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{{Short description|Sultan of Bengal (r. 1415–1416) (1418–1433)}}
{{Short description|Seventh Sultan of Bengal (r. 1415–1416, 1418–1433)}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2017}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
{{Infobox royalty
|name=Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah
| name         = Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah
|title= [[Sultan]]
| title       = [[Sultan]]<br />Al Nāsir Amir Al Mu'minīn (Helper of the Commander of the Faithful)<br />Ghawth Al-Islām wal Muslimīn (Helper of Islam and Muslims)<ref>{{cite book|author=Abdul Karim|year=2014|title=Social History of the Muslims in Bengal|page=47|quote=Untill 1430 he issued coins with these two titles}}</ref>
|image= Silver Coin of Jalaluddin.jpg
| image       = Silver Coin of Jalaluddin.jpg
|caption= Arabic silver coin with a lion inscription minted during Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah's reign
| caption     = Arabic silver coin with a lion inscription minted during Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah's reign
|succession= [[Sultan of Bengal]]<br>[[Ganesha dynasty|(Ganesha)]]
| succession   = 7th [[Sultan of Bengal]]
|reign= 1415–1416
| reign       = 1415–1416
|reign1= 1418–1433
| reign1       = 1418–1433
|predecessor= [[Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah]]
| predecessor = [[Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah]]
|predecessor1= [[Raja Ganesha]]
| predecessor1 = [[Raja Ganesha]]
|successor= [[Raja Ganesha]] |successor1= [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]]
| successor   = [[Raja Ganesha]]
|full name = Jalaluddin Abul Muzaffar Muhammad Shah<ref>The Philological Secretary, ''Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 43'' (1874), p.294</ref>
| successor1   = [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]]
|spouses= Asmantara, daughter of [[Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jagadish Narayan |year=1985 |title=Hindu-Muslim relations in Bengal: medieval period |publisher=Idarah-i Adabiyat-i-Delli |page=52 |oclc=13980579}}</ref>
| full name   = Jalaluddin Abul Muzaffar Muhammad Shah<ref>The Philological Secretary, ''Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 43'' (1874), p.294</ref>
|issue= [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]]
| spouses     = Nabakishori Devi
|father= [[Raja Ganesha]]
| issue        = [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]]
|royal house= [[Ganesha dynasty]]
| birth_place  = [[Ghoraghat Upazila|Bhavaniganj]], [[Bengal Sultanate]]
|religion       =[[Islam]]
| death_date  = {{circa}} 1433
|}}
| death_place  = [[Pandua, Malda|Pandua]], [[Bengal Sultanate]]
'''Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah''' ({{lang-bn|জালালউদ্দীন মুহম্মদ শাহ}}; born as '''Yadu''' or '''Jadu'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goron |first1=Stan |last2=Goenka |first2=J.P. |year=2001 |title=The Coins of the Indian Sultanates |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=978-81-215-1010-3}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2020}}) was a 15th-century [[Sultan of Bengal]] and an important figure in medieval Bengali history. Born a Hindu to his aristocratic father [[Raja Ganesha]], the patriarch of the [[Ganesha dynasty]], he assumed the throne of Bengal after a coup which overthrew the [[Ilyas Shahi dynasty]]. He converted to Islam and ruled the [[Bengal Sultanate]] for 16 years. As a Muslim king, he brought [[Kingdom of Arakan|Arakan]] under Bengali [[suzerainty]] and consolidated the kingdom's domestic administrative centres. He pursued relations with the [[Timurid Empire]], [[Mamluk Egypt]] and [[Ming China]].<ref name="bpedia" /> Bengal grew in wealth and population during his reign. He also combined Bengali and Islamic architecture.
| father       = [[Raja Ganesha]]
| royal house = [[Ganesha dynasty]]
| religion     = [[Islam]]|
}}
'''Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah''' ({{langx|bn|জালালউদ্দীন মুহম্মদ শাহ}}; born as '''Jadu'''/'''যদু'''<ref name="Goron2001p187" />) was a 15th-century [[Sultan of Bengal]] and an important figure in medieval Bengali history. Born a Hindu to his aristocratic father [[Raja Ganesha]], the patriarch of the [[Ganesha dynasty]], he assumed the throne of Bengal after a coup which overthrew the [[Ilyas Shahi dynasty]]. He converted to Islam and ruled the [[Bengal Sultanate]] for 16 years. As a Muslim king, he pursued relations with the [[Timurid Empire]], [[Mamluk Egypt]] and [[Ming China]].<ref name="bpedia" /> He also brought [[Kingdom of Arakan|Arakan]] under Bengali [[suzerainty]] and consolidated the kingdom's domestic administrative centres. [[Bengal]] grew in wealth and population during his reign. He also combined Bengali and Islamic architecture.


==First phase (1415–1416)==
==First phase (1415–1416)==
According to Goron and Goenka, [[Raja Ganesha]] seized control over Bengal soon after the death of [[Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah|Sultan Bayazid]] (1412–1414). Facing an imminent threat of invasion at the behest of a powerful Muslim holy man named [[Qutb al Alam]], he appealed to the saint to call off his threat. The saint agreed on the condition that Raja Ganesha's son Jadu would convert to Islam and rule in his place. Raja Ganesha agreed and Jadu started ruling [[Bengal]] as ''Jalal al-Din'' in 1415 AD. [[Qutb al Alam|Nur Qutb]] died in 1416 AD and Raja Ganesha was emboldened to depose his son and accede to the throne himself as ''Danujamarddana Deva''. Jalaluddin was reconverted to Hinduism by the Golden Cow ritual. After the death of his father he once again converted to Islam and started ruling his second phase.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hanif |first=N. |year=2000 |title=Biographical encyclopedia of Sufis |publisher=Sarup & Sons |page=320 |oclc=786166571}}</ref>
According to Goron and Goenka, [[Raja Ganesha]] seized control over Bengal soon after the death of [[Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah|Sultan Bayazid]] (1412–1414). Facing an imminent threat of invasion at the behest of a powerful Muslim holy man named [[Nur Qutb Alam]], he appealed to the saint to call off his threat. The saint agreed on the condition that Raja Ganesha's son Jadu would convert to Islam and rule in his place. Raja Ganesha agreed and Jadu started ruling [[Bengal]] as ''Jalal al-Din'' in 1415 AD.<ref name="Goron2001p187">{{cite book |last1=Goron |first1=Stan |last2=Goenka |first2=J.P. |year=2001 |title=The Coins of the Indian Sultanates |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |page=187 |isbn=978-81-215-1010-3}}</ref> Nur Qutb Alam died in 1416 AD and Raja Ganesha was emboldened to depose his son and accede to the throne himself as ''Danujamarddana Deva''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goron |first1=Stan |last2=Goenka |first2=J.P. |year=2001 |title=The Coins of the Indian Sultanates |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |page=189 |isbn=978-81-215-1010-3}}</ref> Jalaluddin was reconverted to Hinduism by the [[Hiranyagarbha (donation)|Golden Cow ritual]]. After the death of his father he once again converted to Islam and started ruling his second phase.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hanif |first=N. |year=2000 |title=Biographical encyclopedia of Sufis |publisher=Sarup & Sons |page=320 |oclc=786166571}}</ref>


==Second phase (1418–1433)==
==Second phase (1418–1433)==
[[File:Eklakhi Mausoleum.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Eklakhi Mausoleum]] in [[Gauda (city)|Gaur, West Bengal]] which disputably houses a tomb of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and his wife and a son]]
[[File:Eklakhi Mausoleum.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Eklakhi Mausoleum]] in [[Pandua, Malda|Pandua]] which disputably houses a tomb of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and his wife and a son]]
Jalaluddin maintained a peaceful kingdom during his second phase. His authority stretched to eastern Bengal Moazzamabad (present-day [[Sunamganj]]) and south-eastern Bengal (present-day [[Chittagong]]). He also conquered Fathabad (present-day [[Faridpur, Bangladesh|Faridpur]]) and the southern Bengal. During his reign [[Pandua, Malda|Firuzabad Pandua]] became a populous and flourshing town. It is recorded in the ''[[Ming shi]]'' that a Chinese explorer, [[Cheng Ho]], visited the city twice in 1421–22 and 1431–33. He later transferred the capital from Pandua to [[Gaur]].<ref name=bpedia /> The city of Gaur began to be re-populated during his reign. Jalaluddin himself constructed a number of buildings and ''[[caravanserai|sarais]]'' there.<ref name=m3>Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (2006). ''The Delhi Sultanate'', Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp.209–11</ref>
After Raja Ganesha died Jalaluddin assembled the nobles and ministers and said, “I believe in the truth of the religion of Muhammad, and I shall not deviate from this (belief). If you accept me and do not turn against my royal authority, then only I shall sit on this august throne; if not you shall raise my younger brother to the throne and excuse me.”<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |title=History Of Bengal Vol. 2 |year=1943 |pages=123}}</ref>
 
Jalaluddin maintained a peaceful kingdom during his second phase. His authority stretched to eastern Bengal Moazzamabad (present-day [[Sunamganj]]) and south-eastern Bengal (present-day [[Chittagong]]). He also conquered Fathabad (present-day [[Faridpur, Bangladesh|Faridpur]]) and the southern Bengal. During his reign [[Pandua, Malda|Firuzabad Pandua]] became a populous and flourishing town. It is recorded in the ''[[Ming shi]]'' that a Chinese explorer, [[Cheng Ho]], visited the city twice in 1421–22 and 1431–33. He later transferred the capital from Pandua to [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauda]].<ref name="bpedia" /> The city of [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauda]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shahid |first=Shah Md. Ahsan |last2=Ali |first2=Nawshad |last3=Islam |first3=Sayed Sirajul |last4=Ahmed |first4=Mostaque |date=2013-05-01 |title=Single Incision Laparoscopic Assisted Appendectomy: Experience in Paediatric Patients |url=https://doi.org/10.11593/bje.2013.0102.0009 |journal=Bangladesh Journal of Endosurgery |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=15–19 |doi=10.11593/bje.2013.0102.0009 |issn=2306-4560|url-access=subscription }}</ref> began to be re-populated during his reign. Jalaluddin himself constructed a number of buildings and ''[[caravanserai|sarais]]'' there.<ref name="Majumdar1980p210">{{cite book |editor-last1=Majumdar |editor-first1=Ramesh Chandra |editor-link1=R. C. Majumdar |year=1980 |orig-year=First published 1960 |title=The Delhi Sultanate |url=https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate0006rcma/page/210/mode/1up |location=Bombay |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |series=The History and Culture of the Indian People |volume=VI |pages=210}}</ref>


===Relation with Hindus===
===Relation with Hindus===
Jalaluddin played a distinguished role in converting the Hindus of Bengal to Islam. [[James Wise (civil surgeon)|Dr. James Wise]] wrote in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1894) that "the only condition he offered was either the Koran or death. Many Hindus fled to Kamrup and the jungles of Assam, but it is nevertheless possible that more Mohammedans were added to Islam during these seventeen years (1414–31) than in the next three hundred years."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=K.S. |year=1990 |title=Indian Muslims: Who are They |publisher=Voice of India |page=57 |oclc=24232178}}</ref> He maintained good rapport with Non-Muslims in his kingdom. According to an interpretation of a Sanskrit [[Śloka|sloka]] by D. C. Bhattacharya, Jalaluddin appointed Rajyadhar, a [[Hindu]], as the commander of his army.<ref name=m3/> He gained support of [[Muslim]] scholars – ''Ulama'' and the ''Shaikhs''. He reconstructed and repaired the mosques and other religious architectures destroyed by Raja Ganesha.<ref name=bpedia />
Jalaluddin played a distinguished role in converting the Hindus of Bengal to Islam. [[James Wise (civil surgeon)|Dr. James Wise]] wrote in the ''Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal'' (1894) that "the only condition he offered was either the Koran or death. Many Hindus fled to Kamrup and the jungles of Assam, but it is nevertheless possible that more Muslims were added to Islam during these seventeen years (1414–31) than in the next three hundred years."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=K.S. |year=1990 |title=Indian Muslims: Who are They |publisher=Voice of India |page=57 |oclc=24232178}}</ref> He maintained a good rapport with non-Muslims in his kingdom. According to an interpretation of a Sanskrit [[Śloka|sloka]] by D. C. Bhattacharya, Jalaluddin appointed Rajyadhar, a [[Hindu]], as the commander of his army.<ref name="Majumdar1980p210" /> He gained support of Muslim scholars – ''Ulama'' and the ''[[Sheikh|Shaikhs]]''. He reconstructed and repaired the mosques and other religious architectures destroyed by Raja Ganesha.<ref name=bpedia />


The 17th century Persian historian, [[Firishta]] talked about his tolerance of Hindus and Buddhists,{{request quote|date=May 2021}} applauded him by saying:
The 17th century Persian historian, [[Firishta]] applauded him by saying:


{{quote|He upheld the principles of justice and equity and became the Naushirwan of the age.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 6|publisher=G. Allen & Umwin|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|year=1956|page=209}}</ref>}}
{{quote|He upheld the principles of justice and equity and became the [[Khosrow I|Naushirwan]] of the age.<ref name="Majumdar1980p210" />}}


His remark is corroborated by the evidence of the ''Smritiratnahara'' and the ''Padachandrika''. According to the ''Padachandrika'', a commentary on the [[Amarakosha]] in Sanskrit, Brihaspati Mishra, a [[Brahmin]] from Kulingram (present-day [[Bardhaman district]]), was promoted by Sultan Jalaluddin to the position of the ''Sarvabhaumapandita'' (Court Scholar). And Vishvasrai, son of Brihaspati Mishra, was also appointed a minister by the Sultan.<ref name=m3/> He patronized Sankritic culture by publicly showing appreciation for those scholars of classical Brahmanic scholarship. Many Brahmin poets were honored by Jalaluddin.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA60|author=Eaton, Richard|year=1993|title=The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204-1760. |publisher= University of California Press|pages= 60, 102|isbn= 978-0-520-08077-5}}.</ref>
According to the ''Padachandrika'', a commentary on the [[Amarakosha]] in Sanskrit, Brihaspati Mishra, a [[Brahmin]] from Kulingram (present-day [[Bardhaman district]]), was promoted by Sultan Jalaluddin to the position of the ''Sarvabhaumapandita'' (court scholar). And Vishvasrai, son of Brihaspati Mishra, was also appointed a minister by the Sultan.<ref name="Majumdar1980p210"/> He patronized Sankritic culture by publicly showing appreciation for those scholars of classical Brahmanic scholarship. Many Brahmin poets were honored by Jalaluddin.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA60 |author=Eaton, Richard |year=1993 |title=The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204–1760. |publisher=University of California Press |pages=60, 102 |isbn=978-0-520-08077-5}}.</ref>


According to a 19th-century chronicle written by [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]], Jalaluddin compelled many Hindus to convert to Islam, resulting in many Hindus fleeing to [[Kamrup region|Kamrup]].<ref name=hamilton>{{cite book |last=Buchanan (Hamilton) |first=Francis |date=1833 |title=A Geographical, Statistical and Historical Description of the District or Zila of Dinajpur in the Province or Soubah of Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIUIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA23 |location=Calcutta |publisher=Baptist Mission Press |pages=23–4}}</ref>
According to a 19th-century chronicle written by [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]], Jalaluddin compelled many Hindus to convert to Islam, resulting in many Hindus fleeing to [[Kamrup region|Kamrup]].<ref name=hamilton>{{cite book |last=Buchanan (Hamilton) |first=Francis |date=1833 |title=A Geographical, Statistical and Historical Description of the District or Zila of Dinajpur in the Province or Soubah of Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIUIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA23 |location=Calcutta |publisher=Baptist Mission Press |pages=23–4}}</ref>


===Relation with foreign rulers===
===Relation with foreign rulers===
He also maintained good diplomatic relations. He was in correspondence with the Timurid ruler [[Shahrukh Mirza|Shah Rukh]] of [[Herat]], [[Yongle Emperor|Yung Le]] of China and [[Barsbay|al-Ashraf Barsbay]], the [[Mamluk#Mamluk power in Egypt|Mamluk ruler of Egypt]].<ref name=bpedia /> [[Jaunpur Sultanate#Ibrahim Shah|Ibrahim Sharqi]] attacked his kingdom but censure from [[Yongle Emperor|Yung Le]] and [[Shahrukh Mirza|Shah Rukh]] caused him to withdraw.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ray|first=Haraprasad|title=Sino - Indian Commercial and Diplomatic Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fxtAAAAMAAJ|series=The Quarterly Review of Historical Studies|volume=37|year=1997|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies.|location=Calcutta|page=114}}</ref> Jalaluddin helped Meng Soamun Narmeikhla, King of [[Rakhine State|Arakan]], to recover his kingdom from [[Burma]]; in return he became the overlord of [[Rakhine State|Arakan]].<ref name="Rahim1952">{{cite journal|last=Rahim|first=Muhammad Abdur|title=Chittagong under the Pathan Rule in Bengal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1IOAAAAIAAJ|journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society|volume=18|issue=1|year=1952|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal|page=22|quote=The fact that a dethroned Arakanese king, named Meng-tsaumum, recovered his throne, in 1430 A. D., with the help of the Gaur king (Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah) and recognized his vassalage goes to show the hold of Gaur court on Chittagong about the time.}}</ref> He, at some point, also ruled over parts of [[Tripura]] and southern [[Bihar]].<ref name="ChakrabartiChakrabarti2013">{{cite book|last1=Chakrabarti|first1=Kunal|last2=Chakrabarti|first2=Shubhra|title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Plymouth, United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5|page=13}}</ref>
He also maintained good diplomatic relations. He was in correspondence with the Timurid ruler [[Shahrukh Mirza|Shah Rukh]] of [[Herat]], [[Yongle Emperor|Yung Le]] of China and [[Barsbay|al-Ashraf Barsbay]], the [[Mamluk#Egypt|Mamluk ruler of Egypt]].<ref name=bpedia /> [[Jaunpur Sultanate#Ibrahim Shah|Ibrahim Sharqi]] attacked his kingdom but censure from Yung Le and Shah Rukh caused him to withdraw.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ray |first=Haraprasad |title=Sino-Indian Commercial and Diplomatic Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fxtAAAAMAAJ |journal=The Quarterly Review of Historical Studies |volume=37 |year=1997 |publisher=Institute of Historical Studies |location=Calcutta |page=114}}</ref> Jalaluddin helped Meng Soamun Narmeikhla, King of [[Rakhine State|Arakan]], to recover his kingdom from [[Burma]]; in return he became the overlord of Arakan.<ref name="Rahim1952">{{cite journal|last=Rahim|first=Muhammad Abdur|title=Chittagong under the Pathan Rule in Bengal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1IOAAAAIAAJ|journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society|volume=18|issue=1|year=1952|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal|page=22|quote=The fact that a dethroned Arakanese king, named Meng-tsaumum, recovered his throne, in 1430 A. D., with the help of the Gaur king (Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah) and recognized his vassalage goes to show the hold of Gaur court on Chittagong about the time.}}</ref> He, at some point, also ruled over parts of [[Tripura]] and southern [[Bihar]].<ref name="ChakrabartiChakrabarti2013">{{cite book|last1=Chakrabarti|first1=Kunal|last2=Chakrabarti|first2=Shubhra|title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Plymouth, United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5|page=13}}</ref>


Jalaluddin tried to legitimise his rule by publicly displaying his credentials as a devout and correct Muslim. Contemporary Arab sources hold that upon his conversion to [[Islam]], Jalaluddin adopted the [[Hanafi]] legal tradition.
Jalaluddin tried to legitimise his rule by publicly displaying his credentials as a devout and correct Muslim. Contemporary Arab sources hold that upon his conversion to [[Islam]], Jalaluddin adopted the [[Hanafi]] legal tradition. He also rebuilt mosques destroyed by Raja Ganesha.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Rise_of_Islam_and_the_Bengal_Frontie.html?id=O6QwDwAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 |date=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20507-9 |pages=57 |language=en}}</ref>


Between 1428 and 1431, he also supported the construction of two Islamic institutions in [[Makkah]] and [[Madinah]], known as [[Banjaliyah Madrasah|Bangaliyah Madaris]]. The Sultan gained permission by establishing close ties with and presenting [[Barakat ibn Hasan]], the [[Sharif of Makkah]], with gifts and robes of honour. Jalaluddin also kept good relations with [[Barsbay]], the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk sultan]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Corpus of the Muslim Coins of Bengal: (down to A. D. 1538)|author=Abdul Karim|author-link=Abdul Karim (historian)|publisher=Asiatic Society of Pakistan|year=1960}}</ref> According to [[Al-Sakhawi]]'s ''Al-Daw al-lami` li ahli al-Qarni al-Tasi'', Barsbay once gifted the [[Bengali Muslims|Bengali sultan]] with investiture, a robe of honour and a letter of recognition.<ref>{{cite book|author=Al-Sakhawi|author-link=Al-Sakhawi|language=ar|title=Al-Daw al-lami' li ahli al-Qarni al-Tasi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Zafar ul wālih bi Muzaffar wa ālihi|language=ar|author= ʻAbdallāh Muḥammad Ibn-ʻUmar al-Makkī al-Āṣafī al-Ulughkhānī Hajjī ad-Dabir}}</ref> Jalaluddin had died before his own gifts could be dispatched to Barsbay and this job was left for his son, [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]], to be completed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Practising Diplomacy in the Mamluk Sultanate: Gifts and Material Culture in the Medieval Islamic World|last=Behrens-Abouseif|first=Doris|date=16 May 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|pages=9, 29, 46}}</ref>
Between 1428 and 1431, he also supported the construction of two Islamic institutions in [[Makkah]] and [[Madinah]], known as [[Banjaliyah Madrasah|Bangaliyah Madaris]]. The Sultan gained permission by establishing close ties with and presenting [[Barakat ibn Hasan]], the [[Sharif of Makkah]], with gifts and robes of honour. Jalaluddin also kept good relations with Barsbay, the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk sultan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Karim |first=Abdul |author-link=Abdul Karim (historian) |title=Corpus of the Muslim Coins of Bengal: (down to A. D. 1538) |year=1960 |publisher=Asiatic Society of Pakistan}}</ref> According to [[Al-Sakhawi]]'s ''Al-Daw al-lami` li ahli al-Qarni al-Tasi'', Barsbay once gifted the [[Bengali Muslims|Bengali sultan]] with investiture, a robe of honour and a letter of recognition.<ref>{{cite book|author=Al-Sakhawi|author-link=Al-Sakhawi|language=ar|title=Al-Daw al-lami' li ahli al-Qarni al-Tasi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Zafar ul wālih bi Muzaffar wa ālihi|language=ar|author= ʻAbdallāh Muḥammad Ibn-ʻUmar al-Makkī al-Āṣafī al-Ulughkhānī Hajjī ad-Dabir}}</ref> Jalaluddin had died before his own gifts could be dispatched to Barsbay and this job was left for his son, [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]], to be completed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Practising Diplomacy in the Mamluk Sultanate: Gifts and Material Culture in the Medieval Islamic World|last=Behrens-Abouseif|first=Doris|date=16 May 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|pages=9, 29, 46}}</ref>


In 1427, Jalaluddin described himself in an inscription as ''Al-sultan al-azam al-muazzamin khalifat Allah 'ali al-makunin Jalal al-Dunya w'al-Din'' (the most exalted of the great sultans, the caliph of Allah in the universe).
In 1427, Jalaluddin described himself in an inscription as ''Al-sultan al-azam al-muazzamin khalifat Allah 'ali al-makunin Jalal al-Dunya w'al-Din'' (the most exalted of the great sultans, the caliph of Allah in the universe).
===Vassalization of Arakan===
[[Min Saw Mon]], the king of Arakan had fled his kingdom because of an invasion from [[Pegu]] and had entered the service of Sultan Jalaluddin, and proved to be a good commander. According to the Arakanese Chronicles, there was a invasion from [[Delhi Sultanate]] and the sultan asked Saw Mon to take command of the army. His first strategy was to confiscate the enemy's dogs while setting up bait which are the spikes filled with meats, as the dogs ate the meats filled with spikes became lesser aggressive and halted further advance of the Delhi Sultanate's canine army. Saw Mon's sultanate army then launched a counterattack against the enemy positions, by setting up traps for the invaders as by luring then with silver coins scattered around the bamboo forests. The enemy soldiers shortly began picking up those coins, and sensing weakness, Mon attacked and routed the invaders. Bengal Sultanate thus successfully ward off the invasion thanks to military strategy of Saw Mon.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}
After this victory, Saw Mon convinced the sultan to help him regain the Arakanese throne. The sultan agreed. In February/March 1429 (Tabaung 790 ME),<ref name=sml-2-11>Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2: 11</ref> Saw Mon aided by troops "largely made up of [[Afghans|Afghan]] adventurers and Bengali muslims" invaded Arakan.<ref name=tmu-2006-73>Myint-U 2006: 73</ref> The first attempt at the invasion failed because Saw Mon got into an argument with commander Wali Khan of Bengal, and was imprisoned by the general. Saw Mon escaped, and the sultan agreed to another attempt. The second invasion went well, the Bengali and Afghan troops conquered the whole of Arakan. Saw Mon was proclaimed king at [[Launggyet dynasty|Launggyet]] on 18 April 1429 (Thursday, 1st waning of Kason 791 ME) and in gratitude Saw Mon rewarded many Bengali soldiers, many of which returned to Bengal with war prizes. (According to some Arakanese chronicles, such as ''[[Inzauk Razawin]]'', the second invasion took place in 1430, a year later).<ref name=sml-2-11/> Min Saw Mon was restored to the Launggyet throne, and [[Arakan]] became a [[vassal state]] of the Bengal Sultanate for at least a decade.


===Coins===
===Coins===
Several undated issues of his silver coins and a huge commemorative silver coin minted in Pandua in 1421, bear the stylised figure of a lion.<ref name=Eaton/> Another theory says that they were issued to celebrate the [[Treasure voyages|arrival of a Chinese ambassador]] and yet another theory says that they marked the withdrawal of [[Jaunpur Sultanate|Jaunpur]]'s threatening army.<ref>See the discussion in Goron and Goenka, ''op. cit.''</ref> Asides from him, the lion-motif coins were also issued by [[Mahmud Shah of Bengal|Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah I]] and [[Jalaluddin Fateh Shah]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 42|publisher=Numismatic Society of India|year=1980|page=44}}</ref> Such tyoe of coins were also issued by the [[Twipra Kingdom|kingdom of Tripura]] in 1464, thus precluding the possibility that Jalaluddin was following the kingdom's custom. Since the lion is seen as the vehicle of the [[Mother goddess|Goddess]] as [[Chandi]] in whose name the [[Sena dynasty]] rebelled from 1416 to 1418, it is possible he attempted to appeal to the deeply-rooted sentiments of Goddess-worship. In 1427, he had described himself in a description on a mosque as ''the most exalted of the great sultans, the caliph of Allah in the universe''.  Having tested this, in 1430 he took a bolder step by including "Caliph of Allah" (''Khalifat al-Allah'') as one of his titles on his coins.<ref name=Eaton>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA57|author=Eaton, Richard|year=1993|title=The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204-1760. |publisher= University of California Press|pages= 57–60|isbn= 978-0-520-08077-5}}.</ref> In 1431 AD he issued a new coin inscribing [[Shahada|Kalema-tut-shahadat]].<ref name=bpedia>{{cite book |last=Taher |first=MA |year=2012 |chapter=Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Jalaluddin_Muhammad_Shah |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> Thus he reintroduced on his coins the [[Shahada|Kalimah]], which had disappeared from Bengal Sultanate coins for several centuries.
Several undated issues of his silver coins and a huge commemorative silver coin minted in Pandua in 1421, bear the stylised figure of a lion.<ref name=Eaton/> One theory says that they were issued to celebrate the [[Treasure voyages|arrival of a Chinese ambassador]]. Another theory says that they marked the withdrawal of [[Jaunpur Sultanate|Jaunpur]]'s threatening army.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goron |first1=Stan |last2=Goenka |first2=J.P. |year=2001 |title=The Coins of the Indian Sultanates |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |pages=190–193 |isbn=978-81-215-1010-3}}</ref> Asides from him, the lion-motif coins were also issued by [[Mahmud Shah of Bengal|Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah I]] and [[Jalaluddin Fateh Shah]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 42 |publisher=Numismatic Society of India |year=1980 |page=44}}</ref> Such type of coins were also issued by the [[Twipra Kingdom|kingdom of Tripura]] in 1464, thus precluding the possibility that Jalaluddin was following the kingdom's custom. Since the lion is seen as the vehicle of the [[Mother goddess|Goddess]] as [[Chandi]] in whose name the [[Sena dynasty]] rebelled from 1416 to 1418, it is possible he attempted to appeal to the deeply-rooted sentiments of Goddess-worship. In 1427, he had described himself in a description on a mosque as ''the most exalted of the great sultans, the caliph of Allah in the universe''.  Having tested this, in 1430 he took a bolder step by including "Caliph of Allah" (''Khalifat al-Allah'') as one of his titles on his coins.<ref name=Eaton>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA57 |author=Eaton, Richard |year=1993 |title=The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204-1760. |publisher=University of California Press |pages=57–60 |isbn=978-0-520-08077-5}}.</ref> In 1431 AD he issued a new coin inscribing [[Shahada|Kalema-tut-shahadat]].<ref name=bpedia>{{cite book |last=Taher |first=MA |year=2012 |chapter=Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Jalaluddin_Muhammad_Shah |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> Thus he reintroduced on his coins the Kalimah, which had disappeared from Bengal Sultanate coins for several centuries.


==Death==
==Death==
He died in Rabi 2, 837 AH (1433 AD) and was disputably buried in the [[Eklakhi Mausoleum]] at Pandua.<ref name=bpedia /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.asikolkata.in/maldah.aspx |title=Adina Masjid |website=ASI, Kolkata Circle |access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
He died in Rabi 2, 837 AH (1433 AD) and was said to have been buried in the [[Eklakhi Mausoleum]] at Pandua, although this is disputed.<ref name=bpedia /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.asikolkata.in/maldah.aspx |title=Adina Masjid |website=ASI, Kolkata Circle |access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[List of rulers of Bengal]]
* [[List of rulers of Bengal]]
* [[History of Bangladesh]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of India]]
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{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Hanafis]]
[[Category:Hanafis]]
[[Category:History of West Bengal]]
[[Category:History of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Indian former Hindus]]
[[Category:Indian former Hindus]]
[[Category:Rulers of Bengal]]
[[Category:Sultans of Bengal]]
[[Category:Muslim missionaries]]
[[Category:Indian Muslim missionaries]]
[[Category:Converts to Islam from Hinduism]]
[[Category:Converts to Islam from Hinduism]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:1433 deaths]]
[[Category:1433 deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century rulers]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:15th-century Bengalis]]
[[Category:15th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslims]]
[[Category:People from Dinajpur District, Bangladesh]]
[[Category:People from Dinajpur District, Bangladesh]]

Latest revision as of 05:23, 8 March 2026


Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah
Sultan
Al Nāsir Amir Al Mu'minīn (Helper of the Commander of the Faithful)
Ghawth Al-Islām wal Muslimīn (Helper of Islam and Muslims)[1]
Arabic silver coin with a lion inscription minted during Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah's reign
7th Sultan of Bengal
Reign1415–1416
PredecessorShihabuddin Bayazid Shah
SuccessorRaja Ganesha
Reign1418–1433
PredecessorRaja Ganesha
SuccessorShamsuddin Ahmad Shah
BornBhavaniganj, Bengal Sultanate
Diedc. 1433
Pandua, Bengal Sultanate
SpousesNabakishori Devi
IssueShamsuddin Ahmad Shah
Names
Jalaluddin Abul Muzaffar Muhammad Shah[2]
HouseGanesha dynasty
FatherRaja Ganesha
ReligionIslam

Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.; born as Jadu/যদু[3]) was a 15th-century Sultan of Bengal and an important figure in medieval Bengali history. Born a Hindu to his aristocratic father Raja Ganesha, the patriarch of the Ganesha dynasty, he assumed the throne of Bengal after a coup which overthrew the Ilyas Shahi dynasty. He converted to Islam and ruled the Bengal Sultanate for 16 years. As a Muslim king, he pursued relations with the Timurid Empire, Mamluk Egypt and Ming China.[4] He also brought Arakan under Bengali suzerainty and consolidated the kingdom's domestic administrative centres. Bengal grew in wealth and population during his reign. He also combined Bengali and Islamic architecture.

First phase (1415–1416)[edit | edit source]

According to Goron and Goenka, Raja Ganesha seized control over Bengal soon after the death of Sultan Bayazid (1412–1414). Facing an imminent threat of invasion at the behest of a powerful Muslim holy man named Nur Qutb Alam, he appealed to the saint to call off his threat. The saint agreed on the condition that Raja Ganesha's son Jadu would convert to Islam and rule in his place. Raja Ganesha agreed and Jadu started ruling Bengal as Jalal al-Din in 1415 AD.[3] Nur Qutb Alam died in 1416 AD and Raja Ganesha was emboldened to depose his son and accede to the throne himself as Danujamarddana Deva.[5] Jalaluddin was reconverted to Hinduism by the Golden Cow ritual. After the death of his father he once again converted to Islam and started ruling his second phase.[6]

Second phase (1418–1433)[edit | edit source]

Eklakhi Mausoleum in Pandua which disputably houses a tomb of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and his wife and a son

After Raja Ganesha died Jalaluddin assembled the nobles and ministers and said, “I believe in the truth of the religion of Muhammad, and I shall not deviate from this (belief). If you accept me and do not turn against my royal authority, then only I shall sit on this august throne; if not you shall raise my younger brother to the throne and excuse me.”[7]

Jalaluddin maintained a peaceful kingdom during his second phase. His authority stretched to eastern Bengal Moazzamabad (present-day Sunamganj) and south-eastern Bengal (present-day Chittagong). He also conquered Fathabad (present-day Faridpur) and the southern Bengal. During his reign Firuzabad Pandua became a populous and flourishing town. It is recorded in the Ming shi that a Chinese explorer, Cheng Ho, visited the city twice in 1421–22 and 1431–33. He later transferred the capital from Pandua to Gauda.[4] The city of Gauda[8] began to be re-populated during his reign. Jalaluddin himself constructed a number of buildings and sarais there.[9]

Relation with Hindus[edit | edit source]

Jalaluddin played a distinguished role in converting the Hindus of Bengal to Islam. Dr. James Wise wrote in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1894) that "the only condition he offered was either the Koran or death. Many Hindus fled to Kamrup and the jungles of Assam, but it is nevertheless possible that more Muslims were added to Islam during these seventeen years (1414–31) than in the next three hundred years."[10] He maintained a good rapport with non-Muslims in his kingdom. According to an interpretation of a Sanskrit sloka by D. C. Bhattacharya, Jalaluddin appointed Rajyadhar, a Hindu, as the commander of his army.[9] He gained support of Muslim scholars – Ulama and the Shaikhs. He reconstructed and repaired the mosques and other religious architectures destroyed by Raja Ganesha.[4]

The 17th century Persian historian, Firishta applauded him by saying:

He upheld the principles of justice and equity and became the Naushirwan of the age.[9]

According to the Padachandrika, a commentary on the Amarakosha in Sanskrit, Brihaspati Mishra, a Brahmin from Kulingram (present-day Bardhaman district), was promoted by Sultan Jalaluddin to the position of the Sarvabhaumapandita (court scholar). And Vishvasrai, son of Brihaspati Mishra, was also appointed a minister by the Sultan.[9] He patronized Sankritic culture by publicly showing appreciation for those scholars of classical Brahmanic scholarship. Many Brahmin poets were honored by Jalaluddin.[11]

According to a 19th-century chronicle written by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, Jalaluddin compelled many Hindus to convert to Islam, resulting in many Hindus fleeing to Kamrup.[12]

Relation with foreign rulers[edit | edit source]

He also maintained good diplomatic relations. He was in correspondence with the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh of Herat, Yung Le of China and al-Ashraf Barsbay, the Mamluk ruler of Egypt.[4] Ibrahim Sharqi attacked his kingdom but censure from Yung Le and Shah Rukh caused him to withdraw.[13] Jalaluddin helped Meng Soamun Narmeikhla, King of Arakan, to recover his kingdom from Burma; in return he became the overlord of Arakan.[14] He, at some point, also ruled over parts of Tripura and southern Bihar.[15]

Jalaluddin tried to legitimise his rule by publicly displaying his credentials as a devout and correct Muslim. Contemporary Arab sources hold that upon his conversion to Islam, Jalaluddin adopted the Hanafi legal tradition. He also rebuilt mosques destroyed by Raja Ganesha.[16]

Between 1428 and 1431, he also supported the construction of two Islamic institutions in Makkah and Madinah, known as Bangaliyah Madaris. The Sultan gained permission by establishing close ties with and presenting Barakat ibn Hasan, the Sharif of Makkah, with gifts and robes of honour. Jalaluddin also kept good relations with Barsbay, the Mamluk sultan.[17] According to Al-Sakhawi's Al-Daw al-lami` li ahli al-Qarni al-Tasi, Barsbay once gifted the Bengali sultan with investiture, a robe of honour and a letter of recognition.[18][19] Jalaluddin had died before his own gifts could be dispatched to Barsbay and this job was left for his son, Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah, to be completed.[20]

In 1427, Jalaluddin described himself in an inscription as Al-sultan al-azam al-muazzamin khalifat Allah 'ali al-makunin Jalal al-Dunya w'al-Din (the most exalted of the great sultans, the caliph of Allah in the universe).

Vassalization of Arakan[edit | edit source]

Min Saw Mon, the king of Arakan had fled his kingdom because of an invasion from Pegu and had entered the service of Sultan Jalaluddin, and proved to be a good commander. According to the Arakanese Chronicles, there was a invasion from Delhi Sultanate and the sultan asked Saw Mon to take command of the army. His first strategy was to confiscate the enemy's dogs while setting up bait which are the spikes filled with meats, as the dogs ate the meats filled with spikes became lesser aggressive and halted further advance of the Delhi Sultanate's canine army. Saw Mon's sultanate army then launched a counterattack against the enemy positions, by setting up traps for the invaders as by luring then with silver coins scattered around the bamboo forests. The enemy soldiers shortly began picking up those coins, and sensing weakness, Mon attacked and routed the invaders. Bengal Sultanate thus successfully ward off the invasion thanks to military strategy of Saw Mon.[citation needed]

After this victory, Saw Mon convinced the sultan to help him regain the Arakanese throne. The sultan agreed. In February/March 1429 (Tabaung 790 ME),[21] Saw Mon aided by troops "largely made up of Afghan adventurers and Bengali muslims" invaded Arakan.[22] The first attempt at the invasion failed because Saw Mon got into an argument with commander Wali Khan of Bengal, and was imprisoned by the general. Saw Mon escaped, and the sultan agreed to another attempt. The second invasion went well, the Bengali and Afghan troops conquered the whole of Arakan. Saw Mon was proclaimed king at Launggyet on 18 April 1429 (Thursday, 1st waning of Kason 791 ME) and in gratitude Saw Mon rewarded many Bengali soldiers, many of which returned to Bengal with war prizes. (According to some Arakanese chronicles, such as Inzauk Razawin, the second invasion took place in 1430, a year later).[21] Min Saw Mon was restored to the Launggyet throne, and Arakan became a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate for at least a decade.

Coins[edit | edit source]

Several undated issues of his silver coins and a huge commemorative silver coin minted in Pandua in 1421, bear the stylised figure of a lion.[23] One theory says that they were issued to celebrate the arrival of a Chinese ambassador. Another theory says that they marked the withdrawal of Jaunpur's threatening army.[24] Asides from him, the lion-motif coins were also issued by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah I and Jalaluddin Fateh Shah.[25] Such type of coins were also issued by the kingdom of Tripura in 1464, thus precluding the possibility that Jalaluddin was following the kingdom's custom. Since the lion is seen as the vehicle of the Goddess as Chandi in whose name the Sena dynasty rebelled from 1416 to 1418, it is possible he attempted to appeal to the deeply-rooted sentiments of Goddess-worship. In 1427, he had described himself in a description on a mosque as the most exalted of the great sultans, the caliph of Allah in the universe. Having tested this, in 1430 he took a bolder step by including "Caliph of Allah" (Khalifat al-Allah) as one of his titles on his coins.[23] In 1431 AD he issued a new coin inscribing Kalema-tut-shahadat.[4] Thus he reintroduced on his coins the Kalimah, which had disappeared from Bengal Sultanate coins for several centuries.

Death[edit | edit source]

He died in Rabi 2, 837 AH (1433 AD) and was said to have been buried in the Eklakhi Mausoleum at Pandua, although this is disputed.[4][26]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Abdul Karim (2014). Social History of the Muslims in Bengal. p. 47. Untill 1430 he issued coins with these two titles
  2. ↑ The Philological Secretary, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 43 (1874), p.294
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Goron, Stan; Goenka, J.P. (2001). The Coins of the Indian Sultanates. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 187. ISBN 978-81-215-1010-3.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Taher, MA (2012). "Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
  5. ↑ Goron, Stan; Goenka, J.P. (2001). The Coins of the Indian Sultanates. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 189. ISBN 978-81-215-1010-3.
  6. ↑ Hanif, N. (2000). Biographical encyclopedia of Sufis. Sarup & Sons. p. 320. OCLC 786166571.
  7. ↑ Sarkar, Jadunath (1943). History Of Bengal Vol. 2. p. 123.
  8. ↑ Shahid, Shah Md. Ahsan; Ali, Nawshad; Islam, Sayed Sirajul; Ahmed, Mostaque (1 May 2013). "Single Incision Laparoscopic Assisted Appendectomy: Experience in Paediatric Patients". Bangladesh Journal of Endosurgery. 1 (2): 15–19. doi:10.11593/bje.2013.0102.0009. ISSN 2306-4560.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra, ed. (1980) [First published 1960]. The Delhi Sultanate. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. VI. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 210.
  10. ↑ Lal, K.S. (1990). Indian Muslims: Who are They. Voice of India. p. 57. OCLC 24232178.
  11. ↑ Eaton, Richard (1993). The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press. pp. 60, 102. ISBN 978-0-520-08077-5..
  12. ↑ Buchanan (Hamilton), Francis (1833). A Geographical, Statistical and Historical Description of the District or Zila of Dinajpur in the Province or Soubah of Bengal. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press. pp. 23–4.
  13. ↑ Ray, Haraprasad (1997). "Sino-Indian Commercial and Diplomatic Relations". The Quarterly Review of Historical Studies. 37. Calcutta: Institute of Historical Studies: 114.
  14. ↑ Rahim, Muhammad Abdur (1952). "Chittagong under the Pathan Rule in Bengal". Journal of the Asiatic Society. 18 (1). Asiatic Society of Bengal: 22. The fact that a dethroned Arakanese king, named Meng-tsaumum, recovered his throne, in 1430 A. D., with the help of the Gaur king (Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah) and recognized his vassalage goes to show the hold of Gaur court on Chittagong about the time.
  15. ↑ Chakrabarti, Kunal; Chakrabarti, Shubhra (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis. Plymouth, United Kingdom: Scarecrow Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8108-8024-5.
  16. ↑ Eaton, Richard M. (1993). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760. University of California Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-520-20507-9.
  17. ↑ Karim, Abdul (1960). Corpus of the Muslim Coins of Bengal: (down to A. D. 1538). Asiatic Society of Pakistan.
  18. ↑ Al-Sakhawi. Al-Daw al-lami' li ahli al-Qarni al-Tasi (in العربية).
  19. ↑ ʻAbdallāh Muḥammad Ibn-ʻUmar al-Makkī al-Āṣafī al-Ulughkhānī Hajjī ad-Dabir. Zafar ul wālih bi Muzaffar wa ālihi (in العربية).
  20. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (16 May 2014). Practising Diplomacy in the Mamluk Sultanate: Gifts and Material Culture in the Medieval Islamic World. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 9, 29, 46.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2: 11
  22. ↑ Myint-U 2006: 73
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Eaton, Richard (1993). The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204-1760. University of California Press. pp. 57–60. ISBN 978-0-520-08077-5..
  24. ↑ Goron, Stan; Goenka, J.P. (2001). The Coins of the Indian Sultanates. Munshiram Manoharlal. pp. 190–193. ISBN 978-81-215-1010-3.
  25. ↑ The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 42. Numismatic Society of India. 1980. p. 44.
  26. ↑ "Adina Masjid". ASI, Kolkata Circle. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah
House of Raja Ganesha
Preceded by
Bayazid Shah 		Ruler of Bengal
1415–1416 		Succeeded by
Raja Ganesha
Preceded by
Raja Ganesha 		Sultan of Bengal
1418–1433 		Succeeded by
Ahmad Shah
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