Shivaji: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Indian king and founder of the Maratha Empire (r. 1674–80)}}

 

 

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}

 

OTHER SOVEREIGN ARTICLES SIMPLY STATE NAME, SEE [[Richard III]], [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]] FOR PRECEDENT. DO NOT ADD THE TERM "Chatrapati" TO THIS INFOBOX, OR IT WILL JUST BE REMOVED. SEE THE OLD TALK PAGE DISCUSSIONS BEFORE POSTING, AND OUR GUIDELINES ON USING THE MOST COMMON NAME AND AVOIDING HONORIFIC TITLES

| title        = {{br entries|Shakakarta{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=222}}|[[Defender of the Faith#Other|Haindava Dharmoddharak]]<ref name="Chandra1982">{{cite book|author=Satish Chandra|title=Medieval India: Society, the Jagirdari Crisis, and the Village|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRM1AAAAIAAJ|year=1982|publisher=Macmillan|page=140|isbn=978-0-333-90396-4}}</ref>}}

| royal house  = [[House of Bhonsle|Bhonsle]]

| succession  = [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|33x30px]] 1st [[Chhatrapati]] of the [[Maratha Empire]]

| reign        = 1674–1680

}}

| birth_date  = 19 February 1630

| birth_place  = [[Shivneri Fort]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]] (present-day [[Maharashtra]], India)

| death_date  = 3 April 1680 (aged 50)

| death_place  = [[Raigad Fort]], [[Mahad]], [[Maratha Empire]] (present-day [[Maharashtra]], India)

}}

| reg-type1    = Peshwa

| regent1      = [[Moropant Trimbak Pingle]]

'''Shivaji I''' (''Shivaji Shahaji Bhosale''; {{IPA-mr|ʃiʋaːd͡ʒiˑ bʱoˑs(ə)leˑ}}; {{circa|}}19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680<ref>Dates are given according to the [[Julian calendar]], see [http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf Mohan Apte, Porag Mahajani, M. N. Vahia. Possible errors in historical dates: Error in correction from Julian to Gregorian Calendars].</ref>), also referred to as '''Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj''', was an Indian ruler and a member of the [[Bhonsle]] [[Maratha clan]].{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} Shivaji carved out his own independent kingdom from the declining [[Adilshahi sultanate]] of [[Bijapur]] which formed the genesis of the [[Maratha Empire]]. In 1674, he was formally crowned the ''[[Chhatrapati]]'' of his realm at [[Raigad Fort]].<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Govind Ranade|first=Mahadev|title=Rise of the Maratha Power|publisher=[[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting]]|year=1900|location=India}}</ref>

Over the course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the [[Mughal Empire]], the [[Sultanate of Golkonda]], [[Sultanate of Bijapur]] and the [[Colonial India|European colonial powers]]. Shivaji used the difficult terrain of Western Ghats to his advantage. He captured and built new Hill Forts in Sahyadri Mountain range which proved very difficult for invading forces to capture, particularly Mughal armies. Shivaji perfected and used Guerilla Warfare to great success against much larger armies of Mughals and Deccan Sultanates. Shivaji built a formidable Navy which kept English Navy in check. Shivaji's exploits and potential of Maratha nation threatened Mughals so much that Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb|Aurangzib]] started a campaign to conquer Marathas shortly after Shivaji's Death <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pearson |first=M. N. |date=1976 |title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053980 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=221–235 |doi=10.2307/2053980 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>. This campaign, better known as [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]], was a strategic defeat for Mughals. Aurangzeb failed to crush Marathas, and this campaign had a ruinous effect on Mughal Treasury and Army <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osborne |first=Eric |date=24 Jun 2020 |title=The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680-1707 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711?journalCode=fswi20 |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies}}</ref>. Shortly after Aurangzeb's death, Marathas marched northwards, and soon confined Mughals to city of Delhi <ref>{{Cite book |last=Capper |first=John |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Delhi, the Capital of India |date=1997 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1282-2 |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref>.  

Shivaji established a competent and progressive civil rule with well-structured administrative organisations. He revived ancient Hindu political traditions, court conventions and promoted the usage of the [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Sanskrit]] languages, replacing [[Persian language|Persian]] in court and administration.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /> Praised for his chivalrous treatment of Women by his enemies, Shivaji employed people of all castes in his administration and army.  

Shivaji's legacy has varied by observer and time. Contemporary English, French, Dutch, Portugese, and Italian writers praised his exploits and stratagems. Mughal depictions of Shivaji were mostly negative, although most authors praised his chivalrous treatment of women. At the beginning of the [[Indian independence movement]], Indian nationalists elevated him as a proto-nationalist and hero of the [[Hindus]].{{sfn|Wolpert|1962|p=79-81}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Biswas |editor-first1=Debajyoti |editor-last2=Ryan |editor-first2=John Charles |last=Chakraborty |first=Ayusman |title=Nationalism in India: Texts and Contexts |date=14 September 2021 |chapter=The founder of Hindu nationalism? The representation of Shivaji in Philip Meadows Taylor's novel ''Tara'' |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-045282-2 |pages=32 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RC5AEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT32 |language=en}}</ref> [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak|Bal Gangadhra Tilak]] painted him as a "opponent of the oppressor". For [[Jyotirao Phule]], he was a hero of Shudras.  

{{See also|Bhonsle#origin}}[[File:Shahaji and Shivaji at Jejuri.jpg|thumb|Young Shivaji (right) meets his father [[Shahaji]] (left).|left]]

Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of [[Shivneri]], near the city of [[Junnar]], which is now in [[Pune district]]. Scholars disagree on his date of birth. The [[Government of Maharashtra]] lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth ([[Shiv Jayanti|Shivaji Jayanti]]).{{efn|Based on multiple committees of historians and experts, the Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate. This [[Julian calendar]] date  of that period (1 March 1630 of today's [[Gregorian calendar]]) corresponds<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Mohan |last1=Apte |first2=Parag |last2=Mahajani |first3=M. N. |last3=Vahia|title=Possible errors in historical dates|journal=Current Science|volume=84|issue=1|pages=21|date =January 2003|url=http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf}}</ref> to the [[Hindu calendar]] birth date from contemporary records.<ref>{{cite book|first=A. R. |last=Kulkarni|title=Jedhe Shakavali Kareena|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003539370|date=2007|publisher=Diamond Publications|isbn=978-81-89959-35-7|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kavindra Parmanand Nevaskar|title=Shri Shivbharat|url=https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat|date=1927|publisher=Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat/page/n140 51]}}</ref><ref name="ApteParanjpe1927">{{cite book|author=D.V Apte and M.R. Paranjpe|title=Birth-Date of Shivaji|url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/32857|date=1927|publisher=The Maharashtra Publishing House|pages=6–17}}</ref> Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or dates near this day.<ref name="Sib_Pada">{{cite book|title=Historians and historiography in modern India|author=Siba Pada Sen|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies|year=1973|isbn=978-81-208-0900-0|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = History of India | author = N. Jayapalan| publisher = Atlantic Publishers & Distri| year = 2001 | isbn = 978-81-7156-928-1| page = 211}}</ref>}}<ref name="sen2">{{cite book |author=Sailendra Sen|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=196–199}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Holidays|url=https://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/HolidayList-2016.pdf|website=maharashtra.gov.in|access-date=19 May 2018}}</ref> Shivaji was named after a local deity, the goddess Shivai Devi.<s><!--</s> <s> "Shivai Devi" not Shiva --></s>{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=19}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laine |first1=James W. |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |date=13 February 2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972643-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__pQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji's father [[Shahaji Bhonsle]] was a [[Maratha]] general who served the [[Deccan Sultanates]].<ref name="Eaton2005">{{cite book|author=Richard M. Eaton|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC&pg=PA128|volume=1|date=17 November 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-25484-7|pages=128–221}}</ref> His mother was [[Jijabai]] the daughter of [[Lakhuji Jadhavrao]] of [[Sindhkhed]], a Mughal-aligned [[sardar]] claiming descent from the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Seuna]] royal family of [[Devagiri]].<ref name="Metha2004">{{cite book|author=Arun Metha|title=History of medieval India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0IwAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=ABD Publishers|page=278|isbn=978-81-85771-95-3}}</ref><ref name="Menon2011">{{cite book|author=Kalyani Devaki Menon|title=Everyday Nationalism: Women of the Hindu Right in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TLRCtw-zvoC&pg=PA44|date=6 July 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0279-3|pages=44–}}</ref>

Shivaji belonged to a [[Maratha]] family of the [[Bhonsle]] clan.<ref name="Kulkarni1963">{{cite book|author=V. B. Kulkarni|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nU8_AAAAMAAJ|title=Shivaji: The Portrait of a Patriot|publisher=Orient Longman|year=1963}}</ref> His paternal grandfather [[Maloji Bhosale|Maloji]] (1552–1597) was an influential general of [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]], and was awarded the epithet of "Raja". He was given ''[[deshmukh]]i'' rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan and Indapur for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's residence ({{circa|1590}}).<ref>Marathi book Shivkaal (Times of Shivaji) by Dr V G Khobrekar, Publisher: Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture, First edition 2006. Chapter 1</ref><ref name="Salma314">{{cite book|author=Salma Ahmed Farooqui|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&pg=PA314|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century|publisher=Dorling Kindersley India|year=2011|isbn=978-81-317-3202-1|pages=314–}}</ref>

At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmednagar]], and [[Golkonda Sultanate|Golkonda]]. Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the [[Nizam Shahi dynasty|Nizamshahi]] of Ahmadnagar, the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adilshah]] of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his ''[[jagir]]'' (fiefdom) at [[Pune]] and his small army.<ref name="Eaton2005" />

In 1636, the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahi sultanate]] of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the [[Mughal empire]].{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}}{{Sfn|Subrahmanyam|2002|p=33–35}} It was being helped by Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the [[Maharashtra|Maratha uplands]] of western India. Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of ''[[jagir]]'' land in the conquered territories, the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}}

Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government, were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA59|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref>

In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained [[Pune|Poona]] as a grant. Shahaji, being deployed in [[Bangalore]] by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed [[Dadoji Kondadeo]] as Poona's administrator. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |title=Shivaji and his times |publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited |year=1952 |isbn=9788125040262 |edition=5th |location=Hyderabad |pages=19}}</ref> Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over its administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA61|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref>

== Conflict with Bijapur sultanate ==

In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji took the [[Torna Fort]], taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the ailment of [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah]],

and seized the large treasure he found there.<ref name="auto3">{{cite book|last=Mahajan|first=V. D.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986|title=India since 1526|date=2000|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=81-219-1145-1|edition=17th ed., rev. & enl|location=New Delhi|pages=198|oclc=956763986}}</ref>{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=61}} In the following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including [[Purandar Fort|Purandar]], [[Kondhana]] and [[Chakan Fort|Chakan]]. He also brought areas east of Pune around [[Supa, Parner|Supa]], [[Baramati]], and [[Indapur]] under his direct control. He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort named [[Rajgad Fort|Rajgad]].That fort served as the seat of his government for over a decade.<ref name="auto3" /> After this, Shivaji turned west to the [[Konkan]] and took possession of the important town of [[Kalyan]]. Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action. On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called, Baji Ghorpade under the orders of Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.<ref>Kulkarni, A.R., 1990. Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 49, pp.221–226.</ref>

Shahaji was released in 1649 after the capture of [[Gingee Fort|Jinji]] secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka. During the period of 1649–1655 Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=41–42}} Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed [[Morè (clan)|

Chandrarao More]], a fellow Maratha feudatory of Bijapur, and seized the valley of [[Jawali, Maharashtra|

Javali]], near the present-day hill station of [[Mahabaleshwar]], from him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP198|title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765|date=25 July 2019|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-0-14-196655-7|pages=198|language=en}}</ref> The conquest of Javali allowed Shivaji to extend his raids into South and South-west Maharashtra. In addition to the Bhonsle and the More families, many others including [[Sawant]] of [[Sawantwadi State|Sawantwadi]], Ghorpade of [[Mudhol State|Mudhol]], [[Nimbalkar]] of [[Phaltan]], Shirke, Mane and [[Mohite]] also served Adilshahi of Bijapur, many with [[Deshmukh]]i rights. Shivaji adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families such as forming marital alliances, dealing directly with village Patils to bypass the Deshmukhs, or subduing them by force.<ref name="Gordon2007">{{cite book|author=Stewart Gordon|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PR9|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|page=85}}</ref>

Shahaji in his later years had an ambivalent attitude to his son, and  disavowed his rebellious activities.<ref>Gordon, S. (1993). The Marathas 1600–1818 (The New Cambridge History of India). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521268837 page=69 [https://www-cambridge-org.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/77CF65447181F279BA73A6A5D6B1E048/9781139055666c3_p59-90_CBO.pdf/shivaji_163080_and_the_maratha_polity.pdf]</ref> He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji. Shahaji died around 1664–1665 in a hunting accident.

The Bijapur sultanate was displeased at their losses to Shivaji's forces, which their vassal Shahaji disavowed. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of the young [[Ali Adil Shah II]] as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=66}} In 1657 the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]], a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the [[Tulja Bhavani Temple]], holy to Shivaji's family, and the [[Vithoba Temple|Vithoba temple]] at [[Pandharpur]], a major pilgrimage site for the Hindus.<ref name="Richards1995">{{cite book |author=John F. Richards |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA208 |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=208–}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton, The Sufis of Bijapur|2015|pp=183–184}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Kaushik|title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present|date=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-57684-0|page=202|language=en}}</ref>

Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to [[Pratapgad]] fort, where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender.<ref name="Eraly2000">{{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |title=Last Spring: The Lives and Times of Great Mughals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyVW0STaGBcC&pg=PT550 |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-128-6 |page=550}}</ref> The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private, outside the fort, for negotiations.<ref name="Roy2012">{{cite book |author=Kaushik Roy |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1IgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |date=15 October 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-57684-0 |pages=202–}}</ref>{{sfn|Gier, The Origins of Religious Violence|2014|p=17}}

The two met in a hut at the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=70}}{{efn|A decade earlier, Afzal Khan, in a parallel situation, had arrested a Hindu general during a truce ceremony.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA67 |language=en}}</ref>}} wore armour beneath his clothes, concealed a ''[[bagh nakh]]'' (metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=22}} The precise transpirings are not recoverable to historical certainty and remains enmeshed with legends in Maratha sources; however, they agree upon the fact that the protagonists landed themselves in a physical struggle which would prove fatal for Khan.{{efn|Jadunath Sarkar after weighing all recorded evidence in this behalf, has settled the point "that Afzal Khan struck the first blow" and that "Shivaji committed.... a preventive murder. It was a case of a diamond cut diamond." The conflict between Shivaji and Bijapur was essentially political in nature, and not communal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Prof A. R. |title=The Marathas |date=1 July 2008 |publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-073-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N45LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |language=en}}</ref>}} Khan's dagger failed to pierce Shivaji's armour, but Shivaji had him disemboweled; he then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to attack the Bijapuri army.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960}}

In the ensuing [[Battle of Pratapgarh]] fought on 10 November 1659, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the [[Bijapur Sultanate]]'s forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}} After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}}

Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him, Shivaji's army marched towards the [[Konkan]] and [[Kolhapur]], seizing [[Panhala fort]], and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them under [[Rustam Zaman]] and Fazl Khan in 1659.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=78}} In 1660, Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack from the north. At that time, Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged [[Panhala Fort|Panhala]] in mid-1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddi Jauhar purchased grenades from the English at [[Rajapur, Maharashtra|Rajapur]] to increase his efficacy, and also hired some English artillerymen to assist in his bombardment of the fort, conspicuously flying a flag used by the English. This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in December would retaliate by plundering the English factory at Rajapur and capturing four of the factors, imprisoning them until mid-1663.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=266}}

After months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22 September 1660, withdrawing to Vishalgad;<ref name="Ali1996">{{cite book|first=Shanti Sadiq |last=Ali|title=The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3CPc22nMqIC&pg=PA124|year=1996|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-0485-1|page=124}}</ref> Shivaji retook Panhala in 1673.{{Sfn|Farooqui, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India|2011|p=283}}

{{Main|Battle of Pavan Khind}} Shivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry, his Maratha sardar [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande]] of Bandal [[Deshmukh]], along with 300 soldiers, volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind ("horse ravine") to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the [[Vishalgad]] fort.{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=}}

In the ensuing [[Battle of Pavan Khind]], the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad,<ref name="Kulkarni1963" /> signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort, on the evening of 13 July 1660.<ref name="KulkarniIndia1992">{{cite book|author=Shripad Dattatraya Kulkarni|title=The Struggle for Hindu supremacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_m1AAAAIAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Shri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa Samshodhana Mandira (Bhishma)|isbn=978-81-900113-5-8|page=90}}</ref>  ''Ghod Khind'' (''khind'' meaning "a narrow mountain pass") was later renamed ''Paavan Khind'' ("sacred pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, and all other soldiers who fought in there.<ref name="KulkarniIndia1992" />

 

Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to [[Aurangzeb]], the son of the Mughal Emperor and [[viceroy]] of the Deccan, in conquering Bijapur in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=55–56}} Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near [[Ahmednagar]].<ref>{{cite book |author=S.R. Sharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wC27JDyApwC|title=Mughal empire in India: a systematic study including source material, Volume 2|year=1999 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|page=59 |isbn=978-81-7156-818-5 }}</ref> This was followed by raids in [[Junnar]], with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 ''[[hun (coin)|hun]]'' in cash and 200 horses.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=57}} Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battle of succession with his brothers for the Mughal throne following the illness of the emperor [[Shah Jahan]].{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=60}}

On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA71 |language=en}}</ref> He, along with his 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahmud |first1=Sayyid Fayyaz |last2=Mahmud |first2=S. F. |title=A Concise History of Indo-Pakistan |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577385-9 |pages=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xtuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son, several of his wives, servants and soldiers were killed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=209 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA209 |language=en}}</ref> The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Mehta|2009|p=543}}

In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji [[Battle of Surat|sacked the port city of Surat]], a wealthy Mughal trading centre.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=491}} On 13  

February 1665, he also conducted a [[Raid (military)|naval raid]] on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] held [[Basrur]] in present day Karnataka, and gained a large booty.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Shejwalkar|first1= T.S.| year= 1942| title= Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute| url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42929309 |jstor= 42929309|publisher= Vice Chancellor, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (Deemed University), Pune |volume=4 |pages= 135–146| access-date= 30 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=15 February 2021|title=Mega event to mark Karnataka port town Basrur's liberation from Portuguese by Shivaji|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2021/feb/15/mega-event-to-mark-karnataka-port-town-basrurs-liberation-from-portuguese-by-shivaji-2264393.html|newspaper=New Indian Express}}</ref>

In the [[Treaty of Purandar (1665)|Treaty of Purandar]], signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold [[Pagoda (coin)|hun]] to the Mughals.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=258}} Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji, along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan as a ''[[mansabdar]]''.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=77}}{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=74}}

Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA76 |language=en}}</ref>

Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son and surrendered himself to Mughal forces.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Sarkar |first1=Jadunath |title=A History of Jaipur: C. 1503–1938 |date=1994 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-0333-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC&pg=PA132 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Jl |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-1015-3 |pages=547 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TsMl0vSc0gC&pg=PA547 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Nonica |title=Indian History: Ancient and medieval |date=2003 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica (India) and Popular Prakashan, Mumbai |isbn=978-81-7991-067-2 |pages=263 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQxuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Patel |first1=Sachi K. |title=Politics and Religion in Eighteenth-Century India: Jaisingh II and the Rise of Public Theology in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism |date=1 October 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-045142-9 |pages=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCM_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT40 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sabharwal |first1=Gopa |title=The Indian Millennium, AD 1000–2000 |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-029521-4 |pages=235 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sghuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahajan |first1=V. D. |title=History of Medieval India |date=2007 |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=978-81-219-0364-6 |pages=190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&pg=RA2-PA190 |language=en}}</ref> On 17 August 1666, by putting himself in one of the large baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji escaped and left Agra.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Prof A. R. |title=The Marathas |date=1 July 2008 |publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-073-6 |pages=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N45LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Rajmohan |title=Revenge and Reconciliation: Understanding South Asian History |date=14 October 2000 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-81-8475-318-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAASBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT163 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=SarDesai |first1=D. R. |title=India: The Definitive History |date=4 May 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-97950-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6HsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT202 |language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|As per Stewart Gordon, there is no proof for this, and Shivaji probably bribed the guards. But other Maratha Historians including A. R. Kulkarni and G. B. Mehendale disagree with Gordon. Jadunath Sarkar probed more deeply into this and put forth a large volume of evidence from Rajasthani letters and Persian Akhbars. With the help of this new material, Sarkar presented a graphic account of Shivajï's visit to Aurangzeb at Agra and his escape. Kulkarni agrees with Sarkar.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=A. R. |title=Marathas And The Maratha Country: Vol. I: Medieval Maharashtra: Vol. Ii: Medieval Maratha Country: Vol. Iii: The Marathas (1600–1648) (3 Vols.) |date=1996 |publisher=Books & Books |isbn=978-81-85016-51-1 |pages=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZNBPgAACAAJ |language=en}}</ref>}}

After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh acting as an intermediary between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=98}} During the period between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji. Sambhaji was also restored as a [[Mansabdar|Mughal mansabdar]] with 5,000 horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji with general [[Prataprao Gujar]] to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, [[Bahadur Shah I|Prince Mu'azzam]]. Sambhaji was also granted territory in [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]] for revenue collection.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=185}} [[Aurangzeb]] also permitted Shivaji to attack the decaying [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahi]]; the weakened Sultan [[Ali Adil Shah II]] sued for peace and granted the rights of ''[[sardeshmukhi]]'' and ''[[chauth]]ai'' to Shivaji.{{Sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=231}}

Shivaji sacked Surat for a second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from [[Mawara-un-Nahr]] who was returning from [[Mecca]]. Angered by the renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat, but were defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day [[Nashik]].{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=189}}

In 1674, [[Prataprao Gujar]], the commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces, was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|pp=230–233}}

Shivaji sent a displeased letter to Prataprao, refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by his commander's rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind. Prataprao was killed in combat; Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his second son, [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]], to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by [[Hambirrao Mohite]], as the new ''sarnaubat'' (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces). [[Raigad Fort]] was newly built by [[Hiroji Indulkar]] as a capital of the nascent Maratha kingdom.<ref name="Malavika_1999">{{cite journal | author= Malavika Vartak| title =Shivaji Maharaj: Growth of a Symbol | journal =Economic and Political Weekly| volume =34 | issue =19 | pages =1126–1134 | date =May 1999| jstor =4407933 }}</ref>

[[File:Deccan, ritratto di chhatrapati shivaji maharaj, bijapur 1675 ca.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Shivaji I c.1675]]

Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title, he was still technically a Mughal [[zamindar]] or the son of a Bijapuri [[jagirdar]], with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders, to whom he was technically equal.{{efn|Most of the great Maratha Jahagirdar families in the service of Adilshahi strongly opposed Shivaji in his early years. These included families such as the Ghadge, More, Mohite, Ghorpade, Shirke, and Nimbalkar.{{Sfn|Daniel Jasper|2003|p=215}}}} it would also provide the [[Marathi people|Hindu Marathas]] with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=239–240}}

The preparation for the proposed coronation began in 1673. However, some controversial problems delayed the coronation by almost a year.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/489626023|title=The New Cambridge history of India. II, The Indian States and the transition to colonialism. 4, The Marathas, 1600–1818|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge university press|isbn=978-0-521-26883-7|location=Cambridge|pages=87|oclc=489626023}}</ref> Controversy erupted amongst the Brahmins of Shivaji's court: they refused to crown Shivaji as a king because that status was reserved for those of the [[kshatriya]] (warrior) [[varna (Hinduism)|varna]] in Hindu society.<ref name="Gandhi1999">{{cite book|author=Rajmohan Gandhi|title=Revenge and Reconciliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVqP54UEe4QC&pg=PA110|year=1999|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-029045-5|pages=110–|quote=On the ground that Shivaji was merely a Maratha and not a kshatriya by caste, Maharashtra's Brahmins had refused to conduct a sacred coronation. }}</ref> Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of farming villages, and the Brahmins accordingly categorised him as being of the [[shudra]] (cultivator) varna.{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=88}}<ref name="BaviskarAttwood2013">{{cite book|author1=B. S. Baviskar|author2=D. W. Attwood|title=Inside-Outside: Two Views of Social Change in Rural India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVQtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA395|date=30 October 2013|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-81-321-1865-7|pages=395–}}</ref> They noted that Shivaji had never had a [[sacred thread]] ceremony, and did not wear the thread, which a kshatriya would.{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=88}} Shivaji summoned [[Gaga Bhatt]], a [[pandit]] of Varanasi, who stated that he had found a genealogy proving that Shivaji was descended from the [[Sisodia]]s, and thus indeed a kshatriya, albeit one in need of the ceremonies befitting his rank.{{Sfn|Cashman, The Myth of the Lokamanya|1975|p=[https://archive.org/details/mythoflokamanya00rich/page/7 7]}} To enforce this status, Shivaji was given a sacred thread ceremony, and remarried his spouses under the Vedic rites expected of a kshatriya.{{sfn|Farooqui, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India|2011|p=321}}<ref name="Godsmark2018">{{cite book|author=Oliver Godsmark|title=Citizenship, Community and Democracy in India: From Bombay to Maharashtra, c. 1930–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCpKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT40|date=29 January 2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-18821-0|pages=40–}}</ref> However, following historical evidence, Shivaji's claim to Rajput, and specifically Sisodia ancestry may be interpreted as being anything from tenuous at best, to inventive in a more extreme reading.<ref name="Varma & Saberwal">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8EoAAAAYAAJ|title=Traditions in Motion: Religion and Society in History|last1=Varma|first1=Supriya|last2=Saberwal|first2=Satish|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-566915-2|page=250|language=en}}</ref>

On 28 May, Shivaji performed penance for not observing Kshatriya rites by his ancestors' and himself for so long. Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=244}} On insistence of other Brahmins, Gaga Bhatt dropped the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji in a modified form of the life of the twice-born, instead of putting him on a par with the Brahmins. Next day, Shivaji made atonement for the sins, deliberate or accidental, committed in his own lifetime.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=245}} He was weighed separately against seven metals including gold, silver and several other articles like fine linen, camphor, salt, sugar etc. All these metals and articles along with a lakh of hun were distributed among the Brahmins. But even this failed to satisfy the greed of the Brahmins. Two of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji, while conducting his raids, had burnt cities involving the death of Brahmins, cows, women and children and he could be cleansed of this sin for a price of Rs. 8,000, and Shivaji paid this amount.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=245}} Total expenditure made for feeding the assemblage, general alms giving, throne and ornaments approached 1.5 million Rupees.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=252}}

Shivaji was crowned king of the [[Maratha Empire]] (''Hindawi Swaraj'') in a lavish ceremony on 6 June 1674 at Raigad fort.<ref name="Pillai2018">{{cite book|author=Manu S Pillai|title=Rebel Sultans: The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rq5oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9|year=2018|publisher=Juggernaut Books|isbn=978-93-86228-73-4|page=xvi}}</ref><ref name="Barua2005">{{cite book |first=Pradeep |last=Barua | title=The State at War in South Asia | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&pg=PA42 | year= 2005 | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | isbn=978-0-8032-1344-9 | page=42 }}</ref> In the [[Hindu calendar]] it was on the 13th day (''trayodashi'') of the first fortnight of the month of ''[[Jyeshtha]]'' in the year 1596.<ref name="RauArchives1980">{{cite book|author=Mallavarapu Venkata Siva Prasada Rau (Andhra Pradesh Archives)|title=Archival organization and records management in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXtmAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Published under the authority of the Govt. of Andhra Pradesh by the Director of State Archives (Andhra Pradesh State Archives)|page=393}}</ref> Gaga Bhatt officiated, pouring water from a gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers [[Yamuna]], [[Indus]], [[Ganges]], [[Godavari]], [[Narmada]], [[Krishna river|Krishna]] and [[Kaveri]] over Shivaji's head, and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras. After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before Jijabai and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Yuva Bharati|year=1974|publisher=Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee|page=13|edition=Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vUoAAAAYAAJ&q=50,000+people+shivaji+coronation|quote=About 50,000 people witnessed the coronation ceremony and arrangements were made for their boarding and lodging.}}</ref> Shivaji was entitled ''Shakakarta'' ("founder of an era"){{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=222}} and ''[[Chhatrapati]]'' ("[[Sovereignty|sovereign]]"). He also took the title of ''[[Father of the Faithful|Haindava Dharmodhhaarak]]'' (protector of the Hindu faith)<ref name="Chandra1982" /> and Kshatriya Kulavantas.<ref name="Sardesai2002">{{cite book |author=H. S. Sardesai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=deHZAUDHzYwC&pg=PA431 |title=Shivaji, the Great Maratha |publisher=Cosmo Publications |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7755-286-7 |page=431}}</ref><ref name="Kulkarnee1975">{{cite book |author=Narayan H. Kulkarnee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faodAAAAMAAJ&q=kshatriya+Kulawatans |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji, Architect of Freedom: An Anthology |publisher=Chhatrapati Shivaji Smarak Samiti |year=1975}}</ref><ref name="Singh1998">{{cite book |author=U. B. Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S30xOPtnzZYC&pg=PA92 |title=Administrative System in India: Vedic Age to 1947 |publisher=APH Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-7024-928-3 |page=92}}</ref> ''[[Kshatriya]]'' is one of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]]{{efn|''Varna'' is sometimes also termed {{lang|sa|[[Varnashrama Dharma]]}}}} of [[Hinduism]] and {{lang|sa|kulavantas}} means the 'head of the {{lang|sa|kula}}, or race'.<ref name="Sharma1978">{{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcnnB-Lx2MAC&pg=PA72 |title=Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1978 |page=72 |id=GGKEY:RYD56P78DL9}}</ref>

Shivaji's mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674. The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami, a tantrik priest, who declared that the original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars, and a second coronation was needed. This second coronation on 24 September 1674 had a dual-use, mollifying those who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation, by performing a less-contestable additional ceremony.<ref name="Srivastava1964">{{cite book|author=Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava|title=The History of India, 1000 A.D.-1707 A.D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bdw9AAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala|page=701|quote=Shivaji was obliged to undergo a second coronation ceremony on 4th October 1674, on the suggestion of a well-known Tantrik priest, named Nishchal Puri Goswami, who said that Gaga Bhatta had performed the ceremony at an inauspicious hour and neglected to propitiate the spirits adored in the Tantra. That was why, he said, the queen mother Jija Bai had died within twelve days of the ceremony and similar other mishaps had occurred.}}</ref><ref name="Branch1975">{{cite book|author=Indian Institute of Public Administration. Maharashtra Regional Branch|title=Shivaji and swarajya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ytQgAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Orient Longman|page=61|quote=one to establish that Shivaji belonged to the Kshatriya clan and that he could be crowned a Chhatrapati and the other to show that he was not entitled to the Vedic form of recitations at the time of the coronation}}</ref><ref name="Sharma1951">{{cite book|author=Shripad Rama Sharma|title=The Making of Modern India: From A. D. 1526 to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oAUdAAAAMAAJ|year=1951|publisher=Orient Longmans|page=223|quote=The coronation was performed at first according to the Vedic rites, then according to the Tantric. Shivaji was anxious to satisfy all sections of his subjects. There was some doubt about his Kshatriya origin (see note at the end of this chapter). This was of more than academic interest to his contemporaries, especially Brahmans [Brahmins]. Traditionally considered the highest caste in the Hindu social hierarchy. the Brahmans would submit to Shivaji, and officiate at his coronation, only if his}}</ref>

== Conquest of southern India ==

In the run-up to his expedition, Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.<ref name="Kruijtzer2009">{{cite book|author=Gijs Kruijtzer|title=Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTTJa0usl80C|year= 2009|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-8728-068-0|pages=153–190}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A. R.|title=Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|date=1990|volume=49|pages=221–226|jstor=42930290 }}</ref> His appeal was somewhat successful, and in 1677 Shivaji visited [[Hyderabad]] for a month and entered into a treaty with the [[Qutubshah]] of the Golkonda sultanate, agreeing to reject his alliance with Bijapur and jointly oppose the Mughals. In 1677, Shivaji invaded Karnataka with 30,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, backed by Golkonda artillery and funding.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=276}} Proceeding south, Shivaji seized the forts of [[Vellore]] and [[Gingee]];<ref name="Jr.2010">{{cite book| author=Everett Jenkins Jr. |title=The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500–1799): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSYkCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|date=12 November 2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-0889-1|pages=201–}}</ref> the latter would later serve as a capital of the Marathas during the reign of his son [[Rajaram I]].{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=290}}

Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother [[Venkoji]] (Ekoji I), Shahaji's son by his second wife, Tukabai (née [[Mohite (clan)|Mohite]]), who ruled Thanjavur (Tanjore) after Shahaji. The initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad, Shivaji defeated his half-brother's army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions in the [[Mysore]] plateau. Venkoji's wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji and also convinced her husband to distance himself from Muslim advisors. In the end, Shivaji consented to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized, with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and maintenance of [[Shahaji|Shahji]]'s memorial (''samadhi'').{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=251}}<ref name="Jayapal1997">{{cite book|author=Maya Jayapal|title=Bangalore: the story of a city|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEluAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Eastwest Books (Madras)|isbn=978-81-86852-09-5|page=20|quote=Shivaji's and Ekoji's armies met in battle on 26 November 1677, and Ekoji was defeated. By the treaty he signed, Bangalore and the adjoining areas were given to Shivaji, who then made them over to Ekoji's wife Deepabai to be held by her, with the proviso that Ekoji had to ensure that Shahaji's Memorial was well tended.}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%"

! width="20%" |Name

|-

| rowspan="4" |[[Sai Bhonsale]]

|[[Sambhaji|Sambhaji I]]

|14 May 1657 - 11 March 1689

|-

|Deepabai

| rowspan="2" |[[Soyarabai]]

|Unknown

|-

|[[Rajaram I]]

|24 February 1670 - 3 March 1700

|-

|Kamlabai

|}

[[File:Sambhaji Maharaj.JPG|thumb|[[Sambhaji]], Shivaji's elder son who succeeded him]]

The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. Shivaji confined his son to [[Panhala]] in 1678, only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the [[Mughals]] for a year. Sambhaji then returned home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}}

Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=278}} on the eve of [[Hanuman Jayanti]]. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of bloody flux being sick for 12 days.{{Efn|As for the cause of his death, the Bombay Council’s letter dated 28 April 1680 says: “We have certain news that Shivaji Rajah is dead. It is now

23 days since he deceased, it is said of a bloody flux, being sick 12

days.” A contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji died

of anthrax. However, none of these sources provides sufficient details to

draw a definite conclusion. The Sabhasad Chronicle states that the King

died of fever, while some versions of the A.K. Chronicle state that he died

of “navjvar” (possibly typhoid).{{Sfn|Mehendale|2011|p=1147}}}} In a contemporary work in Portuguese, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pissurlencar|first=Pandurang Sakharam|title=Portuguese-Mahratta Relations|publisher=Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture|pages=61}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Mehendale|first=Gajanan Bhaskar|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/801376912|title=Shivaji his life and times|date=2011|publisher=Param Mitra Publications|isbn=978-93-80875-17-0|location=India|pages=1147|oclc=801376912}}</ref> However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, author of [[Sabhasad Bakhar]], the biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death of Shivaji.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> [[Putalabai]], the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'' by jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}} There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife [[Soyarabai]] had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]] on the throne.{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=53}}

After Shivaji's death, [[Soyarabai]] made plans with various ministers of the administration to crown her son [[Rajaram I|Rajaram]] rather than her stepson [[Sambhaji]]. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of [[Raigad Fort]] after killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=48}} Rajaram, his mother [[Soyarabai]] and wife [[Jankibai|Janki Bai]] were imprisoned, and Soyrabai executed on charges of conspiracy that October.<ref name="SharmaLāʼibrerī2004">{{cite book|author=Sunita Sharma, K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Lāʼibrerī|title=Veil, sceptre, and quill: profiles of eminent women, 16th- 18th centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2kaAAAAYAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library|page=139|quote=By June 1680 three months after Shivaji's death Rajaram was made a prisoner in the fort of Raigad, along with his mother Soyra Bai and his wife Janki Bai. Soyra Bai was put to death on charge of conspiracy.}}</ref>

The Council of Eight Ministers, or [[Ashta Pradhan]] Mandal, was an administrative and advisory council set up by Shivaji.<ref name=":0">{{Britannica|38366|Ashta Pradhan}}.</ref> It consisted of eight ministers who regularly advised Shivaji on political and administrative matters. The eight ministers were as follows:<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Mahajan|first=V. D.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986|title=India since 1526|date=2000|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=81-219-1145-1|edition=17th ed., rev. & enl|location=New Delhi|pages=203|oclc=956763986}}</ref>

|General Administration

|Amatya or Finance Minister

|Maintaining Public accounts

|Mantri or Chronicler

|Maintaining Court records

|Summant or Dabir or Foreign Secretary

|Sachiv or Shurn Nawis or Home Secretary

|Civil and Military justice

|Senapati/Sari Naubat or Commander-in-Chief

In his court, Shivaji replaced Persian, the common courtly language in the region, with Marathi, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. Shivaji's reign stimulated the deployment of Marathi as a tool of systematic description and understanding.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=740AqMUW8WQC&pg=PA50|title=Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia: Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet, 1500–1800|date=14 March 2011|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-4904-4|pages=50|language=en}}</ref> Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and [[Arabic]] terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to production of ‘Rājavyavahārakośa’, the thesaurus of state usage in 1677.<ref name=":4" />

Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies. While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=421}} When [[Aurangzeb]] imposed the [[Jizya]] tax on [[Kafir|non-Muslim]]s on 3 April 1679, Shivaji wrote a strict letter to [[Aurangzeb]] criticising his tax policy. He wrote:

{{blockquote|In strict justice, the Jizya is not at all lawful. If you imagine piety in oppressing and terrorising the Hindus, you ought to first levy the tax on [[Rana Raj Singh|Raj Singh I]], who is the head of Hindus. But to oppress ants and flies is not at all valour nor spirit. If you believe in Quran, God is the lord of all men and not just of Muslims only. Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of God. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for God alone. To show bigotry to any man's religion and practices is to alter the words of the Holy Book.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gier |first1=Nicholas F. |title=The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective |date=20 August 2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9223-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0LBhBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=250}}|author=|title=|source=}}

Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary, the poet [[Kavi Bhushan]] stated: {{blockquote|Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised.<ref name="Society1963">{{cite book|author=American Oriental Society|title=Journal of the American Oriental Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K684AAAAIAAJ|access-date=27 September 2012|year=1963|publisher=American Oriental Society.|page=476}}</ref>}}

However, Gijs Kruijtzer, in his book Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India argues that the roots of modern communalism (the antagonism between “communities” of Hindus and Muslims) first appeared in the decade 1677–1687, in the interplay between Shivaji and the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (though Shivaji died in 1680).<ref>Gijs Kruijtzer, ''Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India'' (Leiden University Press, 2009).</ref> {{Page needed|date=October 2021}} During the sack of Surat in 1664, Shivaji was approached by Ambrose, a [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] friar who asked him to spare the city's Christians. Shivaji left the Christians untouched, saying "the Frankish Padrys are good men."<ref name="Pissurlencar1975">{{cite book|author=Panduronga S. S. Pissurlencar|title=The Portuguese and the Marathas: Translation of Articles of the Late Dr. Pandurang S. Pissurlenkar's Portugueses E Maratas in Portuguese Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdoBAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=State Board for Literature and Culture, Government of Maharashtra|page=152}}</ref>

Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. He was tolerant to different religions and believed in syncretism. He urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances with the surrounding Muslim nations even against Hindu powers. He also did not join forces with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, to fight the Mughals.{{Efn|Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. Over and over, he espoused tolerance and syncretism. He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had no difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which surrounded him – Bijapur, Golconda, and the Mughals – even against Hindu powers, such as the nayaks of the Karnatic. Further, he did not ally with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, rebelling against the Mughals.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&dq=n+his+own+army+Muslim+leaders+appear+quite+early,+and+the+first+Pathan+unit+joined+in+1656.+His+naval+commander+was,+of+course,+a+Muslim&pg=PA81|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref>}} In his own army, Muslim leaders appear quite early. The first Pathan unit was formed in 1656. His naval admiral, Darya Sarang,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kulkarni|first=Prof A. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OY5LDwAAQBAJ&dq=Darya+Sarang+shivaji&pg=PT143|title=Medieval Maratha Country|date=1 July 2008|publisher=Diamond Publications|isbn=978-81-8483-072-9|language=en}}</ref> was a Muslim.<gallery widths="200" heights="200">

{{blockquote|Older Maratha histories asserted that Shivaji was a close follower of Ramdas, a Brahmin teacher, who guided him in an orthodox Hindu path; recent research has shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life. Rather, Shivaji followed his own judgement throughout his remarkable career.<ref name="Gordon2007" />}}

== Shivaji's mode of warfare ==

Shivaji maintained a small but effective standing army. The core of Shivaji's army consisted of peasants of the Maratha and [[Kunbi]] castes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |title=Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE |date=3 June 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-58691-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oh7ICQAAQBAJ&pg=PT149 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji was aware of the limitations of his army. He realised that conventional warfare methods were inadequate to confront the big, well-trained cavalry of the Mughals which was equipped with field artillery. As a result, Shivaji adopted [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla tactics]] which became known as 'Ganimi Kawa'.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barua |first1=Pradeep |title=The State at War in South Asia |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1344-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&dq=Shivaji,+realizing+that+he+could+not+defeat+the+imperial+armies+inhttps://books.google.co.in/books&pg=PA40 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji was a master of guerrilla warfare.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Paul |title=Masters of the Battlefield: Great Commanders from the Classical Age to the Napoleonic Era |date=25 July 2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-534235-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRRZ3Zeb4NsC&pg=PA481 |language=en}}</ref> His strategies consistently perplexed and defeated armies sent against him. He realized that the most vulnerable point of the large, slow-moving armies of the time was supply. He utilised knowledge of the local terrain and the superior mobility of his light cavalry to cut off supplies to the enemy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA81 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji refused to confront in pitched battles. Instead, he lured the enemies in difficult hills and jungles of his own choosing, catching them at a disadvantage and routing them.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Kantak |first1=M. R. |title=The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774–1783: A Military Study of Major Battles |date=1993 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-696-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdXnVOKKkssC&q=Shivaji&pg=PA8 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji didn't stick to a particular tactic but used several methods to undermine his enemies as required by circumstances, like sudden raids, sweeps and ambushes and use of psychological pressure.<ref name="auto" />

Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by [[Aurangzeb]] and his generals because of his guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bhave|first=Y. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kVk6msxUcC&pg=PR7|title=From the Death of Shivaji to the Death of Aurangzeb: The Critical Years|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2000|isbn=978-81-7211-100-7|page=7}}</ref><ref name="Wolpert1994">{{cite book|author=Stanley A. Wolpert|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp|title=An Introduction to India|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=1994|isbn=978-0-14-016870-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp/page/43 43]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Tinker1990">{{cite book|author=Hugh Tinker|url=https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink|title=South Asia: A Short History|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8248-1287-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink/page/23 23]|url-access=registration}}</ref>

Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted until the demise of the Maratha Empire. His strategy rested on leveraging his ground forces, naval forces, and series of forts across his territory. The Maval infantry served as the core of his ground forces (reinforced with Telangi musketeers from Karnataka), supported by Maratha cavalry. His artillery was relatively underdeveloped and reliant on European suppliers, further inclining him to a very mobile form of warfare.<ref>{{cite book|first=M. R. |last=Kantak|title=The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774–1783: A Military Study of Major Battles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdXnVOKKkssC&pg=PA18|year=1993|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-696-1|page=9}}</ref>

Hill forts played a key role in Shivaji's strategy. He captured important forts at Murambdev ([[Rajgad]]), [[Torna Fort|Torna]], Kondhana ([[Sinhagad]]) and [[Purandar fort|Purandar]]. He also rebuilt or repaired many forts in advantageous locations.{{sfn|Pagadi|1983|p=21}} In addition, Shivaji built a number of forts; the number "111" is reported in some accounts, but it is likely the actual number "did not exceed 18."<ref name="Naravane1995">{{cite book|author=M. S. Naravane|title=Forts of Maharashtra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sIrfAAAAMAAJ|date=1 January 1995|publisher=APH Publishing Corporation|isbn=978-81-7024-696-1|page=14}}</ref> The historian [[Jadunath Sarkar]] assessed that Shivaji owned some 240–280 forts at the time of his death.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=408}} Each was placed under three officers of equal status, lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy. The officers acted jointly and provided mutual checks and balance.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=414}}

With the Marathas being accustomed to a land-based military, Shivaji widened his search for qualified crews for his ships, taking on lower-caste Hindus of the coast who were long familiar with naval operations (the famed "Malabar pirates") as well as Muslim mercenaries.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=59}} Noting the power of the Portuguese navy, Shivaji hired a number of Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian converts, and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander of his fleet. Viegas was later to defect back to the Portuguese, taking 300 sailors with him.<ref name="Shastry1981">{{cite book|author=Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry|title=Studies in Indo-Portuguese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AsYcAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=IBH Prakashana}}</ref>

Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them, and built his first marine fort at [[Sindhudurg Fort|Sindhudurg]], which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.<ref name="RoyLorge2014">{{cite book|author1=Kaushik Roy|author2=Peter Lorge|title=Chinese and Indian Warfare – From the Classical Age to 1870|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=627fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA183|date=17 December 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-58710-1|pages=183–}}</ref> The navy itself was a [[green-water navy|coastal navy]], focused on travel and combat in the littoral areas, and not intended to go far out to sea.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://optimizeias.com/new-naval-ensign-the-naval-prowess-of-chhatrapati-shivaji-that-has-always-inspired-the-indian-navy/ | title=New Naval Ensign: The naval prowess of Chhatrapati Shivaji that has always inspired the Indian Navy - Optimize IAS | date=3 September 2022 }}</ref><ref name="Misra1986">{{cite book|author=Raj Narain Misra|title=Indian Ocean and India's Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NhVz7mZCisC&pg=PA13|year=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=13–|id=GGKEY:CCJCT3CW16S}}</ref>

== Expansion of the Maratha Empire after Shivaji ==

Shivaji left behind a state always at odds with the Mughals. Soon after his death, in 1681, Aurangzeb launched an offensive in the South to capture territories held by the Marathas, the Bijapur-based Adilshahi  and [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shahi of Golkonda]] respectively. He was successful in obliterating the Sultanates but could not subdue the Marathas after spending 27 years in the Deccan. The period saw the capture, torture, and execution of Sambhaji in 1689, and the Marathas offering strong resistance under the leadership of Sambhaji's successor, [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]] and then Rajaram's widow [[Tarabai]]. Territories changed hands repeatedly between the Mughals and the Marathas. Better known as [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]], this campaign had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire. According to contemporary sources, about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually during a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands died due to drought, [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and [[Famine in India|famine]] <ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Q5w9qmd1UeMC&pg=PP113&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Mughal&f=false |title=Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements |date=2011-10-20 |publisher=Canongate Books |isbn=978-0-85786-125-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kPQs8llvkC&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Emperors Of The Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Moghuls |date=2007-09-17 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-093-7 |language=en}}</ref>. The conflict ended in [[Mughal–Maratha Wars|defeat for the Mughals in 1707.]]<ref name="John Clark Marshman">{{cite book |author=[[John Clark Marshman]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmT_Tv-VGUC&pg=PA93 |title=History of India from the Earliest Period to the Close of the East India Company's Government |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-108-02104-3 |page=93}}</ref>

[[Chattrapati Shahu|Shahu]], a grandson of Shivaji and son of [[Sambhaji]], was kept prisoner by [[Aurangzeb]] during the 27-year period conflict. After the latter's death, his successor released Shahu. After a brief power struggle over succession with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu ruled the Maratha Empire from 1707 to 1749. Early in his reign, he appointed [[Balaji Vishwanath]] and later his descendants, as [[Peshwa]]s (prime ministers) of the Maratha Empire. The empire expanded greatly under the leadership of Balaji's son, Peshwa [[Bajirao I]] and grandson, Peshwa [[Balaji Bajirao]]. At its peak, the Maratha empire stretched  from [[Tamil Nadu]]{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=204}} in the south, to [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|Peshawar]] (modern-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]) in the north, and [[Expeditions in Bengal|Bengal]], in the east. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] to [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]] of the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]], which halted their imperial expansion in northwestern India. Ten years after Panipat, [[Maratha Resurrection|Marathas regained influence]] in North India during the rule of [[Madhavrao Peshwa]].<ref name="Sen1994">{{cite book|author=Sailendra N. Sen|title=Anglo-Maratha relations during the administration of Warren Hastings 1772–1785|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4hHNz7T-AEC&pg=PR7|year=1994|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-578-0|pages=6–7}}</ref>

In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, Shahu and the Peshwas gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights, creating the [[Maratha Confederacy]].{{Sfn|Pearson, Shivaji and Mughal decline|1976|p=226}} They became known as [[Gaekwad]]s of [[Vadodara|Baroda]], the [[Holkar]]s of [[Indore]] and [[Malwa]], the [[Scindia]]s of [[Gwalior]] and [[Bhonsale]]s of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]]. In 1775, the [[East India Company]] intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, which resulted in the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]]. The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat by the British in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|Second]] and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War|Third Anglo-Maratha]] wars (1805–1818), which left the company the dominant power in most of India.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jeremy Black |date=2006 |title=A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present |location=Westport, Conn. |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-99039-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC&q=9780275990398}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Percival Spear|author-link=Percival Spear |date=1990 |orig-year=First published 1965 |title=A History of India |volume=2 |publisher=Penguin Books |page=129 |isbn=978-0-14-013836-8}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

{{Further|Shivaji in popular culture}}

[[File:Shivaji Maharaj and Baji Prabhu at Pawan Khind.jpg|right|thumb|An early-20th-century painting by [[M. V. Dhurandhar]] of Shivaji and [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande|Baji Prabhu]] at Pawan Khind]]

 

Shivaji was well known for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character.{{Sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=74}} He was recognized as a national hero during the Indian Independence Movement.<ref name="ChandraMukherjee2016">{{cite book|author1=Bipan Chandra|author2=Mridula Mukherjee|author3=Aditya Mukherjee|author4=K N Panikkar|author5= Sucheta Mahajan|title=India's Struggle for Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q7xH06NrFkC&pg=PT107|date=9 August 2016|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-183-3|pages=107–}}</ref>  

Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of English, French, Dutch, Portuguese and Italian writers.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.500042/2015.500042.Foreign-Biographies#page/n15/mode/1up|title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji|last=Sen|first=Surendra|publisher=London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co. ltd.|year=1928|volume=II|pages=xiii}}</ref> Contemporary English writers compared him with [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], [[Hannibal]] and [[Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/shivajithegreat035466mbp#page/n28/mode/1up|title=Shivaji The Great|last=Krishna|first=Bal|publisher=The Arya Book Depot Kolhapur|year=1940|pages=11–12}}</ref> The French traveller [[Francois Bernier]] wrote in his ''Travels in Mughal India'':<ref>{{cite book |author=Surendra Nath Sen |title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji |publisher=K. P. Bagchi |year=1977 |pages=14,139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89sJAQAAIAAJ }}</ref>

[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva" without the honorific "-ji". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death as {{Sort|ar|''[[kafir]] bi jahannum raft''}} ({{Literal translation|the infidel went to Hell}}).{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=54}}

[[File:Bronze Statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle.jpg|thumb|right|A miniature Bronze statue of Shivaji Maharaj in the collection of the [[Aundh, Satara|Shri Bhavani Museum of Aundh]]]]

In the mid-19th century, Marathi social reformer [[Jyotirao Phule]] wrote his interpretation of the Shivaji legend, portraying him as a hero of the shudras and [[Dalit]]s. Phule sought to use the Shivaji legends to undermine the Brahmins he accused of hijacking the narrative, and uplift the lower classes; his 1869 ballad-form story of Shivaji was met with great hostility by the Brahmin-dominated media.<ref name="Chakravarti2014">{{cite book|author=Uma Chakravarti|title=Rewriting History: The Life and Times of Pandita Ramabai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TenDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT79|date=27 October 2014|publisher=Zubaan|isbn=978-93-83074-63-1|pages=79–}}</ref> At the end of the 19th century, Shivaji's memory was leveraged by the non-Brahmin intellectuals of Bombay, who identified as his descendants and through him claimed the kshatriya varna. While some Brahmins rebutted this identity, defining them as of the lower shudra varna, other Brahmins recognised the Marathas' utility to the Indian independence movement, and endorsed this kshatriya legacy and the significance of Shivaji.<ref name="Kurtz">{{cite book|author=Donald V. Kurtz |title=Contradictions and Conflict: A Dialectical Political Anthropology of a University in Western India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0X5DquN8LkIC&pg=PA63 |year=1993 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09828-2 |pages=63–}}</ref>

In 1895, Indian nationalist leader [[Lokmanya Tilak]] organised what was to be an annual festival to mark the birthday of Shivaji.{{sfn|Wolpert|1962|pp=79–81}} He portrayed Shivaji as the "opponent of the oppressor", with possible negative implications concerning the colonial government.<ref name="Pati2011">{{cite book|author=Biswamoy Pati|title=Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Popular Readings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U4TWzCkjrm4C&pg=PA101|year=2011|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-18-4|page=101}}</ref> Tilak denied any suggestion that his festival was anti-Muslim or disloyal to the government, but simply a celebration of a hero.{{Sfn|Cashman, The Myth of the Lokamanya|1975|p=107}} These celebrations prompted a British commentator in 1906 to note: "Cannot the annals of the Hindu race point to a single hero whom even the tongue of slander will not dare call a chief of dacoits...?"<ref>{{cite book|title=Indo-British Review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CA1uAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Indo-British Historical Society|page=75}}</ref>

One of the first commentators to reappraise the critical British view of Shivaji was [[M. G. Ranade]], whose ''Rise of the Maratha Power'' (1900) declared Shivaji's achievements as the beginning of modern nation-building. Ranade criticised earlier British portrayals of Shivaji's state as "a freebooting Power, which thrived by plunder and adventure, and succeeded only because it was the most cunning and adventurous&nbsp;... This is a very common feeling with the readers, who derive their knowledge of these events solely from the works of English historians."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4-Su0whKa0C&pg=PA121|title=India's Immortal Comic Books: Gods, Kings, and Other Heroes|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-253-22052-3|first=Karline |last=McLain|page=121}}</ref>

In 1919, [[Jadunath Sarkar|Sarkar]] published the seminal ''Shivaji and His Times'', hailed as the most authoritative biography of the king since [[James Grant Duff]]'s 1826 ''A History of the Mahrattas''. A respected scholar, Sarkar was able to read primary sources in Persian, Marathi, and Arabic, but was challenged for his criticism of the "chauvinism" of Marathi historians' views of Shivaji.<ref name="Deshpande2007">{{cite book|author=Prachi Deshpande|title=Creative Pasts: Historical Memory and Identity in Western India, 1700–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=96qrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136|year=2007|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12486-7|pages=136–|quote=Shivaji and His Times, was widely regarded as the authoritative follow-up to Grant Duff. An erudite, painstaking Rankean scholar, Sarkar was also able to access a wide variety of sources through his mastery of Persian, Marathi, and Arabic, but as explained in the last chapter, he earned considerable hostility from the Poona [Pune] school for his sharp criticism of the “chauvinism” he saw in Marathi historians' appraisals of the Marathas}}</ref> Likewise, though supporters cheered his depiction of the killing of [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]] as justified, they decried Sarkar's terming as "murder" the killing of the [[Hindus|Hindu raja]] Chandrao More and his clan.<ref name="Bayly2011">{{cite book|author=C. A. Bayly|title=Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GLAWY6L8fIC&pg=PA282|date=10 November 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-50518-5|pages=282–}}</ref>

=== Inspiration ===

In 1966, the [[Shiv Sena]] ({{Literal translation|Army of Shivaji}}) political party was formed to promote the interests of Marathi speaking people in the face of migration to Maharashtra from other parts of India, and the accompanying loss of power for locals. His image adorns literature, propaganda and icons of the party.<ref name="Naipaul2011">{{cite book|first=V. S. |last=Naipaul |author-link=V. S. Naipaul |title=India: A Wounded Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYeWbmq7pkIC&pg=PT65|year=2011|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-78934-1|page=65}}</ref>

In modern times, Shivaji is considered as a national hero in India, especially in the state of Maharashtra, where he remains an important figure in the state's history. Stories of his life form an integral part of the upbringing and identity of the [[Marathi people]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=KUBER |first=GIRISH |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1245346175 |title=RENAISSANCE STATE : the unwritten story of the making of maharashtra. |date=2021 |publisher=HARPERCOLLINS INDIA |isbn=978-93-90327-39-3 |location=[S.l.] |pages=69–78 |oclc=1245346175}}</ref> Shivaji is upheld by regional political parties and also by the Maratha caste dominated [[Indian National Congress|Congress party's]] offshoots in Maharashtra, such as the [[Indian National Congress (organisation)|Indira Congress]] and the [[Nationalist Congress Party]].{{sfn|Laine|2011|p=164}}

In the late 20th century, [[Babasaheb Purandare]] became one of the most significant author in portraying Shivaji in his writings, leading him to be declared in 1964 as the ''Shiv-Shahir'' ({{Literal translation|Bard of Shivaji}}).<ref>{{cite book|title=Lok Sabha Debates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlZPAQAAMAAJ|year=1952|publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat|page=121|quote=Will the Minister of EDUCATION, SOCIAL WELFARE AND CULTURE be pleased to state: (a) whether Shri Shivshahir Bawa Saheb Purandare of Maharashtra has sought the permission of Central Government&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Indian P.E.N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eLtjAAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=P.E.N. All-India Centre.|page=32|quote=Sumitra Raje Bhonsale of Satara honoured Shri Purandare with the title of "Shiva-shahir" and donated Rs. 301 for the proposed publication.}}</ref> However, Purandare, a Brahmin, was also accused of overemphasising the influence of Brahmin gurus on Shivaji,{{sfn|Laine|2011|p=164}} and his [[Maharashtra Bhushan]] award ceremony in 2015 was protested by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/writer-babasaheb-purandare-receives-maharashtra-bhushan-despite-protests/articleshow/48551741.cms|title=Writer Babasaheb Purandare receives 'Maharashtra Bhushan' despite protests|author=Krishna Kumar|date=20 August 2015|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

In September 2022, prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] unveiled the new [[Indian Naval Ensign]] to replace the St. George's Cross design used from 2004, which includes a [[navy blue]]-[[Gold (color)|gold]] octagon bearing naval crest in the fly.<ref name="Lion Ensign">{{Cite web|url=https://theprint.in/defence/colonial-st-georges-cross-dropped-for-chhatrapati-shivajis-seal-on-indian-navys-new-flag/1112742/|title=Colonial St. George's Cross dropped for Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's seal on Indian Navy's new flag|website=theprint.in|date=2 September 2022}}</ref> The octagon is an emulation of a royal seal of Shivaji.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/was-shivaji-the-first-indian-ruler-to-build-the-navy#read-more|title=Was Shivaji The 'First Indian Ruler' to Build the Navy?|website=www.thequint.com|date=20 February 2018}}</ref>

=== Controversy ===

In 1993, the ''[[The Illustrated Weekly of India|Illustrated Weekly]]'' published an article suggesting that Shivaji was not opposed to Muslims ''per se'', and that his style of governance was influenced by that of the Mughal Empire. Congress Party members called for legal actions against the publisher and writer, Marathi newspapers accused them of "imperial prejudice" and [[Shiv Sena]] called for the writer's public flogging. Maharashtra brought legal action against the publisher under regulations prohibiting enmity between religious and cultural groups, but a High Court found the ''Illustrated Weekly'' had operated within the bounds of freedom of expression.<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas Blom |last=Hansen|title=Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-y3iNt0djbQC&pg=PA22|year=2001|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-08840-3|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Raminder |last1=Kaur|first2=William |last2=Mazzarella|title=Censorship in South Asia: Cultural Regulation from Sedition to Seduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QOWRn_i1kcC&pg=PA1|year=2009|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35335-1|page=1}}</ref>

In 2003, American academic [[James W. Laine]] published his book ''Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India'' to, what [[Ananya Vajpeyi]] terms, a regime of "cultural policing by militant Marathas".<ref name=":5">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3561499.stm |title=India seeks to arrest US scholar |work=BBC News |date=23 March 2004 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vajpeyi |first=Ananya |date=August 2004 |title=The Past and its Passions: Writing History in Hard Times |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/025764300402000207 |journal=Studies in History |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=317–329 |doi=10.1177/025764300402000207 |s2cid=162555504 |issn=0257-6430}}</ref> As a result of this publication, the [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] in Pune where Laine had researched was attacked by the [[Sambhaji Brigade]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Maratha-activists-vandalise-Bhandarkar-Institute/articleshow/407226.cms |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|title= 'Maratha' activists vandalise Bhandarkar Institute |access-date=3 May 2021 |date=6 January 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Where The Stream Of Reason Lost Its Way... |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/where-the-stream-of-reason-lost-its-way/73400/ |access-date=3 May 2021 |work=Financial Express |date=12 January 2004}}</ref> Laine was even threatened to be arrested<ref name=":5" /> and the book was banned in [[Maharashtra]] in January 2004, but the ban was lifted by the [[Bombay High Court]] in 2007, and in July 2010 the [[Supreme Court of India]] upheld the lifting of the ban.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-09/india/28276644_1_kunda-pramila-ban-apex-court|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811082818/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-09/india/28276644_1_kunda-pramila-ban-apex-court|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Supreme Court lifts ban on James Laine's book on Shivaji|date=9 July 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> This lifting was followed by public demonstrations against the author and the decision of the Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20100710/1545431.html|title=Protests over James Laine's book across Mumbai|publisher=webindia123.com|date=10 July 2010|access-date= 25 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Rahul Chandawarkar|date=10 July 2010|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_hard-liners-slam-state-supreme-court-decision-on-laine-s-shivaji-book_1407732|title=Hard-liners slam state, Supreme Court decision on Laine's Shivaji book|newspaper=DNA India|access-date= 25 September 2013}}</ref>

A proposal to build a giant memorial called [[Shiv Smarak]] was approved in 2016 which is to be located near Mumbai on a small island in the Arabian Sea. It will be 210 meters tall, making it the [[List of tallest statues|world's largest statue]] when completed in possibly 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/india-now-boasts-world-apos-190059518.html |title=India Now Boasts The World's Tallest Statue, And It's Twice Lady Liberty's Size |work=[[Huffington Post]] |via=[[Yahoo! News]] |author=Nina Golgowski |date=31 October 2018 |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> In August 2021, the project was stalled since January 2019 due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]], only the [[bathymetry]] survey complete while the [[Geotechnical investigation|geotechnical survey]] was underway. Consequently, state PWD proposed extending project completion date by a year from 18 October 2021 to 18 October 2022.<ref name=connect2>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/contract-for-shivaji-memorial-project-pwd-proposes-extension-of-one-year-to-firm-without-cost-escalation-7466001/ |title= Contract for Shivaji Memorial Project, PWD proposes extension of one year to firm without cost escalation  |website= indianexpress.com |date=23 August 2021 |accessdate=6 December 2021}}</ref>

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{{EB1911 poster|Sivaji|Shivaji}}

* {{curlie|Society/History/By_Region/Asia/South_Asia/Personalities/Sivaji|Shivaji}}

{{Shivaji|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Maratha emperors]]

[[Category:Legendary Indian people]]