ref>Bucknell, p. 34.</ref><ref>Macdonnell, §121–122.</ref><ref>Whitney §535 §574</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| 3 || 3 voices || active{{efn-lg|''kartari·prayoga''}}, middle{{efn-lg|''karmaṇi·prayoga''}}, passive{{efn-lg|''bhāve·prayoga''}}
| 3 || 3 voices || active{{efn-lg|''kartari·prayoga''}}, middle{{efn-lg|''karmaṇi·prayoga''}}, passive{{efn-lg|''bhāve·prayoga''}}
|-
|-
| 4 || 5 moods || indicative, optative, imperative, '''subjunctive'''{{efn|name=vediconly|Vedic-only}}, '''injunctive'''{{efn|name=vediconly}}
| 4 || 5 moods || indicative, optative, imperative, conditional, '''subjunctive/injunctive'''{{efn|name=vediconly|Vedic-only}}
|-
|-
| 5 || 5 tenses || present, imperfect, perfect, aorist, future
| 5 || 6 tenses || present, imperfect, perfect, aorist, future, periphrastic future
|}
|}


Further, [[participles]] are considered part of the verbal systems although they are not verbs themselves, and as with other Sanskrit nouns, they can be declined across seven or eight [[Grammatical_case|cases]], for three [[Grammatical_genders|genders]] and three numbers.<ref>Burrow, p. 367</ref>
Further, [[participles]] are considered part of the verbal systems although they are not verbs themselves, and as with other Sanskrit nouns, they can be declined across seven or eight [[Grammatical case|cases]], for three [[Grammatical genders|genders]] and three numbers.<ref>Burrow, p. 367</ref>


As many as a dozen types of infinitives can be found in Vedic, although only a couple of types are frequent.
As many as a dozen types of infinitives can be found in Vedic, although only a couple of types are frequent.
Line 283: Line 284:
====Stem formation====
====Stem formation====


The starting point for conjugation is the [[Root (linguistics)|root]]. As a first step, the root may be subject to treatment to form a stem, before which personal endings are suffixed. The types of possible treatment are:<ref>Burrow, §7.3.</ref><ref>Whitney, ch 8.</ref>
The starting point for conjugation is the [[Root (linguistics)|root]]. As a first step, the root may be subject to treatment to form a stem, to which personal endings are suffixed. The types of possible treatment are:<ref>Burrow, §7.3.</ref><ref>Whitney, ch 8.</ref>


* Suffixion: the [[theme vowel]] ''-a-'' may be appended, or one of several other suffixes ''-ya-'', ''-ó- / -nó-'', ''-nā-'', and ''-aya-''.<ref name="Burrow§7.8">Burrow, §7.8</ref>
* Suffixion: the [[theme vowel]] ''-a-'' may be appended, or one of several other suffixes ''-ya-'', ''-ó- / -nó-'', ''-nā-'', and ''-aya-''.<ref name="Burrow§7.8">Burrow, §7.8</ref>
* Infixion: A nasal infix (''n'', ''ñ'', ''ṇ'', ''ṅ'') may be inserted within the root, which when accented is ''-ná-''.<ref>Whitney, §683</ref>
* Infixion: A nasal infix (''n'', ''ñ'', ''ṇ'', ''ṅ'') may be inserted within the root, which when accented is ''-ná-''.<ref>Whitney, §683</ref>
* The root may undergo [[reduplication]].<ref>Whitney, §588-590.</ref>
* The root may undergo [[reduplication]].<ref>Whitney, §588–590.</ref>
* In some tenses or moods, the augment ''á-'' may be prefixed.<ref>Burrow, §7.5.</ref>
* In some tenses or moods, the augment ''á-'' may be prefixed.<ref>Burrow, §7.5.</ref>
* In many cases, the accent may vary between the root and the ending, accompanied by corresponding changes in the gradation of the root vowel.<ref>Burrow, §7.5</ref>  
* In many cases, the accent may vary between the root and the ending, accompanied by corresponding changes in the gradation of the root vowel.<ref>Burrow, §7.5</ref>


If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the {{transl|sa|guṇa}}-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the {{transl|sa|vṛddhi}}-grade vowel as ā + V.
If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the {{transliteration|sa|guṇa}}-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the {{transliteration|sa|vṛddhi}}-grade vowel as ā + V.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Grades
|+ Grades
|-
|-
| '''Vowel (zero) grade'''
| '''Vowel (zero) grade'''
| a, - || i, ī || u, ū || {{transl|sa|ṛ}}, {{transl|sa|ṝ}} ||{{transl|sa|ḷ}}
| a, – || i, ī || u, ū || {{transliteration|sa|ṛ}}, {{transliteration|sa|ṝ}} ||{{transliteration|sa|ḷ}}, {{transliteration|sa|ḹ}}
|-
|-
| '''Short diphthong ({{transl|sa|Guṇa}}) grade'''
| '''Short diphthong ({{transliteration|sa|Guṇa}}) grade'''
| a, ai || ai || au || ar || al
| a, ai || ai || au || ar || al
|-
|-
| '''Long diphthong ({{transl|sa|Vṛddhi}}) grade'''
| '''Long diphthong ({{transliteration|sa|Vṛddhi}}) grade'''
| ā, āi || āi || āu || ār || āl
| ā, āi || āi || āu || ār || āl
|-
|-
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{{See also|Sanskrit verbs#Personal endings}}
{{See also|Sanskrit verbs#Personal endings}}


Conjugational endings in Vedic convey [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], and [[Grammatical voice|voice]]. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.  
Conjugational endings in Vedic convey [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], and [[Grammatical voice|voice]]. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.


The primary, secondary, perfect and imperative endings are essentially the same as seen in Classic Sanskrit. The subjunctive endings can be seen below:<ref>Macdonnell, §131.</ref>
The primary, secondary, perfect and imperative endings are essentially the same as seen in Classic Sanskrit. The subjunctive endings can be seen below:<ref>Macdonnell, §131.</ref>
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|}
|}


Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect, imperative and subjunctive endings are used with the perfect, imperative and subjunctive respectively.
Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect, imperative and subjunctive endings are used with the perfect, imperative and subjunctive respectively. There are additional 'a' inserted between the root and the ending, often causing an elongation with a root class' other suffux (bhū (bhav) + a + a + ti = bhavāti).


===Conjugation===
===Conjugation===


====Present system====
====Present system====
The present system includes the [[present tense]], the [[imperfect]], and the [[optative mood|optative]] and [[imperative mood|imperative]] moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]].
The present system includes the [[present tense]], the [[imperfect]], and the [[optative mood|optative]], [[imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] moods, and well as rare occurrences of injunctive. The present system  conjugations are generally homogeneous with that Classical Sanskrit, see [[Sanskrit verbs#Present system|there]].<ref>Macdonnell, §316</ref>


====Perfect system====
====Perfect system====
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The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.


The perfect in the Sanskrit can be in form of the simple perfect and the periphrastic perfect.  
The perfect in the Sanskrit can be in form of the simple perfect and the periphrastic perfect.


The Simple Perfect can form an augmented Pluperfect, and beyond the indicative mood it can also form Perfect Subjunctives, Optatives, and Imperatives. All of these are lost in Classical Sanskrit, when it forms only indicatives.
The Simple Perfect can form an augmented Pluperfect (which is equivalent in value to the imperfect), and beyond the indicative mood it can also form Perfect Subjunctives, Optatives, and Imperatives. All of these are lost in Classical Sanskrit, which forms only indicatives.


The simple perfect is the most common form and can be made from most of the roots. The simple perfect stem is made by reduplication and if necessary by stem lengthening. The conjugated form takes special perfect endings. The periphrastic perfect is used with causative, desiderative, denominative and roots with prosodic long anlauted vowel (except a/ā). Only few roots can form both the simple and the periphrastic perfect. These are ''{{IAST|bhṛ}}'' 'carry', ''{{IAST|uṣ}}'' 'burn', ''vid'' 'know', ''bhi'' 'to be afraid', ''hu'' 'sacrifice'.
The simple perfect is the most common form and can be made from most of the roots. The simple perfect stem is made by reduplication and if necessary by stem lengthening. The conjugated form takes special perfect endings. The periphrastic perfect is used with causative, desiderative, denominative and roots with prosodic long anlauted vowel (except a/ā). Only few roots can form both the simple and the periphrastic perfect. These are ''{{IAST|bhṛ}}'' 'carry', ''{{IAST|uṣ}}'' 'burn', ''{{IAST|vid}}'' 'know', ''{{IAST|bhi}}'' 'to be afraid', ''{{IAST|hu}}'' 'sacrifice'.


====Aorist system====
====Aorist system====
The [[aorist]] system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. ''abhūs'' 'you were') and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with ''mā'' in prohibitions, e.g. ''mā bhūs'' 'don't be'). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – ''a-'' prefixed to the stem.
The [[aorist]] system includes aorist proper (with a proximal perfect past indicative meaning, e.g. ''akārṣīḥ'' 'you have done' or 'you did (just now)') and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with ''mā'' in prohibitions, e.g. ''mā bhūḥ'' 'don't be'). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – ''a-'' prefixed to the stem. The Aorist also had subjunctive, imperative, and optative forms. Of these, only the optative was preserved in Classical, forming the benedictive (also called the precative) mood.


The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. ''bhū-'': ''a-bhū-t'' 'he was'). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as [[vowel reduction]] of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of ''s'' to the stem. The sibilant aorist by itself has four formations:
The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. ''bhū-'': ''a-bhū-t'' 'he was'). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as [[vowel reduction]] of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of ''s'' to the stem. The sibilant aorist by itself has four formations:
* athematic s-aorist
* athematic s-aorist
* athematic {{transl|sa|iṣ}}-aorist
* athematic {{transliteration|sa|iṣ}}-aorist
* athematic {{transl|sa|siṣ}}-aorist
* athematic {{transliteration|sa|siṣ}}-aorist
* thematic s-aorist
* thematic s-aorist<ref>Whitney Chapter 11.</ref>


====Future system====
====Future system====


The future system is formed with the suffixion of ''-syá-'' or ''{{transl|sa|-iṣyá-}}'' and {{transl|sa|guṇa}}.
The s-future is formed with the inffixion of ''-syá-'' or ''{{transliteration|sa|-iṣyá-}}'' before the normal present endings and {{transliteration|sa|guṇa}}. It is generally the more common, with the indication of a simple future. The periphrastic future is formed with the suffix of ''tṛ́'' added directly to the root with ''guṇa''. In the third person, it is conjugated like a noun ending in ''ṛ''; the other forms use the nominal form periphrasticly and add the corresponding ''as'' forms. It is used to refer to a task that will be completed at a specific time in the future.
 
The s-future also contains a preterite formation using the same endings as the imperfect, while also using the ''-syá-'' or ''{{transliteration|sa|-iṣyá-}}'' infix. This future preterite is used for conditional sentences and clauses. Other than this, Vedic had a small scattering of imperative and optative future forms. However, they were completely phased out as the language continued to evolve.<ref>Whitney Chapter 12</ref>


===Examples of conjugation===
===Examples of conjugation===
{{See also|Sanskrit verbs#Present system|label 1=Sanskrit verb conjugation}}  
{{See also|Sanskrit verbs#Present system|label 1=Sanskrit verb conjugation}}


Comprehensive conjugation tables can be found in the Classical Sanskrit page linked above. Some notes on elements specific to Vedic Sanskrit below:
Comprehensive conjugation tables can be found in the Classical Sanskrit page linked above. Some notes on elements specific to Vedic Sanskrit below:


; ''bhū'' - 'to be'
; ''bhū'' – 'to be'


The optative takes secondary endings. ''-ya-'' is added to the stem both in the active and the middle. In some forms the cluster ''ya'' is dropped out.
The optative takes secondary endings. ''-ya-'' is added to the stem both in the active and the middle. In some forms the cluster ''ya'' is dropped out.
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|-
|-
! '''1.'''
! '''1.'''
| bhavaiyām || bhavai(yā)va || bhavai(yā)ma || bhavaiya(m) || bhavai(yā)vahi || bhavai(yā)mahi
| bhávaiyām || bhávai(yā)va || bhávai(yā)ma || bhávaiya(m) || bhávai(yā)vahi || bhávai(yā)mahi
|-
|-
! '''2.'''
! '''2.'''
| bhavai(ya)s || bhavai(ya)tam || bhavai(ya)ta || bhavai(ya)thās || bhavaiyāthām || bhavai(ya)dhvam
| bhávai(ya)s || bhávai(ya)tam || bhávai(ya)ta || bhávai(ya)thās || bhávaiyāthām || bhávai(ya)dhvam
|-
|-
! '''3.'''
! '''3.'''
| bhavai(yā)t || bhavai(ya)tām || bhavaiyus || bhavai(ya)ta || bhavaiyātām || bhavairan
| bhávai(ya)t || bhávai(ya)tām || bhávaiyus || bhávai(ya)ta || bhávaiyātām || bhávairan
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! '''1.'''
! '''1.'''
| bhavā(ni) || bhavāva || bhavāma || bhav(ām)āi || bhavāvahāi || bhavāmahāi
| bhávā(ni) || bhávāva || bhávāma || bháv(ām)āi || bhávāvahāi || bhávāmahāi
|-
|-
! '''2.'''
! '''2.'''
| bhavas(i) || bhavāthas || bhavātha || bhavāsāi || bhavāithai || bhavadhvāi
| bhávās(i) || bhávāthas || bhávātha || bhávāsai / -āi || bhávāithai || bhávādhvāi
|-
|-
! '''3.'''
! '''3.'''
| bhavat(i) || bhavātas || bhavān || bhavātāi || bhavāitai || bhavanta(i)
| bhávāt(i) || bhávātas || bhávān || bhávātai / -āi || bhávāitai || bhávāntāi / bhávanta
|}
|}


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! Passive || Causative !! Desiderative !! Intensive
! Passive || Causative !! Desiderative !! Intensive
|-
|-
| bhūya- || bhāvaya- || {{transl|sa|bubhūṣa-}} || baubhavī-
| bhūya- || bhāvaya- || {{transliteration|sa|bubhūṣa-}} || baubhavī-
|}
|}


; ''as'' - 'to be' {{OR|date=April 2022}}
; ''as'' – 'to be'


The ''as'' 'to be' has the long and the short form. The long form is very rarely used.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present, Indicative
|+ Present, Indicative
|-
|-
!rowspan="3"| Person
!rowspan="2"| Person
!colspan="6"| Active !!colspan="6"| Middle
!colspan="3"| Active
|-
!colspan="3"| Long form !!colspan="3"| Short form !!colspan="3"| Long form !!colspan="3"| Short form
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! '''1.'''
! '''1.'''
| asāmi || asāvas || asāmas || asmi || svas || smas || as(ām)ai || asāvahai || asāmahai || hai || svahai || smahai
| ásmi || svás || smás
|-
|-
! '''2.'''
! '''2.'''
| asasi || asathas || asatha || asi || sthas || stha || asasai || asāthai || asadhvai || sai || sāthai || dhvai
| ási || sthás || sthá
|-
|-
! '''3.'''
! '''3.'''
| asati || asatas || asanti ||  asti || stas || santi || asatai || asātai || asantai || stai || sātai || santai
| ásti || stás || sánti
|}
|}


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|+ Imperfect, Indicative
|+ Imperfect, Indicative
|-
|-
!rowspan="3"| Person
!rowspan="2"| Person
!colspan="6"| Active !!colspan="6"| Middle
!colspan="3"| Active
|-
!colspan="3"| Long form !!colspan="3"| Short form !!colspan="3"| Long form !!colspan="3"| Short form
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! '''1.'''
! '''1.'''
| āsam || asāva || āsāma || āsam || asva || āsma || āsāmai || āsāvahi || āsāmahi || āsmai || āsvahi || āsmahi
| ā́sam || ā́sva || ā́sma
|-
|-
! '''2.'''
! '''2.'''
| āsīs || āsatam || āsata || āsīs || āstam || āsta || āsathās || āsaihām || āsadhvam || āsthās || āsaithām || āsadhvam
| ā́sīs || ā́stam || ā́sta
|-
|-
! '''3.'''
! '''3.'''
| āsīt || āsatām || āsan || āsīt || āstām || āsan || āsata || āsaitām || āsanta || āsta || āsaitām || āsanta
| ā́sīt || ā́stām || ā́san
|}
|}


==Infinitives==
==Infinitives==


The most notable difference between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit is in the area of the infinitive. Against the single type of infinitive in the later language, there exist, in Vedic, several forms, all of them being old cases of verbal nouns.<ref name=Burrow717>Burrow, §7.17.</ref><ref name=Mac167>Macdonnell, §167.</ref>  
The most notable difference between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit is in the area of the infinitive. Against the single type of infinitive in the later language, there exist, in Vedic, several forms, all of them being old cases of verbal nouns.<ref name=Burrow717>Burrow, §7.17.</ref><ref name=Mac167>Macdonnell, §167.</ref>


The following main types of infinitive can be identified in Vedic, noted in descending order of frequency:  
The following main types of infinitive can be identified in Vedic, noted in descending order of frequency:


* Dative
* Dative
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===Dative infinitive===
===Dative infinitive===


The ending used to form this adjective is ''-e''{{efn|which when following a root ending in -ā results in ''-ai''}}. The ending may be directly added to the root, whether of a simple or compounded verb, or additional elements (''-as-'', ''-i'', ''-ti'', ''-tu'', ''-tavā'', ''-tyā'', ''-dhyā'', ''-man'', ''-van'') may be interspersed in different cases of roots.<ref name=Mac167/>
The ending used to form this adjective is ''-e''.{{efn|which when following a root ending in -ā results in ''-ai''}} The ending may be directly added to the root, whether of a simple or compounded verb, or additional elements (''-as-'', ''-i'', ''-ti'', ''-tu'', ''-tavā'', ''-tyā'', ''-dhyā'', ''-man'', ''-van'') may be interspersed in different cases of roots.<ref name=Mac167/>


{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
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* ā·rábh·am {{efn-ua|to reach}}
* ā·rábh·am {{efn-ua|to reach}}
* śúbh·am {{efn-ua|to shine}}
* śúbh·am {{efn-ua|to shine}}
* √tṝ - pra·tír·am {{efn-ua|to prolong}}
* √tṝ – pra·tír·am {{efn-ua|to prolong}}
* prati·dhā́·m {{efn-ua|to place upon}}
* prati·dhā́·m {{efn-ua|to place upon}}
* '''-tum forms'''
* '''-tum forms'''
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==Sample==
==Sample==


Sample Vedic Sanskrit text with accentuation etc:
Sample Vedic Sanskrit text with accentuation etc.: (this is from the Vagambrini suktam)
 
{{Verse translation
{{quote|{{lang|sa-vaidika|<poem>
|aháṃ rudráibʰir·vásubʰiś·carāmy·ahám·ādityāír·utá viśvá·daivāiḥ,
 
aháṃ mitrā́váruṇau 'bʰā́ bibʰarmy·aham·indrāgní ahám·aśvínau 'bʰā́,
aháṃ rudrébʰir·vásubʰiś·carāmy·ahám·ādityāír·utá viśvá·devāiḥ,
aháṃ mitrā́váruṇo 'bʰā́ bibʰarmy·aham·indrāgní ahám·aśvíno 'bʰā́,


aháṃ sómam·āhanásam bibʰarmy·ahám·tváṣṭāram·utá pūṣáṇam bʰagám,
aháṃ sáumam·āhanásam bibʰarmy·ahám·tváṣṭāram·utá pūṣáṇam bʰagám,
ahám dadʰāmi dráviṇaṃ havíṣmate suprāvyè yájamānāya sunvaté.
ahám dadʰāmi dráviṇaṃ havíṣmatai suprāvyài yájamānāya sunvatái.


aháṃ ṛā́ṣṭrī saṅgámanī vásūnāṃ cikitúṣī prathamā́ yajñíyānām,
aháṃ ṛā́ṣṭrī saṅgámanī vásūnāṃ cikitúṣī prathamā́ yajñíyānām,
tā́m mā devā́ vy·àdadʰuḥ purutā́ bʰū́ristʰātrām bʰū́ry·āveśáyantīm.
tā́m mā daivā́ vy·àdadʰuḥ purutā́ bʰū́ristʰātrām bʰū́ry·āvaiśáyantīm.
 
máyā só ánnam·atti yó vipáśyati yaḥ prā́ṇiti yá īṃ śṛṇóty·uktám,
amántavo mā́m tá úpa kṣiyanti śrudʰí śruta śraddʰiváṃ te vadāmi.
 
</poem>}}
|
|The ''Ṛg-Veda, X. 125{{sfn|Whitney|p=518}}}}


I roam with the Rudras{{efn-ua|storm-gods}} and the Vasus, I with the Ādityas and the all-gods,
máyā sáu ánnam·atti yáu vipáśyati yaḥ prā́ṇiti yá īṃ śṛṇáuty·uktám,
I bear both Mitra and Varuṇa{{efn-ua|the sea-god}}, I Indra and Agni{{efn-ua|the fire-god}}, I both the Aśvins{{efn-ua|the divine twins}}.
amántavau mā́m tá úpa kṣiyanti śrudʰí śruta śraddʰiváṃ tai vadāmi.|I roam with the Rudras{{efn-ua|storm-gods}} and the Vasus, I with the Ādityas and the all-gods,
I bear both Mitra and Varuṇa,{{efn-ua|the sea-god}} I Indra and Agni,{{efn-ua|the fire-god}} I both the Aśvins.{{efn-ua|the divine twins}}


I bear the swollen soma, I Tvaṣṭar and Pūṣan and Bhaga,
I bear the swollen soma, I Tvaṣṭar and Pūṣan and Bhaga,
I establish wealth for the man offering the oblation, who pursues well, who sacrifices and presses{{efn-ua|presses/extracts the soma juice}}.
I establish wealth for the man offering the oblation, who pursues well, who sacrifices and presses.{{efn-ua|presses/extracts the soma juice}}


I am ruler, assembler of goods, observer foremost among those deserving the sacrifice,
I am ruler, assembler of goods, observer foremost among those deserving the sacrifice,
Me have the gods distributed in many places -- so that I have many stations and cause many things to enter (me).
Me have the gods distributed in many places – so that I have many stations and cause many things to enter (me).


Through me he eats food -- whoever sees, whoever breathes, whoever hears what is spoken,
Through me he eats food – whoever sees, whoever breathes, whoever hears what is spoken,
Without thinking about it, they live on me. Listen, o you who are listened to: it's a trustworthy thing I tell you.{{sfn|Brereton & Jamison|p=1603}}
Without thinking about it, they live on me. Listen, o you who are listened to: it's a trustworthy thing I tell you.
|head1=The ''Ṛg-Veda'', X. 125|head2=|lang1=vsn|lang2=en|attr1={{sfn|Whitney|p=518}}|attr2={{sfn|Brereton & Jamison|p=1603}}}}


==See also==
==See also==
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* [[Sanskrit nouns]]
* [[Sanskrit nouns]]
* [[Sanskrit verbs]]
* [[Sanskrit verbs]]
* [[Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]]
* [[Classical Sanskrit]]
* [[Vedic accent]]
* [[Vedic accent]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Aryan_language|Proto-Indo-Aryan]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian_language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European_language|Proto-Indo-European]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]


== Notes ==
== Notes ==
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==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
* Ernst Wilhelm Oskar Windisch, Berthold Delbrück, ''Die altindische Wortfolge aus dem Catagathabrahmana'' [https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0543940349&id=DoaWr78cxKQC&dq=Altindische]
* Ernst Wilhelm Oskar Windisch, Berthold Delbrück, ''Die altindische Wortfolge aus dem Catagathabrahmana'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=DoaWr78cxKQC&q=Altindische]
* [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]], ''Vedic Grammar'' (1910)
* [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]], ''Vedic Grammar'' (1910)
* Arthur Anthony MacDonell, ''A Vedic Grammar for Students''. Bombay, Oxford University Press. (1916/1975)
* Arthur Anthony MacDonell, ''A Vedic Grammar for Students''. Bombay, Oxford University Press. (1916/1975)
Line 639: Line 630:
* [[William Dwight Whitney]], ''Sanskrit Grammar''. 5th edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (1924) [1st ed. 1879]
* [[William Dwight Whitney]], ''Sanskrit Grammar''. 5th edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (1924) [1st ed. 1879]
* Coulson, Michael, ''Sanskrit (teach yourself)'', McGraw Hill (2003)
* Coulson, Michael, ''Sanskrit (teach yourself)'', McGraw Hill (2003)
* Fortson IV, Benjamin W - ''Indo-European Language and Culture'' - 2nd Ed - Wiley-Blackwell (2010) - {{ISBN|978-1-4051-8896-8}}
* Fortson IV, Benjamin W – ''Indo-European Language and Culture'' – 2nd Ed – Wiley-Blackwell (2010) – {{ISBN|978-1-4051-8896-8}}
* Burrow, T - ''The Sanskrit Language'' - {{ISBN|81-208-1767-2}}
* Burrow, T – ''The Sanskrit Language'' – {{ISBN|81-208-1767-2}}
* Bucknell, Roderick S - ''Sanskrit Grammar'' - {{ISBN|81-208-1188-7}}
* Bucknell, Roderick S – ''Sanskrit Grammar'' – {{ISBN|81-208-1188-7}}
* [[David Reich (geneticist)|Reich, David]] - ''Who we are and how we got here'' - 1st End - (2019) - {{ISBN|978-1-101-87346-5}}
* [[David Reich (geneticist)|Reich, David]] – ''Who we are and how we got here'' – 1st End – (2019) – {{ISBN|978-1-101-87346-5}}
* Jamison, Stephanie W., Brereton, Joel P., [https://books.google.com/books?id=gXLKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14  ''The Rigveda,'']  [[Oxford University Press]], 2020 {{isbn|978-0-190-63336-3}}
* Jamison, Stephanie W., Brereton, Joel P., [https://books.google.com/books?id=gXLKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14  ''The Rigveda,'']  [[Oxford University Press]], 2020 {{isbn|978-0-190-63336-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Beekes |first1=Robert |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics |date=1995 |isbn=1-55619-504-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Beekes |first1=Robert |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics |date=1995 |publisher=J. Benjamins Pub. |isbn=1-55619-504-4}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/injunctive.article.pdf Paul Kiparsky "The Vedic Injunctive: Historical and Synchronic Implications"]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/injunctive.article.pdf Paul Kiparsky "The Vedic Injunctive: Historical and Synchronic Implications"]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/yearbook.pdf Paul Kiparsky "Aspect and Event Structure in Vedic"]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/yearbook.pdf Paul Kiparsky "Aspect and Event Structure in Vedic"]

Latest revision as of 09:56, 13 November 2025


Vedic Sanskrit is the name given by modern scholarship to the oldest attested descendant of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language. Sanskrit is the language that is found in the four Vedas, in particular, the Rigveda, the oldest of them, dated to have been composed roughly over the period from 1500 to 1000 BCE. Before its standardization as Sanskrit, the Vedic language was a purely spoken language during that period used before the introduction of writing in the language.[1][2][3]

The Vedic language has inherited from its ultimate-parent (the Proto-Indo-European language) an elaborate system of morphology, more of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole than in other kindred languages such as Ancient Greek or Latin.[4][5] Its grammar differs greatly from the later Classical Sanskrit in many regards, one being that this complex inherited morphology simplified over time.

History[edit | edit source]

The language descended from the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, which entered the Indian subcontinent with the arrival of the Proto-Indo-Aryans dated to be around 1800–1500 BCE.[6][7] The Vedic hymns are estimated to have been composed between 1500 and 1000 BCE, with the language of each hymn fixed at the time of its oral composition,[8] establishing a religious canon around a literary tradition.

As the popular speech unavoidably evolved over the centuries the Vedic hymns began to be increasingly inaccessible. In order to "arrest" language change, there arose a rigorous linguistic tradition aimed at preserving the literary language, culminating in the work of Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyayī, dated around 600–400 BCE, which marks the beginning of 'Sanskrit', referred to in contradistinction to the Vedic language as 'Classical. [verification needed]

Despite these efforts, by the time of Pāṇini's final definition, the language had undergone some changes, especially in grammar. The following sections will focus on these differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Those features that were not incorporated into the Classical Language by Panini can be seen in Classical Sanskrit and related pages.[9][10][lower-alpha 1]

Differences between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit[edit | edit source]

Over time, the language that would become Classical Sanskrit reduced and regularized much of the complex morphology that it had originally inherited from its parent the Proto-Indo-European language:[9][11]

  • Vedic used the older athematic approach to inflection far more than the classical language, which tended to replace them using thematic forms in their place.
  • The three synthetic past tenses[12] (imperfect, perfect and aorist) were still clearly distinguished semantically in Vedic.
    • It is important to note that the imperfect, perfect, and aorist didn't have the values of their English namesakes:
      • The imperfect was used as a general past tense.
      • The perfect was used like a proximal present perfect, general past, and as a present tense
      • The aorist was used like a proximal present perfect.[13]
  • A fifth mood, the subjunctive/injunctive, also existed.
  • There were more than 12 ways of forming infinitives in Vedic, of which Classical Sanskrit retained only one form.
  • ī-stems differentiate the devī́ and vrkī́s feminines, a difference lost in Classical Sanskrit.

Nouns[edit | edit source]

Basics[edit | edit source]

Declension of a noun in Sanskrit involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': 3 numbers and 8 cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to syncretism of some forms, the practical number can be lower.[14] [lower-alpha 2]

In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the basis of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:[16][17]

1 3 numbers singular, dual, plural
2 3 genders masculine, feminine, neuter
3 8 cases nominative, accusative, instrumental,

dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative

Building blocks[edit | edit source]

Roots[edit | edit source]

The oldest system of declension was to affix the endings directly to the nominal root. This was an ancient feature already in decline in later Proto-Indo-European. Of the daughter languages, this system has been best preserved by Vedic Sanskrit.[18]

Ancient noun roots in kindred languages
Sanskrit Latin PIE Glossary
[pā́d-] Error: {{Transl}}: unrecognized language / script code: vsn (help) pē(d)s, ped- *póds foot
vā́c- vōx, vōc- *wṓkʷs speech
rā́j- rēx, rēg- *h₃rḗǵs king, ruler

Stems[edit | edit source]

In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: *-o- which in Sanskrit becomes -a-, producing the thematic stem.

Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated as a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic pā́da-s is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor.[19][20]

Cases[edit | edit source]

Sanskrit nouns are declined for eight cases:

Endings[edit | edit source]

The basic scheme of suffixation is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.

However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi.[lower-alpha 3][22][23]

Singular Dual Plural
Masc./Fem Neu. Masc./Fem Neu. Masc./Fem Neu.
Nominative -s -Ø -au -ī -as -i
Accusative -am
Instrumental -ā -bhyām -bhis
Dative -e -bhyas
Ablative -as
Genitive -os -ām
Locative -i -su

Root Declension[edit | edit source]

This is the old athematic method of Proto-Indo-European declension still in active use in Vedic.[24][25][lower-alpha 4]

Consonant-stem singular
Case Std Ending pád- vā́c- rā́j- path-[upper-alpha 1][lower-alpha 5] mā́s- [upper-alpha 2] víś-[upper-alpha 3]
Nominative, Vocative -s pā́t vā́k rā́ṭ pat mā́s víṭ
Accusative -am pā́d·am vā́c·am rā́j·am path·ám mā́s·am víś·am
Instrumental -ā pad·ā́ vāc·ā́ ráj·ā path·ā́ mā́s·ā viś·ā́
Dative -e pad·é vāc·é rā́j·e path·é mā́s·e viś·é
Ablative, Genitive -as pad·ás vāc·ás rā́j·as path·ás mā́s·as viś·ás
Locative -i pad·í vāc·í rā́j·i path·í mā́s·i viś·í
Consonant-stem dual
Case Std Ending pád- vā́c- rā́j- mā́s- vís-
Nominative
Accusative
Vocative		 -au pā́d·au vā́c·au rā́j·au mā́s·ā viś·ā
Instrumental
Dative
Ablative		 -bhyām pad·bhyā́m vāg·bhyā́m rā́g·bhyām mā́d·bhyām viḍ·bhyā́m
Genitive
Locative		 -os pad·ós vāc·ós rā́j·os mā́s·os viś·ós
Consonant-stem plural
Case Std Ending pád- vā́c- rā́j- mā́s- víś-
Nominative, Vocative -as pā́d·as vā́c·as rā́j·as mā́s·as víś·as
Accusative -as pad·ás vāc·ás rā́j·as mās·ás víś·as
Instrumental -bhis pad·bhís vāg·bhís rā́g·bhis mād·bhís viḍ·bhís
Dative
Ablative		 -bhyas pad·bhyás vāg·bhyás rā́g·bhyas mād·bhyás viḍ·bhyás
Genitive -ām pad·ā́m vāc·ā́m rā́j·ām mās·ā́m viś·ā́m
Locative -su pat·sú vāk·ṣú rā́k·ṣu mās·su vik·ṣú

Root ī-stem, vṛkī́s and devī́- feminines[edit | edit source]

A group of 80 polysyllabic ī-stems, most of which are feminine, are accented on the final vowel. Known as vṛkī́s feminines,[26] these exhibit different behavior during declension compared to the later language, such as the nominative singular retaining the -s ending, and in the accent staying on the -i-.

Further, a number of largely feminine ī-stems, known as the devī́-feminines, also exhibit some differences compared to the later language.

These, along with root stems in -ī,[lower-alpha 6] can be seen below:[27][28]

Root ī-stem singular
Case Std Ending Treatment Ending dhī́-[upper-alpha 4] rathī́-[upper-alpha 5] devī́-[upper-alpha 6]
Nominative, Vocative -s -s dhī́·s rathī́·s devī́
Accusative -am short(i) + y + -am -iyam dhíy·am rathí·am devī́·m
Instrumental -ā short(i) + y + ā -iyā dhiy·ā́ rathí·ā devy·ā́
Dative -e (y) -ye dhiy·é rathí·e devy·aí
Ablative, Genitive -as (y) -yas dhiy·ás rathí·ás devy·ā́s
Locative -i – devy·ā́m
Root ī-stem dual
Case Std Ending Treatment Ending dhī- rathī́- devī́-
Nominative
Accusative
Vocative		 -au -au -ā -ā dhi·yā́ rathí·ā devī́
Instrumental
Dative
Ablative		 -bhyām – -bhyām dhī·bhyā́m rathī́·bhyām deví·bhyām
Genitive
Locative		 -os – -os dhiy·ós rathí·os devy·ós
Root ī-stem plural
Case Std Ending Treatment Ending dhī- rathī́- devī́-
Nominative, Vocative -as (y) -as dhíy·as rathí·as devī́·s
Accusative -as (y) -s dhíy·as rathí·s devī́·s
Instrumental -bhis – -bhis dhī·bhís rathī́·bhs devī́·bhis
Dative
Ablative		 -bhyas – -bhyas rathī́·bhyas devī́·bhyas
Genitive -ām (n) -nām dhī·nā́m rathī́·nā́m devī́·nām
Locative -su – -su dhī·sú rathī́·ṣu devī́·ṣu

Compounds[edit | edit source]

Main article: Sanskrit compound

Vedic Sanskrit inherits from the Proto-Indo-European period the ability to combine two or more words into a single one treated as a simple word with regard to accent, inflexion and construction.

The Vedic language, both in the frequency and the length of the compounds is very similar to the Greek of Homer. In the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda, no compounds of more than 3 independent members are found, and even compounds of 3 members are rare: pūrva·kāma·kṛ́tvan, "fulfilling former wishes."[29] In the later language, both the frequency and the number of words used to form compounds greatly increases.[30]

The main types of compound-forming were the co-ordinative,Template:Efn-lg determinative,Template:Efn-lg possessive,Template:Efn-lg and the adverbial.Template:Efn-lg[31]

Numerals[edit | edit source]

Further information: Sanskrit numerals

Verbs[edit | edit source]

Basics[edit | edit source]

See also: Sanskrit verbs § Basics

Verb conjugation in Sanskrit involves the interplay of numberTemplate:Efn-lg, personTemplate:Efn-lg, voiceTemplate:Efn-lg, moodTemplate:Efn-lg and tenseTemplate:Efn-lg, with the following variables:[32][33][34]

1 3 numbers singularTemplate:Efn-lg, dualTemplate:Efn-lg, pluralTemplate:Efn-lg
2 3 persons first[lower-alpha 7]Template:Efn-lg, secondTemplate:Efn-lg, thirdTemplate:Efn-lg
3 3 voices activeTemplate:Efn-lg, middleTemplate:Efn-lg, passiveTemplate:Efn-lg
4 5 moods indicative, optative, imperative, conditional, subjunctive/injunctive[lower-alpha 8]
5 6 tenses present, imperfect, perfect, aorist, future, periphrastic future

Further, participles are considered part of the verbal systems although they are not verbs themselves, and as with other Sanskrit nouns, they can be declined across seven or eight cases, for three genders and three numbers.[35]

As many as a dozen types of infinitives can be found in Vedic, although only a couple of types are frequent.

Building blocks[edit | edit source]

See also: Sanskrit verbs § Building blocks

Stem formation[edit | edit source]

The starting point for conjugation is the root. As a first step, the root may be subject to treatment to form a stem, to which personal endings are suffixed. The types of possible treatment are:[36][37]

  • Suffixion: the theme vowel -a- may be appended, or one of several other suffixes -ya-, -ó- / -nó-, -nā-, and -aya-.[38]
  • Infixion: A nasal infix (n, ñ, ṇ, ṅ) may be inserted within the root, which when accented is -ná-.[39]
  • The root may undergo reduplication.[40]
  • In some tenses or moods, the augment á- may be prefixed.[41]
  • In many cases, the accent may vary between the root and the ending, accompanied by corresponding changes in the gradation of the root vowel.[42]

If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the guṇa-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vṛddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.

Grades
Vowel (zero) grade a, – i, ī u, ū ṛ, ṝ ḷ, ḹ
Short diphthong (Guṇa) grade a, ai ai au ar al
Long diphthong (Vṛddhi) grade ā, āi āi āu ār āl

Personal endings[edit | edit source]

See also: Sanskrit verbs § Personal endings

Conjugational endings in Vedic convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.

The primary, secondary, perfect and imperative endings are essentially the same as seen in Classic Sanskrit. The subjunctive endings can be seen below:[43]

Person Active Middle
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Subjunctive 1. -ā, -āni -vá -má -āi -váhāi -máhāi, -máhai
2. -si, -s -thás -thá -sāi, -sái -ā́ithai -dhvā́i
3. -ti, -t -tás -(á)n -tāi, -tái -ā́itai -ántai, -ánta

Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect, imperative and subjunctive endings are used with the perfect, imperative and subjunctive respectively. There are additional 'a' inserted between the root and the ending, often causing an elongation with a root class' other suffux (bhū (bhav) + a + a + ti = bhavāti).

Conjugation[edit | edit source]

Present system[edit | edit source]

The present system includes the present tense, the imperfect, and the optative, imperative and subjunctive moods, and well as rare occurrences of injunctive. The present system conjugations are generally homogeneous with that Classical Sanskrit, see there.[44]

Perfect system[edit | edit source]

The perfect is used mainly in the indicative. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.

The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.

The perfect in the Sanskrit can be in form of the simple perfect and the periphrastic perfect.

The Simple Perfect can form an augmented Pluperfect (which is equivalent in value to the imperfect), and beyond the indicative mood it can also form Perfect Subjunctives, Optatives, and Imperatives. All of these are lost in Classical Sanskrit, which forms only indicatives.

The simple perfect is the most common form and can be made from most of the roots. The simple perfect stem is made by reduplication and if necessary by stem lengthening. The conjugated form takes special perfect endings. The periphrastic perfect is used with causative, desiderative, denominative and roots with prosodic long anlauted vowel (except a/ā). Only few roots can form both the simple and the periphrastic perfect. These are bhṛ 'carry', uṣ 'burn', vid 'know', bhi 'to be afraid', hu 'sacrifice'.

Aorist system[edit | edit source]

The aorist system includes aorist proper (with a proximal perfect past indicative meaning, e.g. akārṣīḥ 'you have done' or 'you did (just now)') and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhūḥ 'don't be'). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem. The Aorist also had subjunctive, imperative, and optative forms. Of these, only the optative was preserved in Classical, forming the benedictive (also called the precative) mood.

The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t 'he was'). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem. The sibilant aorist by itself has four formations:

  • athematic s-aorist
  • athematic iṣ-aorist
  • athematic siṣ-aorist
  • thematic s-aorist[45]

Future system[edit | edit source]

The s-future is formed with the inffixion of -syá- or -iṣyá- before the normal present endings and guṇa. It is generally the more common, with the indication of a simple future. The periphrastic future is formed with the suffix of tṛ́ added directly to the root with guṇa. In the third person, it is conjugated like a noun ending in ṛ; the other forms use the nominal form periphrasticly and add the corresponding as forms. It is used to refer to a task that will be completed at a specific time in the future.

The s-future also contains a preterite formation using the same endings as the imperfect, while also using the -syá- or -iṣyá- infix. This future preterite is used for conditional sentences and clauses. Other than this, Vedic had a small scattering of imperative and optative future forms. However, they were completely phased out as the language continued to evolve.[46]

Examples of conjugation[edit | edit source]

See also: Sanskrit verb conjugation

Comprehensive conjugation tables can be found in the Classical Sanskrit page linked above. Some notes on elements specific to Vedic Sanskrit below:

bhū – 'to be'

The optative takes secondary endings. -ya- is added to the stem both in the active and the middle. In some forms the cluster ya is dropped out.

Optative
Person Active Middle
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
1. bhávaiyām bhávai(yā)va bhávai(yā)ma bhávaiya(m) bhávai(yā)vahi bhávai(yā)mahi
2. bhávai(ya)s bhávai(ya)tam bhávai(ya)ta bhávai(ya)thās bhávaiyāthām bhávai(ya)dhvam
3. bhávai(ya)t bhávai(ya)tām bhávaiyus bhávai(ya)ta bhávaiyātām bhávairan

The subjunctive takes subjunctive endings.

Subjunctive
Person Active Middle
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
1. bhávā(ni) bhávāva bhávāma bháv(ām)āi bhávāvahāi bhávāmahāi
2. bhávās(i) bhávāthas bhávātha bhávāsai / -āi bhávāithai bhávādhvāi
3. bhávāt(i) bhávātas bhávān bhávātai / -āi bhávāitai bhávāntāi / bhávanta

The following stems can take all endings.

Other stems
Passive Causative Desiderative Intensive
bhūya- bhāvaya- bubhūṣa- baubhavī-
as – 'to be'
Present, Indicative
Person Active
Singular Dual Plural
1. ásmi svás smás
2. ási sthás sthá
3. ásti stás sánti
Imperfect, Indicative
Person Active
Singular Dual Plural
1. ā́sam ā́sva ā́sma
2. ā́sīs ā́stam ā́sta
3. ā́sīt ā́stām ā́san

Infinitives[edit | edit source]

The most notable difference between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit is in the area of the infinitive. Against the single type of infinitive in the later language, there exist, in Vedic, several forms, all of them being old cases of verbal nouns.[47][48]

The following main types of infinitive can be identified in Vedic, noted in descending order of frequency:

  • Dative
  • Accusative
  • Ablative-genitive
  • Locative

Dative infinitive[edit | edit source]

The ending used to form this adjective is -e.[lower-alpha 9] The ending may be directly added to the root, whether of a simple or compounded verb, or additional elements (-as-, -i, -ti, -tu, -tavā, -tyā, -dhyā, -man, -van) may be interspersed in different cases of roots.[48]

Accusative infinitive[edit | edit source]

The ending used here is either -am affixed to the weak form of a root, or -tum just as in the Latin supine.[48] The latter form is the only one that survives in Classical Sanskrit.[47]

Ablative-genitive infinitive[edit | edit source]

This functions more as a verbal noun than a genuine infinitive. There are again two ways of forming this: -as or -tos.[48]

Locative infinitive[edit | edit source]

This is very rare, even in the oldest language. Between the root and the locative ending -i, -tar- or -san- may be inserted.[48]

Syntax[edit | edit source]

Because of Vedic's complex declension system the word order is free (with tendency toward SOV).

Sample[edit | edit source]

Sample Vedic Sanskrit text with accentuation etc.: (this is from the Vagambrini suktam)

aháṃ rudráibʰir·vásubʰiś·carāmy·ahám·ādityāír·utá viśvá·daivāiḥ,
aháṃ mitrā́váruṇau 'bʰā́ bibʰarmy·aham·indrāgní ahám·aśvínau 'bʰā́,

aháṃ sáumam·āhanásam bibʰarmy·ahám·tváṣṭāram·utá pūṣáṇam bʰagám,
ahám dadʰāmi dráviṇaṃ havíṣmatai suprāvyài yájamānāya sunvatái.

aháṃ ṛā́ṣṭrī saṅgámanī vásūnāṃ cikitúṣī prathamā́ yajñíyānām,
tā́m mā daivā́ vy·àdadʰuḥ purutā́ bʰū́ristʰātrām bʰū́ry·āvaiśáyantīm.

máyā sáu ánnam·atti yáu vipáśyati yaḥ prā́ṇiti yá īṃ śṛṇáuty·uktám,
amántavau mā́m tá úpa kṣiyanti śrudʰí śruta śraddʰiváṃ tai vadāmi.

I roam with the Rudras[upper-alpha 59] and the Vasus, I with the Ādityas and the all-gods,
I bear both Mitra and Varuṇa,[upper-alpha 60] I Indra and Agni,[upper-alpha 61] I both the Aśvins.[upper-alpha 62]

I bear the swollen soma, I Tvaṣṭar and Pūṣan and Bhaga,
I establish wealth for the man offering the oblation, who pursues well, who sacrifices and presses.[upper-alpha 63]

I am ruler, assembler of goods, observer foremost among those deserving the sacrifice,
Me have the gods distributed in many places – so that I have many stations and cause many things to enter (me).

Through me he eats food – whoever sees, whoever breathes, whoever hears what is spoken,
Without thinking about it, they live on me. Listen, o you who are listened to: it's a trustworthy thing I tell you.

—[49] —[50]

See also[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Sanskrit nouns, Sanskrit verbs
  2. ↑ Though in PIE, formal gender differentiation was low, with masculine/feminine nouns showing identical inflections, and the neuter class differing from them only with regard to the nominative and accusative,[15] in Sanskrit, nouns are classified as belonging to any one of three genders.
  3. ↑ such as, the mutation of -s to -ḥ or -r etc.
  4. ↑ Note how the vowel in pád- is elongated when accented.
  5. ↑ only attested in the singular
  6. ↑ the change of -ī to -iy- applies only to these
  7. ↑ not found in the imperative
  8. ↑ Vedic-only
  9. ↑ which when following a root ending in -ā results in -ai
  10. ↑ compound form
  11. ↑ note the double accent
  12. ↑ cf Greek: δό·μεν·αι
  13. ↑ cf Greek: ἴδ·μεν·αι

Glossary[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ path m.
  2. ↑ month m.
  3. ↑ settlement, -wich f.
  4. ↑ thought, f
  5. ↑ charioteer, m.f.
  6. ↑ goddess, f
  7. ↑ to be
  8. ↑ to send
  9. ↑ to see
  10. ↑ to enjoy
  11. ↑ to grab
  12. ↑ to speak
  13. ↑ to ask
  14. ↑ to see
  15. ↑ to fare
  16. ↑ to fear
  17. ↑ to strive
  18. ↑ to be resplendent
  19. ↑ to fight
  20. ↑ to grab
  21. ↑ to understand
  22. ↑ to refresh
  23. ↑ to drink
  24. ↑ to eat
  25. ↑ to go
  26. ↑ to make
  27. ↑ to go
  28. ↑ to drink
  29. ↑ to bear
  30. ↑ to speak
  31. ↑ to live
  32. ↑ to think
  33. ↑ to know
  34. ↑ to injure
  35. ↑ to ask
  36. ↑ to reach
  37. ↑ to shine
  38. ↑ to prolong
  39. ↑ to place upon
  40. ↑ to give
  41. ↑ to ask
  42. ↑ to present
  43. ↑ to eat
  44. ↑ to see
  45. ↑ being pierced
  46. ↑ to falling down
  47. ↑ binding
  48. ↑ leaping across
  49. ↑ going
  50. ↑ being born
  51. ↑ putting down
  52. ↑ shattered
  53. ↑ on beholding
  54. ↑ on seeing
  55. ↑ at the waking
  56. ↑ to support
  57. ↑ to lead
  58. ↑ to pass
  59. ↑ storm-gods
  60. ↑ the sea-god
  61. ↑ the fire-god
  62. ↑ the divine twins
  63. ↑ presses/extracts the soma juice

Traditional glossary and notes[edit | edit source]

Template:Notelist-lg

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Fortson, §10.20–10.28.
  2. ↑ Macdonnell, §1.2.
  3. ↑ Reich, p. 122.
  4. ↑ Fortson, §10.41.
  5. ↑ Whitney p. 100 ch. 8.
  6. ↑ Fortson, §10.20.
  7. ↑ Reich, ch. 6.
  8. ↑ Jamison & Brereton, pp.14ff.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Burrow, §2.1.
  10. ↑ Whitney, p. xi–xv.
  11. ↑ Coulson, p. xv–xvi.
  12. ↑ Macdonell, §122
  13. ↑ Whitney §779 §823 §926
  14. ↑ Bucknell, p. 11.
  15. ↑ Andrew L. Sihler, New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford University Press1995 p.244.
  16. ↑ Bucknell, p. 12-16.
  17. ↑ Whitney, §261–266.
  18. ↑ Burrow, §4.2
  19. ↑ Fortson, §6.43.
  20. ↑ Burrow, §4.3
  21. ↑ Fortson, §6.
  22. ↑ MacDonell, III.71, p. 33.
  23. ↑ Whitney, §164–179.
  24. ↑ Whitney, §383–399.
  25. ↑ Macdonnell (1910) §6.
  26. ↑ Beekes, §13.2.5.
  27. ↑ Macdonnell (1910), §375–376.
  28. ↑ Macdonnell, §100.
  29. ↑ Macdonnell, §185
  30. ↑ Coulson p xxi
  31. ↑ Whitney, §480.
  32. ↑ Bucknell, p. 34.
  33. ↑ Macdonnell, §121–122.
  34. ↑ Whitney §535 §574
  35. ↑ Burrow, p. 367
  36. ↑ Burrow, §7.3.
  37. ↑ Whitney, ch 8.
  38. ↑ Burrow, §7.8
  39. ↑ Whitney, §683
  40. ↑ Whitney, §588–590.
  41. ↑ Burrow, §7.5.
  42. ↑ Burrow, §7.5
  43. ↑ Macdonnell, §131.
  44. ↑ Macdonnell, §316
  45. ↑ Whitney Chapter 11.
  46. ↑ Whitney Chapter 12
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Burrow, §7.17.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 48.4 Macdonnell, §167.
  49. ↑ Whitney, p. 518.
  50. ↑ Brereton & Jamison, p. 1603.

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

  • Ernst Wilhelm Oskar Windisch, Berthold Delbrück, Die altindische Wortfolge aus dem Catagathabrahmana [1]
  • Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Vedic Grammar (1910)
  • Arthur Anthony MacDonell, A Vedic Grammar for Students. Bombay, Oxford University Press. (1916/1975)
  • Bruno Lindner, 'Altindische Nominalbildung: Nach den S̆amhitas dargestellt (1878) [2]
  • Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
  • Müller M., Sanskrit Grammatik, Leipzig (1868)
  • Renou L., Grammaire de la langue védique, Paris (1952)
  • William Dwight Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar. 5th edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (1924) [1st ed. 1879]
  • Coulson, Michael, Sanskrit (teach yourself), McGraw Hill (2003)
  • Fortson IV, Benjamin W – Indo-European Language and Culture – 2nd Ed – Wiley-Blackwell (2010) – ISBN 978-1-4051-8896-8
  • Burrow, T – The Sanskrit Language – ISBN 81-208-1767-2
  • Bucknell, Roderick S – Sanskrit Grammar – ISBN 81-208-1188-7
  • Reich, David – Who we are and how we got here – 1st End – (2019) – ISBN 978-1-101-87346-5
  • Jamison, Stephanie W., Brereton, Joel P., The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, 2020 ISBN 978-0-190-63336-3
  • Beekes, Robert (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. J. Benjamins Pub. ISBN 1-55619-504-4.

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