Horticulture: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:27, 17 March 2026

A horticulture student tending to plants in a garden in Lawrenceville, Georgia, March 2015

Horticulture (from Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants. Horticulture is different from general agriculture, agronomy, and gardening in that it involves specialization and controlled cultivation and management of plants and their ecosystems. It can be distinguished by its subfields and or unique botanical expressions. There are various divisions of horticulture because plants are grown for a variety of purposes.^[1] These divisions include, but are not limited to: propagation, arboriculture, landscaping, floriculture and turf maintenance. For each of these, there are various professions, aspects, tools used and associated challenges -- each requiring highly specialized skills and knowledge on the part of the horticulturist.

Typically, horticulture is characterized as the ornamental, small-scale and non-industrial cultivation of plants; horticulture is distinct from gardening by its emphasis on scientific methods, plant breeding, and technical cultivation practices, while gardening, even at a professional level, tends to focus more on the aesthetic care and maintenance of plants in gardens or landscapes. However, some aspects of horticulture are industrialized or commercial such as greenhouse production or CEA.

Horticulture began with the domestication of plants c. 10,000 – c. 20,000 years ago.^[2]^[3]^{[better source needed]} At first, only plants for sustenance were grown and maintained, but as humanity became increasingly sedentary, plants were grown for their ornamental value.^{[citation needed]} Horticulture emerged as a distinct field from agriculture when humans sought to cultivate plants for pleasure on a smaller scale rather than exclusively for sustenance.^{[citation needed]}

Emerging technologies are moving the industry forward, especially in the alteration of plants to be more resistant to parasites, disease and drought. Modifying technologies such as CRISPR are also improving the nutrition, taste and yield of crops.

Many horticultural organizations and societies around the world have been formed by horticulturists and those within the industry. These include the Royal Horticultural Society, the International Society for Horticultural Science,^[4] and the American Society of Horticultural Science.^[5]

Divisions of horticulture and types of horticulturists[edit | edit source]

There are divisions and sub-divisions within horticulture because plants are grown for many different reasons. Some of the divisions in horticulture include:

gardening
plant production and propagation
arboriculture
landscaping
floriculture
garden design and maintenance
turf maintenance
plant conservation and landscape restoration.^[6]^[7]^[8]

It includes the cultivation of all plants including, but not limited to: ornamental plants, fruits, vegetables, flowers, turf, nuts, seeds, herbs and other medicinal/edible plants. This cultivation may occur in garden spaces, nurseries, greenhouses, vineyards, orchards, parks, recreation areas, etc. ^{[citation needed]}

Flower seedlings at a market in Breda, Netherlands

Horticulturists study and practice the cultivation of plant material professionally. There are many different types of horticulturists with different job titles, including: gardener, grower, farmer, arborist, floriculturist, landscaper, agronomist, designer, landscape architect, lawn-care specialist, nursery manager, botanical garden curator, horticulture therapist, and much more.^[9] They may be hired by a variety of companies/institutions including, but not limited to: botanical gardens, private/public gardens, parks, cemeteries, greenhouses, golf courses, vineyards, estates, landscaping companies, nurseries, educational institutions, etc. They may also be self-employed.^{[citation needed]}

History[edit | edit source]

Horticulture began with the domestication of plants 10,000–20,000 years ago and has since been deeply integrated into human history.^[2]^[3] The domestication of plants occurred independently within various civilizations across the globe. The history of horticulture overlaps with the history of agriculture and history of botany, as all three originated with the domestication of various plants for food.^[3] In Europe, agriculture and horticulture diverged at some point during the Middle Ages.^[10]

Early practices in horticulture[edit | edit source]

Early practices in horticulture include various tools and methods of land management, with different methods and plant types used for different uses. Methods, tools and plants grown have always depended on the culture and climate.^{[citation needed]}

Pre-colonized North and Central America[edit | edit source]

Many traditional horticultural practices are known, such as the Indigenous peoples of pre-colonized North America using biochar to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste^[11] – European settlers called this soil Terra Preta de Indio.^[12] In North America, Indigenous people grew maize, squash, and sunflower, among other crops. Mesoamerican cultures focused on cultivating crops on a small scale, such as the milpa or maize field, around their dwellings or in specialized plots which were visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next.^[13] In Central America, the Maya involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as papaya, avocado, cacao, ceiba and sapodilla. In the fields, multiple crops such as beans, squash, pumpkins and chili peppers were grown. The first horticulturists in many cultures were mainly or exclusively women.^[14]

Historical uses for plants in horticulture[edit | edit source]

In addition to plants' medicinal and nutritional value, plants have also been grown for their beauty, to impress and to demonstrate power, knowledge, status and even wealth of those in control of the cultivated plant material. This symbolic power that plants hold has existed even before the beginnings of their cultivation.^[15]

There is evidence that various gardens maintained by the Aztecs were sacred, as they grew plants that held religious value. Plants were grown for their metaphorical relation to gods and goddesses.^[10] Flowers held symbolic power in religious rites, as they were offered to the gods and given in ceremonies to leaders to demonstrate their connection to the gods.^[10]

Aspects of horticulture[edit | edit source]

Propagation[edit | edit source]

Plant propagation in horticulture is the process by which the number of individual plants is increased. Propagation involves both sexual and asexual methods.^[16] Sexual propagation uses seeds, while asexual propagation involves the division of plants, separation of tubers, corms, and bulbs using techniques such as cutting, layering, grafting.^[17]

Plant selection[edit | edit source]

When selecting plants to cultivate, a horticulturist may consider aspects based on the plant's intended use, including plant morphology, rarity, and utility.^[18] When selecting plants for the landscape, observations of the location must be made first. Soil type, temperature, climate, light, moisture, and pre-existing plants are considered when selecting plant material for the location. Plant selection may be for annual displays, or they may be for more permanent plantings. Characteristics of the plant – such as mature height and size, colour, growth habit, ornamental value, flowering time and invasive potential – finalize the plant selection process.^{[citation needed]}

Controlling environmental/growing variables[edit | edit source]

Environmental factors affecting plant development include temperature, light, water, soil pH, nutrient availability, weather, humidity, elevation, terrain, and micro-climate.^[1] In horticulture, these environmental variables may be avoided, controlled or manipulated in an indoor growing environment.

Temperature[edit | edit source]

Plants require specific temperatures to grow and develop properly. Temperature can be controlled through a variety of methods. Covering plants with plastic in the form of cones called hot caps, or tunnels, can help to manipulate the surrounding temperature. Mulching is also an effective method to protect outdoor plants from frost during the winter. Inside, other frost prevention methods include wind machines, heaters, and sprinklers.^[19]

Light[edit | edit source]

Plants have evolved to require different amounts of light and lengths of daytime; their growth and development are determined by the amount of light they receive. Control of this may be achieved artificially with fluorescent lights in an indoor setting. Manipulating the amount of light also controls flowering. Lengthening the day encourages the flowering of long-day plants and discourages the flowering of short-day plants.^[19]

Water[edit | edit source]

Water management methods involve employing irrigation and drainage systems and controlling soil moisture to the needs of the species. Irrigation methods include surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, sub-irrigation, and trickle irrigation. Watering volume, pressure, and frequency are changed to optimize the growing environment. On a small scale, watering can be done manually.^[19]

Growing media and soil management[edit | edit source]

The choice of growing media and components to the media help support plant life. Within a greenhouse environment, growers may choose to grow their plants in an aquaponic system where no soil is used. Growers within a greenhouse setting will often opt for a soilless mix which does not include any actual components of naturally occurring soil. These mixes are generally very available within the industry and offer advantages such as water absorption and sterility.^{[citation needed]}

Soil management methods are broad but include the applying fertilizers, planned crop rotation to prevent the soil degradation seen in monocultures, and soil analysis.^[19]

Control by use of enclosed environments[edit | edit source]

Abiotic factors such as weather, light and temperature are all things that can be manipulated with enclosed environments such as cold frames, greenhouses, conservatories, poly houses and shade houses. Materials used in constructing these buildings are chosen based on the climate, purpose and budget.^[20]

Cold frames provide an enclosed environment; they are built close to the ground and with a top made of glass or plastic. The glass or plastic allows sunlight into the frame during the day and prevents heat loss that would have been lost as long-wave radiation at night. This allows plants to begin growing before the growing season starts. Greenhouses and conservatories are similar in function but are larger and heated with an external energy source. They can be built out of glass but are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning and automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration.^[19]

Challenges[edit | edit source]

Abiotic stresses[edit | edit source]

Commercial horticulture is required to support a rapidly growing population with demands for its products.^[21] Due to global climate change, extremes in temperatures, strength of precipitation events, flood frequency, and drought length and frequency are increasing. Together with other abiotic stressors such as salinity, heavy metal toxicity, UV damage, and air pollution, stressful environments are created for crop production. This is extrapolated as evapotranspiration is increased, soils are degraded of nutrients, and oxygen levels are depleted, resulting in up to a 70% loss in crop yield.^{[citation needed]}

Biotic stresses[edit | edit source]

Living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, insects, weeds and native plants are sources of biotic stresses and can deprive the host of nutrients.^[22] Plants respond to these stresses using defence mechanisms such as morphological and structural barriers, chemical compounds, proteins, enzymes and hormones.^[23] The impact of biotic stresses can be prevented using practices such as incorporate tilling, spraying or Integrated Pest Management (IPM).^[24]

Harvest management[edit | edit source]

Care is required to reduce damages and losses to horticultural crops during harvest.^[25] Compression forces occur during harvesting, and horticultural goods can be hit in a series of impacts during transport and packhouse operations. Different techniques are used to minimize mechanical injuries and wounding to plants such as:^[26]

Manual harvesting: This is the harvesting horticultural crops by hand. Fruits, such as apples, pears and peaches, can be harvested by clippers
Sanitation: Harvest bags, crates, clippers and other equipment must be cleaned before harvest.^[26]

Emerging technology[edit | edit source]

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) has recently gained recognition as a highly efficient, simplified, precise, and low-cost method of altering the genomes of species.^[27] Since 2013, CRISPR has been used to enhance a variety of species of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Crops are modified to increase their resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors such as parasites, disease, and drought as well as increase yield, nutrition, and flavour.^[28] Additionally, CRISPR has been used to edit undesirable traits, for example, reducing the browning and production of toxic and bitter substances of potatoes. CRISPR has also been employed to solve issues of low pollination rates and low fruit yield common in greenhouses. As compared to genetically modified organisms (GMO), CRISPR does not add any alien DNA to the plant's genes.^[29]

Organizations[edit | edit source]

Various organizations worldwide focus on promoting and encouraging research and education in all branches of horticultural science; such organizations include the International Society for Horticultural Science^[4] and the American Society of Horticultural Science.^[5]

In the United Kingdom, there are two main horticulture societies.^{[citation needed]} The Ancient Society of York Florists is the oldest horticultural society in the world and was founded in 1768; this organization continues to host four horticultural shows annually in York, England.^[30] Additionally, The Royal Horticultural Society, established in 1804, is a charity in United Kingdom that leads on the encouragement and improvement of the science, art, and practice of horticulture in all its branches.^[31] The organization shares the knowledge of horticulture through its community, learning programs, and world-class gardens and shows.^{[citation needed]}

The Chartered Institute of Horticulture (CIH) is the Chartered professional body for horticulturists and horticultural scientists representing all sectors of the horticultural industry across Great Britain, Ireland and overseas. While horticulture is an unregulated profession in the United Kingdom, the title of Chartered Horticulturalist is regulated by the CIH.^[32] The Australian Institute of Horticulture and Australian Society of Horticultural Science were established in 1990 as a professional society to promote and enhance Australian horticultural science and industry.^[33] Finally, the New Zealand Horticulture Institute is another known horticultural organization.^[34]

In India, the Horticultural Society of India (now the Indian Academy of Horticultural Sciences) is the oldest society; it was established in 1941 at Lyallpur, Punjab (now in Pakistan) but was later shifted to Delhi in 1949.^[35] The other notable organization in operation since 2005 is the Society for Promotion of Horticulture based at Bengaluru.^[36] Both these societies publish scholarly journals – Indian Journal of Horticulture and Journal of Horticultural Sciences for the advancement of horticultural sciences.^{[citation needed]} Horticulture in the Indian state of Kerala is led by Kerala State Horticulture Mission.^{[citation needed]}

The National Junior Horticultural Association (NJHA) was established in 1934 and was the first organization in the world dedicated solely to youth and horticulture. NJHA programs are designed to help young people obtain a basic understanding of horticulture and develop horticultural skills.^[37]

The Global Horticulture Initiative (GlobalHort) fosters partnerships and collective action among different stakeholders in horticulture. This organization focuses on horticulture for development (H4D), which involves using horticulture to reduce poverty and improve nutrition worldwide. GlobalHort is organized in a consortium of national and international organizations which collaborate in research, training, and technology-generating activities designed to meet mutually agreed-upon objectives. GlobalHort is a non-profit organization registered in Belgium.^[38]

References[edit | edit source]

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 Rice, Laura W. (1980). Practical Horticulture; A Guide to Growing Indoor and Outdoor Plants. USA: Reston.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 "Domestication". National Geographic. October 19, 2023. Retrieved April 3, 2023.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 Carey, John, ed. (2022-11-15). "Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind". Sunday Best. Yale University Press. pp. 283–286. doi:10.12987/yale/9780300266689.003.0077. ISBN 978-0-300-26668-9.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 "ISHS". Archived from the original on September 22, 2012.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 "ASHS". ashs.org. Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2016-06-11.
↑ Preece, John E.; Read, Paul E. (2005). The biology of horticulture: an introductory textbook (2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 4–6. ISBN 0-471-46579-8.
↑ Arteca, Richard N. (2015). Introduction to Horticultural Science (2 ed.). Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning. p. 584. ISBN 978-1-111-31279-4.
↑ "Why Horticulture?". Department of Horticultural Science. University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 2019-05-02. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
↑ "22 Jobs in Horticulture (With Salaries and Primary Duties)". Indeed. February 2, 2024. Retrieved February 14, 2024.
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 Baeyer, E. "The development and history of horticulture". World Environmental History. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS).
↑ Solomon, Dawit, Johannes Lehmann, Janice Thies, Thorsten Schafer, Biqing Liang, James Kinyangi, Eduardo Neves, James Petersen, Flio Luizao, and Jan Skjemstad, Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic carbone in Amazonian Dark Earths, Geochemica et cosmochemica ACTA 71.9 2285–2286 (2007) ("Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin.") (internal citations omitted)
↑ Glaser, Bruno, Johannes Lehmann, and Wolfgang Zech, Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review, Biology and Fertility of Soils 35.4 219–220 (2002) ("These so called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils, large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques.") (internal citations omitted)
↑ von Hagen, V.W. (1957) The Ancient Sun Kingdoms Of The Americas. Ohio: The World Publishing Company
↑ Thompson, S.I. (1977) Women, Horticulture, and Society in Tropical America. American Anthropologist, N.S., 79: 908–10
↑ Pollan, Michael (2001). The Botany of Desire. Random House. ISBN 0-375-50129-0.
↑ Arteca, Richard N. (2014-02-14). Introduction to Horticultural Science. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-17780-2. Archived from the original on 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
↑ Peter, K. V. (2009-02-05). Basics Of Horticulture. New India Publishing. ISBN 978-81-89422-55-4. Archived from the original on 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
↑ "Horticultural Practices". District of Saanich. Archived from the original on 2022-12-06. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 ^19.3 ^19.4 "Horticulture | Definition, Types, Techniques, & Uses | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
↑ "Greenhouse Farming Explained: Types, Benefits, Techniques, Costs, Crops & More - Agriplast Protected Cultivation". www.protectedcultivation.com.
↑ Avinash Chandra Rai, ed. (2021). Stress tolerance in horticultural crops: challenges and mitigation strategies. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-323-85363-7. OCLC 1251764903.
↑ Colin W. Wrigley; Harold Corke; Koushik Seetharaman; Jonathan Faubion, eds. (2016). Encyclopedia of food grains (Second ed.). Kidlington, Oxford, UK: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-394786-4. OCLC 939553708.
↑ Elhadi M. Yahia; Armando Carrillo-Lopez, eds. (2019). Postharvest physiology and biochemistry of fruits and vegetables. Duxford: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-813279-1. OCLC 1061148070.
↑ Pantazi, Xanthoula-Eirini; Dimitrios Moshou; Dionysis Bochtis (2020). Intelligent data mining and fusion systems in agriculture. London: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-814392-6. OCLC 1124761701.
↑ Hussein, Zaharan; Fawole, Olaniyi A.; Opara, Umezuruike Linus (2020-01-01). "Harvest and Postharvest Factors Affecting Bruise Damage of Fresh Fruits". Horticultural Plant Journal. 6 (1): 1–13. Bibcode:2020HorPJ...6....1H. doi:10.1016/j.hpj.2019.07.006. hdl:10019.1/125649. ISSN 2468-0141. S2CID 202847840. Archived from the original on 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
↑ ^26.0 ^26.1 Elhadi M. Yahia, ed. (2019). Postharvest technology of perishable horticultural commodities. Duxford: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-813277-7. OCLC 1109725060.
↑ Liu, Yang; Zhang, Chunling; Wang, Xiaofei; Li, Xiuming; You, Chunxiang (2022-07-01). "CRISPR/Cas9 technology and its application in horticultural crops". Horticultural Plant Journal. 8 (4): 395–407. Bibcode:2022HorPJ...8..395L. doi:10.1016/j.hpj.2022.04.007. ISSN 2468-0141. S2CID 248462799.
↑ Wang, Tian; Zhang, Chunjiao; Zhang, Hongyan; Zhu, Hongliang (2021-11-17). "CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing Revolutionizes the Improvement of Horticulture Food Crops". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 69 (45): 13260–13269. Bibcode:2021JAFC...6913260W. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 33734711. S2CID 232302738. Archived from the original on 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
↑ Mookerjee, Sonali (2023-11-30). "Gene-editing primer: What's the difference between CRISPR crops and GMOs?". Genetic Literacy Project. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
↑ "Ancient society of York Florists,oldest horticultural society in world,longest running horticultural show in world established 1768, flower shows in york yorkshire uk,horticultural shows in york yorkshire uk, vegetable shows in york yorkshire uk, fruit shows in york yorkshire uk, floral art shows in york yorkshire uk,handicrafts and baking shows in york uk,dahlia shows in york yorkshire uk,gladioli shows in york yorkshire uk,chrysanthemum shows in york yorkshire uk, auricula shows in york yorkshire uk, sweet pea shows in york yorkshire uk". www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2018-11-12. Retrieved 2016-07-13.
↑ "The Royal Horticultural Society, UK charity focussed on the art, science and practice of horticulture". The Royal Horticultural Society Website. Archived from the original on 2019-05-26. Retrieved 2018-01-13.
↑ "Chartered Horticulturist". GOV.UK. Retrieved 3 January 2025.
↑ "Australian Society of Horticultural Science – Australian Society of Horticultural Science". Archived from the original on 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2016-06-11.
↑ "RNZIH – Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture – Home Page". Archived from the original on 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2012-10-26.
↑ "Headquarters". IAHS. Archived from the original on 2021-08-19. Retrieved 2021-08-19.
↑ "SPH". sph.iihr.res.in. Archived from the original on 2021-08-19. Retrieved 2021-08-19.
↑ "Home – NJHA". Archived from the original on 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2016-06-11.
↑ "The Global Horticulture Initiative". Archived from the original on 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2016-06-11.

External links[edit | edit source]

The Institute of Horticulture (archived 7 September 2015)
ISHS – International Society for Horticultural Science
The Royal Horticultural Society
British Library – information on the horticulture industry (archived 26 June 2006)
History of Horticulture (archived 10 September 2012)
HORTIVAR – The FAO Horticulture Cultivars Performance Database
Global Horticulture Initiative – GlobalHort
Horticulture Information & Resource Library (archived 4 October 2018)
Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary

Template:Horticulture and Gardening Template:Forestry Template:Botany Template:Types of societies

[:5-1] 1.0 ^1.1 Rice, Laura W. (1980). Practical Horticulture; A Guide to Growing Indoor and Outdoor Plants. USA: Reston.

[:8-2] 2.0 ^2.1 "Domestication". National Geographic. October 19, 2023. Retrieved April 3, 2023.

[:3-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 Carey, John, ed. (2022-11-15). "Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind". Sunday Best. Yale University Press. pp. 283–286. doi:10.12987/yale/9780300266689.003.0077. ISBN 978-0-300-26668-9.

[:6-4] 4.0 ^4.1 "ISHS". Archived from the original on September 22, 2012.

[:7-5] 5.0 ^5.1 "ASHS". ashs.org. Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2016-06-11.

[Preece-Biology-2005-6] Preece, John E.; Read, Paul E. (2005). The biology of horticulture: an introductory textbook (2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 4–6. ISBN 0-471-46579-8.

[7] Arteca, Richard N. (2015). Introduction to Horticultural Science (2 ed.). Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning. p. 584. ISBN 978-1-111-31279-4.

[8] "Why Horticulture?". Department of Horticultural Science. University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 2019-05-02. Retrieved 2 May 2019.

[9] "22 Jobs in Horticulture (With Salaries and Primary Duties)". Indeed. February 2, 2024. Retrieved February 14, 2024.

[:4-10] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 Baeyer, E. "The development and history of horticulture". World Environmental History. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS).

[11] Solomon, Dawit, Johannes Lehmann, Janice Thies, Thorsten Schafer, Biqing Liang, James Kinyangi, Eduardo Neves, James Petersen, Flio Luizao, and Jan Skjemstad, Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic carbone in Amazonian Dark Earths, Geochemica et cosmochemica ACTA 71.9 2285–2286 (2007) ("Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin.") (internal citations omitted)

[12] Glaser, Bruno, Johannes Lehmann, and Wolfgang Zech, Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review, Biology and Fertility of Soils 35.4 219–220 (2002) ("These so called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils, large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques.") (internal citations omitted)

[Hagen,_V.W._19572-13] von Hagen, V.W. (1957) The Ancient Sun Kingdoms Of The Americas. Ohio: The World Publishing Company

[14] Thompson, S.I. (1977) Women, Horticulture, and Society in Tropical America. American Anthropologist, N.S., 79: 908–10

[15] Pollan, Michael (2001). The Botany of Desire. Random House. ISBN 0-375-50129-0.

[16] Arteca, Richard N. (2014-02-14). Introduction to Horticultural Science. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-17780-2. Archived from the original on 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2022-12-07.

[17] Peter, K. V. (2009-02-05). Basics Of Horticulture. New India Publishing. ISBN 978-81-89422-55-4. Archived from the original on 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2022-12-07.

[:1-18] "Horticultural Practices". District of Saanich. Archived from the original on 2022-12-06. Retrieved 2022-12-06.

[:0-19] 19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 ^19.3 ^19.4 "Horticulture | Definition, Types, Techniques, & Uses | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2022-12-07.

[20] "Greenhouse Farming Explained: Types, Benefits, Techniques, Costs, Crops & More - Agriplast Protected Cultivation". www.protectedcultivation.com.

[21] Avinash Chandra Rai, ed. (2021). Stress tolerance in horticultural crops: challenges and mitigation strategies. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-323-85363-7. OCLC 1251764903.

[22] Colin W. Wrigley; Harold Corke; Koushik Seetharaman; Jonathan Faubion, eds. (2016). Encyclopedia of food grains (Second ed.). Kidlington, Oxford, UK: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-394786-4. OCLC 939553708.

[23] Elhadi M. Yahia; Armando Carrillo-Lopez, eds. (2019). Postharvest physiology and biochemistry of fruits and vegetables. Duxford: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-813279-1. OCLC 1061148070.

[24] Pantazi, Xanthoula-Eirini; Dimitrios Moshou; Dionysis Bochtis (2020). Intelligent data mining and fusion systems in agriculture. London: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-814392-6. OCLC 1124761701.

[25] Hussein, Zaharan; Fawole, Olaniyi A.; Opara, Umezuruike Linus (2020-01-01). "Harvest and Postharvest Factors Affecting Bruise Damage of Fresh Fruits". Horticultural Plant Journal. 6 (1): 1–13. Bibcode:2020HorPJ...6....1H. doi:10.1016/j.hpj.2019.07.006. hdl:10019.1/125649. ISSN 2468-0141. S2CID 202847840. Archived from the original on 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2022-12-07.

[:2-26] 26.0 ^26.1 Elhadi M. Yahia, ed. (2019). Postharvest technology of perishable horticultural commodities. Duxford: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-813277-7. OCLC 1109725060.

[27] Liu, Yang; Zhang, Chunling; Wang, Xiaofei; Li, Xiuming; You, Chunxiang (2022-07-01). "CRISPR/Cas9 technology and its application in horticultural crops". Horticultural Plant Journal. 8 (4): 395–407. Bibcode:2022HorPJ...8..395L. doi:10.1016/j.hpj.2022.04.007. ISSN 2468-0141. S2CID 248462799.

[28] Wang, Tian; Zhang, Chunjiao; Zhang, Hongyan; Zhu, Hongliang (2021-11-17). "CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing Revolutionizes the Improvement of Horticulture Food Crops". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 69 (45): 13260–13269. Bibcode:2021JAFC...6913260W. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 33734711. S2CID 232302738. Archived from the original on 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2022-12-07.

[29] Mookerjee, Sonali (2023-11-30). "Gene-editing primer: What's the difference between CRISPR crops and GMOs?". Genetic Literacy Project. Retrieved 2024-03-06.

[30] "Ancient society of York Florists,oldest horticultural society in world,longest running horticultural show in world established 1768, flower shows in york yorkshire uk,horticultural shows in york yorkshire uk, vegetable shows in york yorkshire uk, fruit shows in york yorkshire uk, floral art shows in york yorkshire uk,handicrafts and baking shows in york uk,dahlia shows in york yorkshire uk,gladioli shows in york yorkshire uk,chrysanthemum shows in york yorkshire uk, auricula shows in york yorkshire uk, sweet pea shows in york yorkshire uk". www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2018-11-12. Retrieved 2016-07-13.

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[35] "Headquarters". IAHS. Archived from the original on 2021-08-19. Retrieved 2021-08-19.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Small-scale cultivation of plants}}
 [[File:Horticulturist Amy Boul by Lance Cheung.jpg|thumb|A horticulture student tending to plants in a [[Market garden|garden]] in [[Lawrenceville, Georgia]], March 2015]]
-[[File:Charrette des maraîchers de Vottem Belgique.jpg|thumb|right|Typical cart used in horticulture in [[Vottem]], Belgium]]
+[[File:Shrub, Topiary Garden.jpg|thumb|The Rock Garden, [[Leonardslee Gardens]]]]
+'''Horticulture''' (from {{langx|la|[[wikt:hortus|horti]] + culture}}) is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants. Horticulture is different from general agriculture, agronomy, and gardening in that it involves specialization and controlled cultivation and management of plants and their ecosystems. It can be distinguished by its subfields and or unique botanical expressions. There are various divisions of horticulture because plants are grown for a variety of purposes.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Rice |first=Laura W. |title=Practical Horticulture; A Guide to Growing Indoor and Outdoor Plants |publisher=Reston |year=1980 |location=USA}}</ref> These divisions include, but are not limited to: [[Plant propagation|propagation]], [[arboriculture]], [[landscaping]], [[floriculture]] and [[Sod|turf]] maintenance. For each of these, there are various professions, aspects, tools used and associated challenges -- each requiring highly specialized skills and knowledge on the part of the horticulturist.
-'''Horticulture''' is the cultivation of plants in [[garden]]s or [[greenhouse]]s, as opposed to the field-scale production of crops characteristic of [[agriculture]]. It includes the cultivation of [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[seed]]s, [[herb]]s, [[Sprouting|sprout]]s, [[mushroom]]s, [[algae]], [[flower]]s, [[seaweed]]s and non-food crops such as [[Poaceae|grass]] and [[Ornamental plant|ornamental trees and plants]]. It also includes plant conservation, landscape restoration, [[Landscaping|landscape]] and [[garden design]], construction, and maintenance, and [[arboriculture]], ornamental trees and [[Lawn|lawns]].<ref name="Preece-Biology-2005">{{Cite book| first1=John E.| last1=Preece| first2=Paul E.| last2=Read| title=The biology of horticulture: an introductory textbook| year=2005| edition=2| publisher=John Wiley & Sons| isbn=0-471-46579-8| pages=4–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| first1=Richard N.| last1=Arteca| title=Introduction to Horticultural Science| edition=2| year=2015| publisher=Cengage Learning| location=Stamford, Connecticut | page=584| isbn=978-1-111-31279-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://horticulture.umn.edu/students/why-horticulture|title=Why Horticulture?|website=Department of Horticultural Science|publisher=University of Minnesota|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502082101/https://horticulture.umn.edu/students/why-horticulture|archive-date=2019-05-02|access-date=2 May 2019}}</ref>
+Typically, horticulture is characterized as the ornamental, small-scale and non-industrial cultivation of plants; horticulture is distinct from gardening by its emphasis on scientific methods, plant breeding, and technical cultivation practices, while gardening, even at a professional level, tends to focus more on the aesthetic care and maintenance of plants in gardens or landscapes. However, some aspects of horticulture are industrialized or commercial such as greenhouse production or CEA.
-In [[anthropology]], horticulture refers to a [[Subsistence pattern|subsistence strategy]] characterized by the small-scale, non-industrial cultivation of plants for food.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lassiter |first1=Luke E. |title=Invitation to Anthropology |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780759122550 |page=118 |edition=4th}}</ref> Horticulture involves the use of hand tools such as [[Digging stick|digging sticks]], [[Hoe (tool)|hoes]] and carrying baskets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Barbara D. |title=Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=9780205683291 |page=93 |edition=5th}}</ref> In contrast to horticulture, agriculture is viewed by anthropologists as a more intensive strategy involving the use of [[Plough|plowing]], [[Working animal|animal traction]] and complex techniques of [[irrigation]] and [[soil management]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nanda |first1=Serena |title=Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |isbn=9780534617066 |page=148 |edition=9th}}</ref>
+Horticulture began with the [[Domestication|domestication of plants]] {{Circa|10,000|20,000}} years ago.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=October 19, 2023 |title=Domestication |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/domestication/ |access-date=April 3, 2023 |website=National Geographic}}</ref><ref name=":3" />{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[BP:NOTRS]]).|date=April 2025}} At first, only plants for sustenance were grown and maintained, but as humanity became increasingly sedentary, plants were grown for their ornamental value.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} Horticulture emerged as a distinct field from [[agriculture]] when humans sought to cultivate plants for pleasure on a smaller scale rather than exclusively for sustenance.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}
-The study and practice of horticulture have been traced back thousands of years. Horticulture contributed to the transition from nomadic human communities to sedentary, or semi-sedentary, horticultural communities.<ref name="Hagen, V.W. 1957">von Hagen, V.W. (1957) The Ancient Sun Kingdoms Of The Americas. Ohio: The World Publishing Company</ref> Horticulture is divided into several categories which focus on the cultivation and processing of different types of plants and food items for specific purposes. In order to conserve the science of horticulture, multiple organizations worldwide educate, encourage, and promote the advancement of horticulture. Some notable horticulturists include [[Luca Ghini]] and [[Luther Burbank]].
+Emerging technologies are moving the industry forward, especially in the alteration of plants to be more resistant to parasites, disease and drought. Modifying technologies such as [[CRISPR]] are also improving the nutrition, taste and yield of crops.
-==Definition==
+Many horticultural organizations and societies around the world have been formed by horticulturists and those within the industry. These include the [[Royal Horticultural Society]], the [[International Society for Horticultural Science]],<ref name=":6" /> and the [[American Society of Horticultural Science]].<ref name=":7" />
-[[File:027 Flowers at Algemene warenmarkt - market in Grote Markt, Breda, Netherlands.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Flower seedlings at a market in [[Breda]], Netherlands]]
-Horticulture, from Latin ''hortus'' meaning garden and ''colere'' meaning to cultivate,<ref name="Janick">{{Cite book |last=Janick |first=Jules |oclc=4194358 |title=Horticultural science |isbn=0-7167-1031-5 |page=1}}</ref> focuses on the use of small plots,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sutton |first1=Mark Q. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zgr-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |title=An Introduction to Cultural Ecology |last2=Anderson |first2=E. N. |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-32535-5 |language=en |access-date=2022-11-11 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181021/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zgr-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |url-status=live }}</ref> in contrast to [[agronomy]] which involves intensive crop farming and large-scale field crop production of grains and [[Forage|forages]] or [[forestry]] involving forest trees and products derived from them.{{sfn|Janick|1979|p=1}} It deals with garden crops such as ornamental plants grown for their appearance, fruits and vegetable and spices grown for their food value, and medicinal plants.{{sfn|Janick|1979|p=1}}
-==Types==
+==Divisions of horticulture and types of horticulturists==
-There are several major areas of focus within the science of horticulture.<ref name="Preece-Biology-2005" /> They include:
+There are divisions and sub-divisions within horticulture because plants are grown for many different reasons. Some of the divisions in horticulture include:
-* [[Olericulture]]: the production of vegetables.
+* [[gardening]]
-* [[Pomology]], also called ''fruticulture'': the production of fruits and nuts.
+* [[plant propagation|plant production and propagation]]
-* [[Viticulture]]: the production of grapes (largely intended for winemaking).
+* [[arboriculture]]
-* [[Floriculture]]: the production of flowering and ornamental plants.
+* [[landscaping]]
-* [[Turf management]]: the production and maintenance of turf grass for sports, leisure and amenity use.
+* [[floriculture]]
-* [[Arboriculture]]: the cultivation and care of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants, primarily for landscape and amenity purposes.
+* [[garden design]] and maintenance
-* [[Landscape horticulture]]: the selection, production and care of plants used in landscape architecture.
+* [[turf]] maintenance
-* [[Postharvest physiology]]: the management of harvested horticultural crops to retard spoilage while stored or transported.
+* [[Conservation biology|plant conservation]] and landscape restoration.<ref name="Preece-Biology-2005">{{Cite book |last1=Preece |first1=John E. |title=The biology of horticulture: an introductory textbook |last2=Read |first2=Paul E. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2005 |isbn=0-471-46579-8 |edition=2 |pages=4–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Arteca |first1=Richard N. |title=Introduction to Horticultural Science |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-111-31279-4 |edition=2 |location=Stamford, Connecticut |page=584}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Why Horticulture? |url=https://horticulture.umn.edu/students/why-horticulture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502082101/https://horticulture.umn.edu/students/why-horticulture |archive-date=2019-05-02 |access-date=2 May 2019 |website=Department of Horticultural Science |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref>
-* Environmental horticulture: the science and management of green spaces.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cameron |first1=Ross |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zoDDAAAQBAJ |title=Environmental Horticulture: Science and Management of Green Landscapes |last2=Hitchmough |first2=James |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-78064-138-6 |language=en |access-date=2022-11-15 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181020/https://books.google.com/books?id=-zoDDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
-* Interiorscaping: the science and art of using indoor plants. It has an important role in house, hotel, office and mall decor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Horticulture and its Branches |url=https://www.agrihortieducation.com/2016/07/definitions-of-horticulture-and-its.html |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=agrihortieducation.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206230537/https://www.agrihortieducation.com/2016/07/definitions-of-horticulture-and-its.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
-* Spices Crops Culture: deals with the cultivation of spice crops which include pepper, nutmeg and cardamom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fundamentals of Horticulture: Branches of Horticulture |url=http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=148108 |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180940/http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=148108 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-* Plantation Crops Culture: deals with the plantation crop growth.
-* Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Culture: deals with growing and handling of medicinal and aromatic plants.
-* Post-Harvest Management: deals with the post-harvest handling, processing and marketing of horticultural products. It also includes grading, packaging and storage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Horticulture and its Branches |url=https://www.agrihortieducation.com/2016/07/definitions-of-horticulture-and-its.html |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=agrihortieducation.com |language=en |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180939/https://www.agrihortieducation.com/2016/07/definitions-of-horticulture-and-its.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
-==History==
+It includes the cultivation of all plants including, but not limited to: [[ornamental plant]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[flower]]s, [[Sod|turf]], [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[seed]]s, [[herb]]s and other [[Medicinal plants|medicinal/edible plants.]] This cultivation may occur in [[garden]] spaces, [[Plant nursery|nurseries]], [[greenhouse]]s, [[vineyard]]s, [[orchard]]s, [[park]]s, recreation areas, etc. {{cn|date=February 2025}}[[File:027 Flowers at Algemene warenmarkt - market in Grote Markt, Breda, Netherlands.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Flower seedlings at a market in [[Breda]], Netherlands]]
-The history of horticulture overlaps with the [[history of agriculture]] and [[history of botany]].
-The origins of horticulture lie in the transition of human communities from a nomadic lifestyle as [[hunter-gatherers]] to sedentary, or semi-sedentary, horticultural communities. In the Pre-Columbian Amazon Rainforest, natives used [[biochar]] to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste.<ref>Solomon, Dawit, Johannes Lehmann, Janice Thies, Thorsten Schafer, Biqing Liang, James Kinyangi, Eduardo Neves, James Petersen, Flavio Luizao, and Jan Skjemstad, ''Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic carbone in Amazonian Dark Earths'', Geochemica et cosmochemica ACTA 71.9 2285–2286 (2007) ("Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin.") (internal citations omitted)</ref> European settlers called this soil [[Terra Preta de Indio]].<ref>Glaser, Bruno, Johannes Lehmann, and Wolfgang Zech,'' Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review'', Biology and Fertility of Soils 35.4 219-220 (2002) ("These so called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques.") (internal citations omitted)</ref> In forest areas, such horticulture was often carried out in [[swidden]]s, or "[[slash and burn]]" areas.<ref>McGee, J.R. and Kruse, M. (1986) Swidden horticulture among the Lacandon Maya [videorecording (29 mins.)]. University of California, Berkeley: Extension Media Center</ref> In pre-contact North America, the semi-sedentary horticultural communities of the Eastern Woodlands, who grew maize, squash, and sunflower, contrasted markedly with the nomadic [[hunter-gatherer]] communities of the [[Plains Indians|Plains people]]. [[Mesoamerican]] cultures focused in the cultivating of crops on a small scale, such as the "[[milpa]]" or maize field, around their dwellings or in specialized plots which were visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next.<ref name="Hagen, V.W. 1957"/> In Central America, [[Maya peoples|Maya]] horticulture involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as [[papaya]], [[avocado]], [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], [[ceiba]] and [[sapodilla]]. In the cornfields, multiple crops such as beans, squash, pumpkins and chili peppers were grown, and in some cultures, these crops were tended mainly or exclusively by women.<ref>Thompson, S.I. (1977) Women, Horticulture, and Society in Tropical America. American Anthropologist, N.S., 79: 908–10</ref>
+Horticulturists study and practice the cultivation of plant material professionally. There are many different types of horticulturists with different job titles, including: [[gardener]], grower, [[farmer]], [[arborist]], [[Floriculture|floriculturist]], [[Landscaping|landscaper]], agronomist, designer, landscape architect, lawn-care specialist, nursery manager, botanical garden curator, horticulture therapist, and much more.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 2, 2024 |title=22 Jobs in Horticulture (With Salaries and Primary Duties) |url=https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/finding-a-job/careers-in-horticulture |access-date=February 14, 2024 |website=Indeed}}</ref> They may be hired by a variety of companies/institutions including, but not limited to: botanical gardens, private/public gardens, parks, cemeteries, greenhouses, golf courses, vineyards, estates, landscaping companies, nurseries, educational institutions, etc. They may also be self-employed.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
-==Organizations==
+== History ==
-There are various organizations worldwide that focus on promoting and encouraging research and education in all branches of horticultural science; such organizations include the [[International Society for Horticultural Science]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ishs.org/about|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922225337/http://ishs.org/about|title=ISHS|archive-date=September 22, 2012}}</ref> and the [[American Society of Horticultural Science]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ashs.org/|title=ASHS|publisher=ashs.org|access-date=2016-06-11|archive-date=2017-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811103104/http://www.ashs.org/}}</ref>
+Horticulture began with the domestication of plants 10,000–20,000 years ago and has since been deeply integrated into human history.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":3" /> The domestication of plants occurred independently within various civilizations across the globe. The history of horticulture overlaps with the [[history of agriculture]] and [[history of botany]], as all three originated with the domestication of various plants for food.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |editor-last=Carey |editor-first=John |chapter=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |date=2022-11-15 |title=Sunday Best |pages=283–286 |publisher=Yale University Press |doi=10.12987/yale/9780300266689.003.0077 |isbn=978-0-300-26668-9}}</ref>  In Europe, agriculture and horticulture diverged at some point during the Middle Ages.<ref name=":4">Baeyer, E. "[https://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c09/e6-156-07-00.pdf The development and history of horticulture]". ''World Environmental History''. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS).</ref>
-In United Kingdom, there are two main horticulture societies. The [[Ancient Society of York Florists]] is the oldest horticultural society in the world and was founded in 1768; this organization continues to host four horticultural shows annually in York, UK.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk/|title=Ancient society of York Florists,oldest horticultural society in world,longest running horticultural show in world established 1768, flower shows in york yorkshire uk,horticultural shows in york yorkshire uk, vegetable shows in york yorkshire uk, fruit shows in york yorkshire uk, floral art shows in york yorkshire uk,handicrafts and baking shows in york uk,dahlia shows in york yorkshire uk,gladioli shows in york yorkshire uk,chrysanthemum shows in york yorkshire uk, auricula shows in york yorkshire uk, sweet pea shows in york yorkshire uk|website=www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk|access-date=2016-07-13|archive-date=2018-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112171754/http://ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, [[Royal Horticultural Society|The Royal Horticultural Society]], established in 1804, is a charity in United Kingdom that leads on the encouragement and improvement of the science, art, and practice of horticulture in all its branches.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/science|title=The Royal Horticultural Society, UK charity focussed on the art, science and practice of horticulture.|website=The Royal Horticultural Society Website|access-date=2018-01-13|archive-date=2019-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526150441/https://www.rhs.org.uk/science|url-status=live}}</ref> The organization shares the knowledge of horticulture through its community, learning programs, and world-class gardens and shows.{{Cn}}
+=== Early practices in horticulture ===
-The Chartered Institute of Horticulture (CIoH) is the professional body which represents horticulturists in Great Britain and Ireland<ref>{{Cite web|title=CIoH|url=http://www.horticulture.org.uk/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907015307/http://www.horticulture.org.uk/|archive-date=2015-09-07|website=Chartered Institute of Horticulture}}</ref> while also having an international branch for members outside of these islands. The Australian Society of Horticultural Science was established in 1990 as a professional society to promote and enhance Australian horticultural science and industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aushs.org.au/|title=Australian Society of Horticultural Science – Australian Society of Horticultural Science|access-date=2016-06-11|archive-date=2023-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180941/http://aushs.org.au/|url-status=live}}</ref> Finally, the New Zealand Horticulture Institute is another known horticultural organization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rnzih.org.nz/|title=RNZIH – Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture – Home Page|access-date=2012-10-26|archive-date=2023-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180944/https://www.rnzih.org.nz/|url-status=live}}</ref>
+Early practices in horticulture include various tools and methods of land management, with different methods and plant types used for different uses. Methods, tools and plants grown have always depended on the culture and climate.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
-In India, Horticultural Society of India (now Indian Academy of Horticultural Sciences) is the oldest society which was established in 1941 at Lyallpur, Punjab (now in Pakistan) but was later shifted to Delhi 1949.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Headquarters|url=https://www.iahs.org.in/headquarters/|access-date=2021-08-19|website=IAHS|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819171137/https://www.iahs.org.in/headquarters/|url-status=live}}</ref> The other notable organisation in operation since 2005 is the Society for Promotion of Horticulture based at Bengaluru.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPH|url=https://sph.iihr.res.in/about_us.php|access-date=2021-08-19|website=sph.iihr.res.in|archive-date=2021-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819171138/https://sph.iihr.res.in/about_us.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Both these societies publish scholarly journals viz., Indian Journal of Horticulture and Journal of Horticultural Sciences for the advancement of horticultural sciences.{{Cn}} Horticulture in the Indian state of [[Kerala]] is spearheaded by [[Kerala State Horticulture Mission]].
+==== Pre-colonized North and Central America ====
+Many traditional horticultural practices are known, such as the Indigenous peoples of pre-colonized North America using [[biochar]] to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste<ref>Solomon, Dawit, Johannes Lehmann, Janice Thies, Thorsten Schafer, Biqing Liang, James Kinyangi, Eduardo Neves, James Petersen, Flio Luizao, and Jan Skjemstad, ''Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic carbone in Amazonian Dark Earths'', Geochemica et cosmochemica ACTA 71.9 2285–2286 (2007) ("Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin.") (internal citations omitted)</ref>{{snd}}European settlers called this soil ''[[Terra Preta de Indio]]''.<ref>Glaser, Bruno, Johannes Lehmann, and Wolfgang Zech,'' Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review'', Biology and Fertility of Soils 35.4 219–220 (2002) ("These so called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils, large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques.") (internal citations omitted)</ref> In North America, Indigenous people grew maize, squash, and sunflower, among other crops. [[Mesoamerican]] cultures focused on cultivating crops on a small scale, such as the [[milpa]] or maize field, around their dwellings or in specialized plots which were visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next.<ref name="Hagen, V.W. 19572">von Hagen, V.W. (1957) The Ancient Sun Kingdoms Of The Americas. Ohio: The World Publishing Company</ref> In Central America, the [[Maya people|Maya]] involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as [[papaya]], [[avocado]], [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], [[ceiba]] and [[sapodilla]]. In the fields, multiple crops such as beans, squash, pumpkins and chili peppers were grown. The first ''horticulturists'' in many cultures were mainly or exclusively women.<ref>Thompson, S.I. (1977) Women, Horticulture, and Society in Tropical America. American Anthropologist, N.S., 79: 908–10</ref>
-The [[National Junior Horticultural Association]] (NJHA) was established in 1934 and was the first organization in the world dedicated solely to youth and horticulture. NJHA programs are designed to help young people obtain a basic understanding of horticulture and develop skills in this ever-expanding art and science.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.njha.org/|title=Home – NJHA|access-date=2016-06-11|archive-date=2023-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180942/https://www.njha.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>
+=== Historical uses for plants in horticulture ===
+In addition to plants' medicinal and nutritional value, plants have also been grown for their beauty, to impress and to demonstrate power, knowledge, status and even wealth of those in control of the cultivated plant material. This symbolic power that plants hold has existed even before the beginnings of their cultivation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pollan |first=Michael |title=The Botany of Desire |publisher=Random House |isbn=0-375-50129-0 |date=2001 |language=en}}</ref>
-The Global Horticulture Initiative (GlobalHort) fosters partnerships and collective action among different stakeholders in horticulture. This organization has a special focus on horticulture for development (H4D), which involves using horticulture to reduce poverty and improve nutrition worldwide. GlobalHort is organized in a consortium of national and international organizations which collaborate in research, training, and technology-generating activities designed to meet mutually-agreed-upon objectives. GlobalHort is a non-profit organization registered in Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalhort.org/|title=The Global Horticulture Initiative|access-date=2016-06-11|archive-date=2018-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413061926/http://www.globalhort.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>
+There is evidence that various gardens maintained by the [[Aztecs]] were sacred, as they grew plants that held religious value. Plants were grown for their metaphorical relation to gods and goddesses.<ref name=":4" /> Flowers held symbolic power in religious rites, as they were offered to the gods and given in ceremonies to leaders to demonstrate their connection to the gods.<ref name=":4" />
-== Techniques and practices ==
+== Aspects of horticulture ==
 === Propagation ===
 {{main|Plant propagation}}
-Plant propagation in horticulture is the process in which the multiplication of a species or cultivar is controlled to fit the desire of the horticulturalist. It is primarily used to increase the number of individual plants while preserving wanted genetic and morphological characteristics. Propagation involves both sexual or [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] methods.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arteca |first=Richard N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84XAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |title=Introduction to Horticultural Science |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-17780-2 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181036/https://books.google.com/books?id=84XAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |url-status=live }}</ref> In sexual propagation seeds are used, while asexual propagation involves the division of plants, separation of tubers, corms, and bulbs and techniques such as cutting, layering, grafting.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter |first=K. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWMa741kG_gC&pg=PA338 |title=Basics Of Horticulture |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-55-4 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181048/https://books.google.com/books?id=NWMa741kG_gC&pg=PA338 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-Seed propagation is a common method for both [[Self-pollination|self-pollinating]] and cross-pollinating plants.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Orton |first=Thomas J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rte_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |title=Horticultural Plant Breeding |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-815570-7 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181038/https://books.google.com/books?id=rte_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }}</ref> If stored in a cool, dry environment, seeds can last years and are a space efficient way to store plants and rarely transmit viruses. However, seeds do not preserve genetic homogeneity and depending on the species, can take a long time to grow into a mature plant.
+Plant propagation in horticulture is the process by which the number of individual plants is increased. Propagation involves both sexual and [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] methods.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arteca |first=Richard N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84XAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |title=Introduction to Horticultural Science |date=2014-02-14 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-17780-2 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181036/https://books.google.com/books?id=84XAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |url-status=live }}</ref> Sexual propagation uses seeds, while asexual propagation involves the division of plants, separation of tubers, corms, and bulbs using techniques such as cutting, layering, grafting.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter |first=K. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWMa741kG_gC&pg=PA338 |title=Basics Of Horticulture |date=2009-02-05 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-55-4 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181048/https://books.google.com/books?id=NWMa741kG_gC&pg=PA338 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-Asexual, or vegetative propagation relies on the regeneration of plant tissues. Asexual propagation preserves genetic and morphological characteristics and allows for the propagation of species that do not produce seeds. However, the reduced genetic diversity means every individual produced is susceptible to the same diseases.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Horticulture {{!}} Definition, Types, Techniques, & Uses {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/horticulture |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207032531/https://www.britannica.com/science/horticulture |url-status=live }}</ref>
+=== Plant selection ===
+When selecting plants to cultivate, a horticulturist may consider aspects based on the plant's intended use, including plant morphology, rarity, and utility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Horticultural Practices |url=https://www.saanich.ca/EN/main/parks-recreation-community/parks/horticulture/horticultural-practices.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206230537/https://www.saanich.ca/EN/main/parks-recreation-community/parks/horticulture/horticultural-practices.html |archive-date=2022-12-06 |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=District of Saanich |language=en}}</ref> When selecting plants for the landscape, observations of the location must be made first. Soil type, temperature, climate, light, moisture, and pre-existing plants are considered when selecting plant material for the location. Plant selection may be for annual displays, or they may be for more permanent plantings. Characteristics of the plant{{snd}}such as mature height and size, colour, growth habit, ornamental value, flowering time and invasive potential{{snd}}finalize the plant selection process.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
-Asexual propagation techniques include the use of:
+=== Controlling environmental/growing variables ===
+Environmental factors affecting plant development include temperature, light, water, [[soil pH]], nutrient availability, weather, humidity, elevation, terrain, and micro-climate.<ref name=":5" /> In horticulture, these environmental variables may be avoided, controlled or manipulated in an indoor growing environment.
-* Apomictic seeds
+==== Temperature ====
-* Vegetative structures capable of regenerating entire plants such as tubers, corms, and runners.
+Plants require specific temperatures to grow and develop properly. Temperature can be controlled through a variety of methods. Covering plants with plastic in the form of cones called hot caps, or tunnels, can help to manipulate the surrounding temperature. Mulching is also an effective method to protect outdoor plants from frost during the winter. Inside, other frost prevention methods include wind machines, heaters, and sprinklers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Horticulture {{!}} Definition, Types, Techniques, & Uses {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/horticulture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207032531/https://www.britannica.com/science/horticulture |archive-date=2022-12-07 |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
-* Layering: propagation by manipulating the plant into regenerating missing parts, the part being regenerated is attached to the original plant. Roots and shoots can be used.
-* Cuttings: like layering, except the regenerated part is free from the original plant. Roots, stems, or leaves can be used.
-* Grafting: propagation using natural regeneration to fuse two plant parts with callus tissue. The plant part containing the root is the stock, the part being grafted unto the stock is the scion.
-* Budding: when the scion of a graft is a single plant bud.
-* Tissue culture: propagation involving placing plant tissue, which can be embryos, shoot tips, and callus, onto a substrate supplying food (sugars), inorganic and organic compounds, and growth regulators catered to the type of tissue used.
-* Embryo culture: used for species that do not grow an embryo within their fruit.
-* Shoot tip culture: useful for producing plants without the risk of disease.
-* Callus tissue culture: an experimental method of propagation by which callus tissue is grown and manipulated to differentiate into other plant organ tissue. This method is used in scientific research but is currently considered impractical for horticulture.<ref name=":0" />
-=== Controlling environmental variables ===
+==== Light ====
-Environmental control is involved at all scales of horticulture, although the extensiveness of control varies between hobbyist and commercial horticulture. Basic control involves planting  location, sunlight availability, water availability, latitude, and longitude.<ref name=":0" />
+Plants have evolved to require different amounts of light and lengths of daytime; their growth and development are determined by the amount of light they receive. Control of this may be achieved artificially with fluorescent lights in an indoor setting. Manipulating the amount of light also controls flowering. Lengthening the day encourages the flowering of long-day plants and discourages the flowering of short-day plants.<ref name=":0" />
-More intensive control can involve the use of cold frames, greenhouses, and shade houses. Cold frames provide an enclosed environment, they are built close to the ground and with a top made of glass or plastic. The glass or plastic allows sunlight into the frame during the day and prevents heat loss that would have been lost as long-wave radiation at night. This allows plants to start to be grown before the growing season starts. Greenhouses are similar in function, but are larger in construction and heated with an external source, such as steam. They can be built out of glass, although they are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning as well as automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration.<ref name=":0" />
+==== Water ====
+Water management methods involve employing irrigation and drainage systems and controlling soil moisture to the needs of the species. Irrigation methods include surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, sub-irrigation, and trickle irrigation. Watering volume, pressure, and frequency are changed to optimize the growing environment. On a small scale, watering can be done manually.<ref name=":0" />
-Temperature control can be done through a variety of methods. Covering plants with plastic in the form of cones, called hot caps, or tunnels can have the same effect as greenhouses. Mulching is also an effective method to protect plants from frost. Other frost prevention methods include the use of wind machines, heaters, and sprinklers.<ref name=":0" />
+==== Growing media and soil management ====
+The choice of growing media and components to the media help support plant life. Within a greenhouse environment, growers may choose to grow their plants in an [[Aquaponics|aquaponic]] system where no soil is used. Growers within a greenhouse setting will often opt for a soilless mix which does not include any actual components of naturally occurring soil. These mixes are generally very available within the industry and offer advantages such as water absorption and sterility.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
-Light control by artificially increasing or decreasing the effective length of day through the use of fluorescent lights determines the time in which photosynthesis can occur. This increases the time in which the plant can grow and develop. Controlling the amount of light also controls which plants flower, lengthening the day encourages the flowering of long-day plants and discourages the flowering of short-day plants.<ref name=":0" />
+Soil management methods are broad but include the applying fertilizers, planned crop rotation to prevent the soil degradation seen in monocultures, and soil analysis.<ref name=":0" />
-Soil management methods include the use of planned crop rotation to prevent the degradation of soils that are seen in monocultures (need ref), applying fertilisers, and soil analysis.<ref name=":0" />
 {{Further|CULTAN Fertilization}}
-Water management methods involve employing irrigation and drainage systems, controlling soil moisture to the needs of the species. Methods of irrigation include surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, subirrigation, and trickle irrigation. Volume of water, pressure, and frequency are changed to optimise the growing environment. On a small scale watering can be done manually.<ref name=":0" />
+==== Control by use of enclosed environments ====
+Abiotic factors such as weather, light and temperature are all things that can be manipulated with enclosed environments such as cold frames, [[greenhouse]]s, [[Conservatory (greenhouse)|conservatories]], [[Polytunnel|poly houses]] and shade houses. Materials used in constructing these buildings are chosen based on the climate, purpose and budget.<ref>{{cite news |title=Greenhouse Farming Explained: Types, Benefits, Techniques, Costs, Crops & More - Agriplast Protected Cultivation |url=https://www.protectedcultivation.com/blog/greenhouse-farming-explained-types-benefits-techniques-costs-crops-more |work=www.protectedcultivation.com |language=English}}</ref>
-=== Plant selection ===
+Cold frames provide an enclosed environment; they are built close to the ground and with a top made of glass or plastic. The glass or plastic allows sunlight into the frame during the day and prevents heat loss that would have been lost as long-wave radiation at night. This allows plants to begin growing before the growing season starts. Greenhouses and conservatories are similar in function but are larger and heated with an external energy source. They can be built out of glass but are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning and automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration.<ref name=":0" />
-When selecting plants to cultivate, a horticulturist may consider plant aspects based on their intended use and can include plant morphology, rarity, and utility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Horticultural Practices |url=https://www.saanich.ca/EN/main/parks-recreation-community/parks/horticulture/horticultural-practices.html |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=District of Saanich |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206230537/https://www.saanich.ca/EN/main/parks-recreation-community/parks/horticulture/horticultural-practices.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
-=== Pre-plant bed preparation ===
+== Challenges ==
-Before planting, plant beds are weeded, extra mulch is removed, fertilizers or other soil enrichment is added, the bed is tilled, and the irrigation system is tested.<ref name=":1" />
-=== Adding plants ===
+=== Abiotic stresses ===
-If transplanting plants from a pot to a soil bed, plants are planted at the same depth as the pot and are spaced as to not crowd the plants.<ref name=":1" />
+Commercial horticulture is required to support a rapidly growing population with demands for its products.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Stress tolerance in horticultural crops: challenges and mitigation strategies |date=2021 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |editor=Avinash Chandra Rai |isbn=978-0-323-85363-7 |location=Cambridge |oclc=1251764903}}</ref> Due to global climate change, extremes in temperatures, strength of precipitation events, flood frequency, and drought length and frequency are increasing. Together with other abiotic stressors such as salinity, [[heavy metal toxicity]], UV damage, and air pollution, stressful environments are created for crop production. This is extrapolated as evapotranspiration is increased, soils are degraded of nutrients, and oxygen levels are depleted, resulting in up to a 70% loss in crop yield.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
-=== Pruning ===
+=== Biotic stresses ===
-Pruning has multiple functions. If growing shrubs, pruning overgrowth helps preserve the shape. Pruning can also increase the amount of flower buds on some species of flowering plants.<ref name=":1" />
+Living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, insects, weeds and native plants are sources of biotic stresses and can deprive the host of nutrients.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of food grains |date=2016 |editor=Colin W. Wrigley |editor2=Harold Corke |editor3=Koushik Seetharaman |editor4=Jonathan Faubion |isbn=978-0-12-394786-4 |edition=Second |location=Kidlington, Oxford, UK |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=939553708}}</ref> Plants respond to these stresses using defence mechanisms such as morphological and structural barriers, chemical compounds, proteins, enzymes and hormones.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Postharvest physiology and biochemistry of fruits and vegetables |date=2019 |editor=Elhadi M. Yahia |editor2=Armando Carrillo-Lopez |isbn=978-0-12-813279-1 |location=Duxford |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1061148070}}</ref> The impact of biotic stresses can be prevented using practices such as incorporate tilling, spraying or Integrated Pest Management (IPM).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pantazi |first=Xanthoula-Eirini |title=Intelligent data mining and fusion systems in agriculture |date=2020 |author2=Dimitrios Moshou |author3=Dionysis Bochtis |isbn=978-0-12-814392-6 |location=London |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1124761701}}</ref>
-=== Mulching ===
+=== Harvest management ===
-Mulching is the process of applying a layer of mulch on top of the soil layer of a garden. Mulch is a natural weed suppressant, conserves moisture, and helps in moderating the soil temperature. There are different types of mulch and includes leaf and bark substrates.<ref name=":1" />
+Care is required to reduce damages and losses to horticultural crops during harvest.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hussein |first1=Zaharan |last2=Fawole |first2=Olaniyi A. |last3=Opara |first3=Umezuruike Linus |date=2020-01-01 |title=Harvest and Postharvest Factors Affecting Bruise Damage of Fresh Fruits |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014119301943 |journal=Horticultural Plant Journal |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/j.hpj.2019.07.006 |bibcode=2020HorPJ...6....1H |s2cid=202847840 |issn=2468-0141 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207070417/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014119301943 |url-status=live |hdl=10019.1/125649 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Compression forces occur during harvesting, and horticultural goods can be hit in a series of impacts during transport and packhouse operations. Different techniques are used to minimize mechanical injuries and wounding to plants such as:<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Postharvest technology of perishable horticultural commodities |date=2019 |editor=Elhadi M. Yahia |isbn=978-0-12-813277-7 |location=Duxford |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1109725060}}</ref>
+* Manual harvesting: This is the harvesting horticultural crops by hand. Fruits, such as apples, pears and peaches, can be harvested by clippers
+* Sanitation: Harvest bags, crates, clippers and other equipment must be cleaned before harvest.<ref name=":2" />
-=== Weed management ===
+== Emerging technology ==
-Weeds can be suppressed and managed through techniques such as mulching, selecting species that reduce weeds, and using cultural techniques.<ref name=":1" />
+[[CRISPR|Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)]] has recently gained recognition as a highly efficient, simplified, precise, and low-cost method of altering the genomes of species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunling |last3=Wang |first3=Xiaofei |last4=Li |first4=Xiuming |last5=You |first5=Chunxiang |date=2022-07-01 |title=CRISPR/Cas9 technology and its application in horticultural crops |journal=Horticultural Plant Journal |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=395–407 |doi=10.1016/j.hpj.2022.04.007 |s2cid=248462799 |issn=2468-0141 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022HorPJ...8..395L }}</ref> Since 2013, CRISPR has been used to enhance a variety of species of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Crops are modified to increase their resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors such as parasites, disease, and drought as well as increase yield, nutrition, and flavour.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tian |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunjiao |last3=Zhang |first3=Hongyan |last4=Zhu |first4=Hongliang |date=2021-11-17 |title=CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing Revolutionizes the Improvement of Horticulture Food Crops |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=69 |issue=45 |pages=13260–13269 |doi=10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |pmid=33734711 |bibcode=2021JAFC...6913260W |s2cid=232302738 |issn=0021-8561 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207050322/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Additionally, CRISPR has been used to edit undesirable traits, for example, reducing the browning and production of toxic and bitter substances of potatoes. CRISPR has also been employed to solve issues of low pollination rates and low fruit yield common in greenhouses. As compared to [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMO), CRISPR does not add any alien DNA to the plant's genes.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Sonali |last=Mookerjee |date=2023-11-30 |title=Gene-editing primer: What's the difference between CRISPR crops and GMOs? |url=https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2023/11/30/gene-editing-primer-whats-the-difference-between-crispr-crops-and-gmos/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Genetic Literacy Project |language=en-US}}</ref>
-== Challenges ==
+==Organizations==
+Various organizations worldwide focus on promoting and encouraging research and education in all branches of horticultural science; such organizations include the [[International Society for Horticultural Science]]<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=ISHS |url=http://ishs.org/about |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922225337/http://ishs.org/about |archive-date=September 22, 2012}}</ref> and the [[American Society of Horticultural Science]].<ref name=":7">{{cite web |title=ASHS |url=http://www.ashs.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811103104/http://www.ashs.org/ |archive-date=2017-08-11 |access-date=2016-06-11 |publisher=ashs.org}}</ref>
-=== Abiotic stresses ===
-Commercial horticulture is required to support a rapidly growing population with demands for its products.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Stress tolerance in horticultural crops: challenges and mitigation strategies |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |editor=Avinash Chandra Rai |isbn=978-0-323-85363-7 |location=Cambridge |oclc=1251764903}}</ref> Due to global climate change, extremes in temperatures, strength of precipitation events, flood frequency, and drought length and frequency are increasing. Together with other abiotic stressors such salinity, heavy metal toxicity, UV damage, and air pollution stressful environments are created for crop production as evapotranspiration is increased, soils are degraded of their nutrients, and oxygen levels are depleted, resulting in up to a 70% loss in crop yield.
-=== Biotic stresses ===
+In the United Kingdom, there are two main horticulture societies.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} The [[Ancient Society of York Florists]] is the oldest horticultural society in the world and was founded in 1768; this organization continues to host four horticultural shows annually in [[York]], England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient society of York Florists,oldest horticultural society in world,longest running horticultural show in world established 1768, flower shows in york yorkshire uk,horticultural shows in york yorkshire uk, vegetable shows in york yorkshire uk, fruit shows in york yorkshire uk, floral art shows in york yorkshire uk,handicrafts and baking shows in york uk,dahlia shows in york yorkshire uk,gladioli shows in york yorkshire uk,chrysanthemum shows in york yorkshire uk, auricula shows in york yorkshire uk, sweet pea shows in york yorkshire uk |url=http://www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112171754/http://ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk/ |archive-date=2018-11-12 |access-date=2016-07-13 |website=www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk}}</ref> Additionally, [[Royal Horticultural Society|The Royal Horticultural Society]], established in 1804, is a charity in United Kingdom that leads on the encouragement and improvement of the science, art, and practice of horticulture in all its branches.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Royal Horticultural Society, UK charity focussed on the art, science and practice of horticulture. |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/science |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526150441/https://www.rhs.org.uk/science |archive-date=2019-05-26 |access-date=2018-01-13 |website=The Royal Horticultural Society Website}}</ref> The organization shares the knowledge of horticulture through its community, learning programs, and world-class gardens and shows.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}
-Living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, insects, weeds and native plants are sources of biotics stresses and can deprive the host of its nutrients.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of food grains |editor=Colin W. Wrigley |editor2=Harold Corke |editor3=Koushik Seetharaman |editor4=Jonathan Faubion |isbn=978-0-12-394786-4 |edition=Second |location=Kidlington, Oxford, UK |oclc=939553708}}</ref> Plants respond to these stresses using defence mechanisms such as morphological and structural barriers, chemical compounds, proteins, enzymes and hormones.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Postharvest physiology and biochemistry of fruits and vegetables |editor=Elhadi M. Yahia |editor2=Armando Carrillo-Lopez |isbn=978-0-12-813279-1 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1061148070}}</ref> The impact of biotic stresses can be prevented using practices such as incorporate tilling, spraying or Integrated Pest Management (IPM).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pantazi |first=Xanthoula-Eirini |title=Intelligent data mining and fusion systems in agriculture |author2=Dimitrios Moshou |author3=Dionysis Bochtis |isbn=978-0-12-814392-6 |location=London |oclc=1124761701}}</ref>
-=== Transportation ===
+The [[Chartered Institute of Horticulture]] (CIH) is the Chartered professional body for horticulturists and horticultural scientists representing all sectors of the horticultural industry across Great Britain, Ireland and overseas. While horticulture is an unregulated profession in the United Kingdom, the title of Chartered Horticulturalist is regulated by the CIH.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chartered Horticulturist |url=https://www.regulated-professions.service.gov.uk/professions/chartered-horticulturist |website=[[GOV.UK]] |access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref> The [[Australian Institute of Horticulture]] and [[Australian Society of Horticultural Science]] were established in 1990 as a professional society to promote and enhance Australian horticultural science and industry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Australian Society of Horticultural Science – Australian Society of Horticultural Science |url=http://aushs.org.au/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180941/http://aushs.org.au/ |archive-date=2023-01-19 |access-date=2016-06-11}}</ref> Finally, the New Zealand Horticulture Institute is another known horticultural organization.<ref>{{cite web |title=RNZIH – Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture – Home Page |url=https://www.rnzih.org.nz/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180944/https://www.rnzih.org.nz/ |archive-date=2023-01-19 |access-date=2012-10-26}}</ref>
-After harvest, horticultural crops are sold commercially. Loading and in-transit conditions are a challenge to maintain the quality of the products.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of applied plant sciences |publisher=Academic Press |editor=Brian Thomas |editor2=Denis J. Murphy |editor3=Brian G. Murray |isbn=9780123948083 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |oclc=958565511}}</ref> Distance, transport time and transport methods are factors that need to be considered to minimise bruising and damage to horticultural goods.
-=== Harvest management ===
+In India, the Horticultural Society of India (now the Indian Academy of Horticultural Sciences) is the oldest society; it was established in 1941 at [[Lyallpur]], Punjab (now in Pakistan) but was later shifted to [[Delhi]] in 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Headquarters |url=https://www.iahs.org.in/headquarters/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819171137/https://www.iahs.org.in/headquarters/ |archive-date=2021-08-19 |access-date=2021-08-19 |website=IAHS |language=en-US}}</ref> The other notable organization in operation since 2005 is the Society for Promotion of Horticulture based at Bengaluru.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SPH |url=https://sph.iihr.res.in/about_us.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819171138/https://sph.iihr.res.in/about_us.php |archive-date=2021-08-19 |access-date=2021-08-19 |website=sph.iihr.res.in}}</ref> Both these societies publish scholarly journals – Indian Journal of Horticulture and [[Journal of Horticultural Sciences]] for the advancement of horticultural sciences.{{Cn|date=August 2021}} Horticulture in the Indian state of [[Kerala]] is led by [[Kerala State Horticulture Mission]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}
-Care is required to reduce damages and losses to horticultural crops during harvest.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hussein |first1=Zaharan |last2=Fawole |first2=Olaniyi A. |last3=Opara |first3=Umezuruike Linus |title=Harvest and Postharvest Factors Affecting Bruise Damage of Fresh Fruits |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014119301943 |journal=Horticultural Plant Journal |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/j.hpj.2019.07.006 |s2cid=202847840 |issn=2468-0141 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207070417/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014119301943 |url-status=live }}</ref> Compression forces occur during harvesting, and horticultural goods can be hit in a series of impacts during transport and packhouse operations. Different techniques are used to minimize mechanical injuries and wounding to plants such as:<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Postharvest technology of perishable horticultural commodities |editor=Elhadi M. Yahia |isbn=978-0-12-813277-7 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1109725060}}</ref>
-* Manual harvesting: This is the process of harvesting horticultural crops by hand. Fruits, such as apples, pears and peaches, can be harvested by clippers
+The [[National Junior Horticultural Association]] (NJHA) was established in 1934 and was the first organization in the world dedicated solely to youth and horticulture. NJHA programs are designed to help young people obtain a basic understanding of horticulture and develop horticultural skills.<ref>{{cite web |title=Home – NJHA |url=http://www.njha.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180942/https://www.njha.org/ |archive-date=2023-01-19 |access-date=2016-06-11}}</ref>
-* Sanitation: Harvest bags, crates, clippers and other equipment must be cleaned prior to harvest.<ref name=":2" />
-== Emerging technology ==
+The Global Horticulture Initiative (GlobalHort) fosters partnerships and collective action among different stakeholders in horticulture. This organization focuses on horticulture for development (H4D), which involves using horticulture to reduce poverty and improve nutrition worldwide. GlobalHort is organized in a consortium of national and international organizations which collaborate in research, training, and technology-generating activities designed to meet mutually agreed-upon objectives. GlobalHort is a non-profit organization registered in Belgium.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Global Horticulture Initiative |url=http://www.globalhort.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413061926/http://www.globalhort.org/ |archive-date=2018-04-13 |access-date=2016-06-11}}</ref>
-Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR/Cas9) has recently gained recognition as a highly efficient, simplified, precise, and low cost method of altering the genomes of species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunling |last3=Wang |first3=Xiaofei |last4=Li |first4=Xiuming |last5=You |first5=Chunxiang |title=CRISPR/Cas9 technology and its application in horticultural crops |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014122000462 |journal=Horticultural Plant Journal |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=395–407 |doi=10.1016/j.hpj.2022.04.007 |s2cid=248462799 |issn=2468-0141 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207050325/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014122000462 |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2013, CRISPR has been used to enhance a variety of species of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Crops are modified to increase their resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors such as parasites, disease, and drought as well as increase yield, nutrition, and flavour.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tian |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunjiao |last3=Zhang |first3=Hongyan |last4=Zhu |first4=Hongliang |title=CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing Revolutionizes the Improvement of Horticulture Food Crops |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=69 |issue=45 |pages=13260–13269 |doi=10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |pmid=33734711 |s2cid=232302738 |issn=0021-8561 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207050322/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, CRISPR has been used to edit undesirable traits, for example, reducing the browning and production of toxic and bitter substances of potatoes. CRISPR has also been employed to solve issues of low pollination rates and low fruit yield common in greenhouses.
 ==See also==
+{{Portal|Agriculture and Agronomy|Gardening}}
 {{div col|colwidth=22em}}
 * [[Agricultural science]]
-* [[Agronomy]]
+* [[Cultivated plant taxonomy]]
-* [[Floriculture]]
 * [[Forest gardening]]
-* [[Gardening]]
 * [[Genetically modified tree]]s
 * [[Genomics of domestication]]
+* [[Grow light]]
 * [[Hoe-farming]]
-* [[Horticultural botany]]
 * [[Horticultural flora]]
 * [[Horticultural oil]]
 * [[Horticultural therapy]]
 * [[Indigenous horticulture]]
-* [[Landscaping]]
 * [[Permaculture]]
+* [[Photosynthetically active radiation]]
 * [[Plant nutrition]]
 * [[Plug (horticulture)]]
@@ Line 152: / Line 131: @@
 ==Further reading==
-* C.R. Adams, ''Principles of Horticulture'' Butterworth-Heinemann; 5th edition (11 Aug 2008), {{ISBN|0-7506-8694-4}}.
+* C.R. Adams, ''Principles of Horticulture''. Butterworth-Heinemann; 5th edition (11 Aug 2008), {{ISBN|0-7506-8694-4}}.
 ==External links==
+{{Wikibooks|Horticulture}}
 {{div col|colwidth=30em}}
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150907015307/http://www.horticulture.org.uk/ The Institute of Horticulture]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150907015307/http://www.horticulture.org.uk/ The Institute of Horticulture] (archived 7 September 2015)
-* [http://www.ishs.org/ ISHS – International Society for Horticultural Science]
+* [https://www.ishs.org/ ISHS – International Society for Horticultural Science]
 * [http://www.rhs.org.uk/ The Royal Horticultural Society]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060626042637/http://www.bl.uk/collections/business/hortindu.html British Library] – information on the [[horticulture industry]]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060626042637/http://www.bl.uk/collections/business/hortindu.html British Library] – information on the [[horticulture industry]] (archived 26 June 2006)
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120910033023/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/default.html History of Horticulture]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120910033023/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/default.html History of Horticulture] (archived 10 September 2012)
-* [http://www.fao.org/hortivar HORTIVAR – The FAO Horticulture Cultivars Performance Database]
+* [https://www.fao.org/hortivar HORTIVAR – The FAO Horticulture Cultivars Performance Database]
 * [http://www.globalhort.org/ Global Horticulture Initiative – GlobalHort]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103903/http://www.hin.com.au/ Horticulture Information & Resource Library]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103903/http://www.hin.com.au/ Horticulture Information & Resource Library] (archived 4 October 2018)
-* [http://passel.unl.edu/ Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary]
+* [https://passel.unl.edu/ Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary]
 {{div col end}}
@@ Line 171: / Line 151: @@
 {{botany}}
 {{Types of societies}}
+{{Authority control}}
 [[Category:Horticulture| ]]
 [[Category:Agronomy]]
 [[Category:Agriculture by type]]
+[[Category:Plants in culture]]