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{{short description|Lingam with one or more human faces in Hinduism}} | {{short description|Lingam with one or more human faces in Hinduism}} | ||
[[File:Mukhalinga.JPG|thumb|[[ | [[File:Mukhalinga.JPG|thumb|A [[Gupta era]] one-faced mukhalinga, [[Bhumara]]]] | ||
[[File:Nepalese stone linga SF Asian Art Museum.JPG|thumb| | [[File:Nepalese stone linga SF Asian Art Museum.JPG|thumb|A four-faced mukhalinga, 10th century, [[Asian Art Museum of San Francisco|Asian Art Museum]]]] | ||
A '''mukhalinga''' or '''mukhalingam''' ([[Sanskrit]]: मुखलिङ्गम्, romanized: {{IAST|mukhaliṅga}}; literally "''lingam with a face''") is a [[linga|lingam]] represented with one or more human faces in [[Hindu iconography]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stutley |first=Margaret and James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tQWQDwAAQBAJ&dq=mukhalinga+linga&pg=PT345 |title=A Dictionary of Hinduism: Its Mythology, Folklore and Development 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1500 |date=2019-04-09 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-62754-5 |pages=345 |language=en}}</ref> A lingam is an aniconic representation of the Hindu god [[Shiva]]. Mukhalingas may be of stone or can be made of a metal sheath, which covers the normal lingam. | |||
A mukhalinga generally has one, four, or five faces. Mukhalingas having four faces are also regarded to have an invisible fifth face on top of the linga. The four- and five-faced mukhalingas represent the five aspects of Shiva,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao |first=T. A. Gopinatha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7mP3kDzGuoC&dq=mukhalinga+faces&pg=PA98-IA3 |title=Elements of Hindu Iconography |date=1985 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2 |pages=97 |language=en}}</ref> which also relate to the classical elements, and the cardinal directions. | |||
While the formless aspect of Shiva is classified as ''nishkala'' (non-material), mukhalingas are classified as ''sakala nishkala'' (material-non-material).<ref name="alayam">ALAYAM : The Hindu Temple;An Epitome of Hindu Culture; G.Venkataramana Reddy; Published by Adhyaksha; Sri Ramakrishna Math; {{ISBN|978-81-7823-542-4}}; Page 46</ref> | |||
==Iconography of stone Mukhalingas in texts== | ==Iconography of stone Mukhalingas in texts== | ||
The iconography and making of the mukhalinga is prescribed in the [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] and the [[Tantras]].<ref name="Rao97ff">Rao pp. 86-88</ref> These sculptured lingas fall under the classification of ''manusha-linga'' ("man-made lingas"), the other category being [[Swayambhu]] or naturally occurring lingas.<ref name="Rao97ff"/> A ''manusha-linga'' has three parts: the ''Brahma-bhaga'', the lowest part of the linga which is a square platform; ''Vishnu-bhaga'' - the middle section of the linga with a pedestal or ''pitha'' and ''Rudra-bhaga'', the topmost part of the central shaft with a rounded tip.<ref name="Rao97ff"/> Mukhalinga should be ''sarvasama'' ("all-equal"), where the three parts are equal. On the topmost ''rudra-bhaga'' or ''puja-bhaga'', one face and a maximum of five faces may be carved. If the sanctum (''[[garbhagriha]]'') has only one door, then the linga should have only one face on the front (the east), facing the door. In case of two doors, it should have two faces - front and back - facing the doors in the east and the west. In case of three doors, the linga should have three faces, except in the west. When the shrine has four doors, the linga may have four or five faces. The four faces should face the doors in the four cardinal directions; in addition if a fifth face exists, it should be carved on the top and face the front, the east. When mukhalinga is four-faced, instead of only faces, the [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]]s of the deities are carved on the four side; each having two arms.<ref name="Rao97ff"/> | The iconography and making of the mukhalinga is prescribed in the [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] and the [[Tantra|Tantras]].<ref name="Rao97ff">Rao pp. 86-88</ref> These sculptured lingas fall under the classification of ''manusha-linga'' ("man-made lingas"), the other category being [[Swayambhu]] or naturally occurring lingas.<ref name="Rao97ff"/> A ''manusha-linga'' has three parts: the ''Brahma-bhaga'', the lowest part of the linga which is a square platform; ''Vishnu-bhaga'' - the middle section of the linga with a pedestal or ''pitha'' and ''Rudra-bhaga'', the topmost part of the central shaft with a rounded tip.<ref name="Rao97ff"/> Mukhalinga should be ''sarvasama'' ("all-equal"), where the three parts are equal. On the topmost ''rudra-bhaga'' or ''puja-bhaga'', one face and a maximum of five faces may be carved. If the sanctum (''[[garbhagriha]]'') has only one door, then the linga should have only one face on the front (the east), facing the door. In case of two doors, it should have two faces - front and back - facing the doors in the east and the west. In case of three doors, the linga should have three faces, except in the west. When the shrine has four doors, the linga may have four or five faces. The four faces should face the doors in the four cardinal directions; in addition if a fifth face exists, it should be carved on the top and face the front, the east. When mukhalinga is four-faced, instead of only faces, the [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]]s of the deities are carved on the four side; each having two arms.<ref name="Rao97ff"/> | ||
The stone mukhalingas may be depicted comprising just of the central shaft, but may be part of the full assemble, where the shaft is embedded in the ''pitha'' pedestal, denoting the [[yoni]], the feminine counterpart.<ref name="Kossak139"/><ref name="Kossak143">Kossak p. 143</ref><ref name="MET"/> | The stone mukhalingas may be depicted comprising just of the central shaft, but may be part of the full assemble, where the shaft is embedded in the ''pitha'' pedestal, denoting the [[yoni]], the feminine counterpart.<ref name="Kossak139"/><ref name="Kossak143">Kossak p. 143</ref><ref name="MET"/> | ||
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==One-faced Mukhalinga== | ==One-faced Mukhalinga== | ||
The one-faced mukhalinga is called ''eka-mukhalinga'', "linga with a single face". The face is created in high relief. He wears his hair piled on his head like a bun, while longer hair flow over his shoulders.<ref name="Kossak94">Kossak p. 94</ref> He may also wear earrings and a necklace and have the crescent moon on his head and the third eye on the forehead.<ref name="MET"/> The faces of Shiva are carved generally from the ear onwards, emerging from the linga.<ref name="Kramrisch178">Kramrisch | The one-faced mukhalinga is called ''eka-mukhalinga'', "linga with a single face". The face is created in high relief. He wears his hair piled on his head like a bun, while longer hair flow over his shoulders.<ref name="Kossak94">Kossak p. 94</ref> He may also wear earrings and a necklace and have the crescent moon on his head and the third eye on the forehead.<ref name="MET"/> The faces of Shiva are carved generally from the ear onwards, emerging from the linga.<ref name="Kramrisch178">Kramrisch p. 178</ref> | ||
{{clear}} | {{clear}} | ||
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The five-faced mukhalinga is called ''pancha-mukhalinga''. The five faces relate Shiva to the classical elements, the directions, the five senses and five parts of the body. These represent Shiva's five aspects: [[Sadyojata]], [[Vamadeva]], [[Bhairava|Aghora]], [[Tatpurusha]] and [[Ishana]].<ref name="Daniélou1995"/> A four-faced linga is said also to represent the five aspects of Shiva, the fifth aspect is center, the shaft itself or is assumed to be emerging from the top of the shaft and denotes the [[Nirguna Brahman|formless Absolute]].<ref name="Kossak139"/><ref name="Pal1985"/> Thus, a four-faced mukhalinga can be also called a ''pancha-mukhalinga'' ("linga with five faces" of Shiva).<ref name="Kossak139"/> These four-faced lingas are the most commonly found mukhalingas. | The five-faced mukhalinga is called ''pancha-mukhalinga''. The five faces relate Shiva to the classical elements, the directions, the five senses and five parts of the body. These represent Shiva's five aspects: [[Sadyojata]], [[Vamadeva]], [[Bhairava|Aghora]], [[Tatpurusha]] and [[Ishana]].<ref name="Daniélou1995"/> A four-faced linga is said also to represent the five aspects of Shiva, the fifth aspect is center, the shaft itself or is assumed to be emerging from the top of the shaft and denotes the [[Nirguna Brahman|formless Absolute]].<ref name="Kossak139"/><ref name="Pal1985"/> Thus, a four-faced mukhalinga can be also called a ''pancha-mukhalinga'' ("linga with five faces" of Shiva).<ref name="Kossak139"/> These four-faced lingas are the most commonly found mukhalingas. | ||
The 13th Century A.D. pancha mukha sivalinga is in Kalahasti, [[Andhra Pradesh]].The fifth face would not be shown to highlight the Nishkala character of Sivalinga.<ref>ALAYAM : The Hindu Temple;An Epitome of Hindu Culture; G.Venkataramana Reddy; | The 13th Century A.D. pancha mukha sivalinga is in Kalahasti, [[Andhra Pradesh]].The fifth face would not be shown to highlight the Nishkala character of Sivalinga.<ref>ALAYAM: The Hindu Temple;An Epitome of Hindu Culture; G.Venkataramana Reddy; Published by Adhyaksha; Sri Ramakrishna Math; {{ISBN|978-81-7823-542-4}}; Page 47</ref> | ||
The top face is known as Ishana or Sadashiva, who is rarely depicted and governs zenith and the sky ([[Akasha]]). The east face is Sadyojata or Mahadeva, the regent of the earth ([[Prithvi]]). The west face is Tatpurusha or [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] (Shiva's bull mount) or Nandivaktra (the face of Nandi), denoting the wind, [[Vayu]]. While Vamadeva or Uma ([[Parvati]], Shiva's consort) or Umavaktra (the face of Parvati) or Tamreshvara (water, [[Ap (water)|Ap]]) faces north, Aghora or [[Bhairava]] looks south (fire, [[Agni]]). In some texts, the | The top face is known as Ishana or Sadashiva, who is rarely depicted and governs zenith and the sky ([[Akasha]]). The east face is Sadyojata or Mahadeva, the regent of the earth ([[Prithvi]]). The west face is Tatpurusha or [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] (Shiva's bull mount) or Nandivaktra (the face of Nandi), denoting the wind, [[Vayu]]. While Vamadeva or Uma ([[Parvati]], Shiva's consort) or Umavaktra (the face of Parvati) or Tamreshvara (water, [[Ap (water)|Ap]]) faces north, Aghora or [[Bhairava]] looks south (fire, [[Agni]]). In some texts, the eastern face is called and the western one Sadyojata.<ref name="Rao97ff"/><ref name="Kossak139">Kossak p.139</ref><ref name="Pal1985"/> The icon of the five aspects represents the entire universe.<ref name="Pal1985"/> | ||
In Nepal, the four aspects have similar faces. They wear similar crowns and hairstyles and have Shiva's third eye. Mahadeva may have a moustache and has matted hair piled up on his head. Nandi bears on the forehead the sectarian mark ([[tilaka]]) of the [[Shaiva]]s (worshippers of Shiva) and floral earrings. The face of [[Uma (goddess)|Uma]] also bears the [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] mark and depicts Shiva as [[Ardhanarishvara]], the composite androgynous form of Shiva and Parvati. The right half is the male Shiva with a moustache, while the left half is the female Parvati; the eyes, the lips, the earrings (a serpent and floral earring) as well as the sides of the crown may differ in the halves. [[Bhairava]], the terrible form of Shiva, is generally depicted angry; however may have a gentler expression. He wears serpent-earrings or asymmetrical earrings and has curled hair. All of them are depicted with two hands, carrying an [[akshamala]] (rosary) in the right and a water pot in the left. The rosary-bearing hand is held in [[abhayamudra]], gesture of assurance. The rosary signifies Death or Time, while the water-pot stands for its antithesis, ''[[amrita]]'', the elixir of life. The hands | In Nepal, the four aspects have similar faces. They wear similar crowns and hairstyles and have Shiva's third eye. Mahadeva may have a moustache and has matted hair piled up on his head. Nandi bears on the forehead the sectarian mark ([[tilaka]]) of the [[Shaiva]]s (worshippers of Shiva) and floral earrings. The face of [[Uma (goddess)|Uma]] also bears the [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] mark and depicts Shiva as [[Ardhanarishvara]], the composite androgynous form of Shiva and Parvati. The right half is the male Shiva with a moustache, while the left half is the female Parvati; the eyes, the lips, the earrings (a serpent and floral earring) as well as the sides of the crown may differ in the halves. [[Bhairava]], the terrible form of Shiva, is generally depicted angry; however may have a gentler expression. He wears serpent-earrings or asymmetrical earrings and has curled hair. All of them are depicted with two hands, carrying an [[akshamala]] (rosary) in the right and a water pot in the left. The rosary-bearing hand is held in [[abhayamudra]], gesture of assurance. The rosary signifies Death or Time, while the water-pot stands for its antithesis, ''[[amrita]]'', the elixir of life. The hands indicate that Shiva will lead his devotees to [[moksha]], emancipation.<ref name="Kossak139"/><ref name="Pal1985"/> | ||
Eight faced shivalinga is located at Mandsaur (Madhya Pradesh) along the banks of River Shivana locally known as "Ashtamukhi Pashupatinath" which is claimed to be unique in terms of its sculpture. The eight faces carved on the lingam exhibit eight moods / facial expressions facing the four directions, two each in one direction placed one above the other. | Eight faced shivalinga is located at Mandsaur (Madhya Pradesh) along the banks of River Shivana locally known as "Ashtamukhi Pashupatinath" which is claimed to be unique in terms of its sculpture. The eight faces carved on the lingam exhibit eight moods / facial expressions facing the four directions, two each in one direction placed one above the other. | ||
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Mukhalingas are found throughout India<ref name="Daniélou1995"/> and Nepal.<ref name="Kossak139"/> They also appear in the former [[Champa]] kingdom, presently in [[Vietnam]] as well as [[Cambodia]] and [[Borneo]] in the south east Asia<ref name="HardyCucarzi2009">{{cite book|author1=Andrew David Hardy|author2=Mauro Cucarzi|author3=Patrizia Zolese|title=Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fj8l8v_yP5oC&pg=PA159|year=2009|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-451-7|pages=138, 159}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_054_1e_OConnor_EkamukhalingaFromPeninsularSiam.pdf | title=AN EKAMUKHALINGA FROM PENINSULAR SIAM | publisher=The Siam Society | work=The Journal of the Siam Society | date=1961 | accessdate=2 July 2014 | author=O'Connor, S.J.}}</ref> and Afghanistan to the west of India.<ref name="MET">{{cite book|author=Philippe De Montebello|title=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Guide|year=1994|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-0-87099-710-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/metropolitanmuse00metr/page/102 102]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/metropolitanmuse00metr/page/102}}</ref> One of earliest specimen of a mukhalinga is a five-faced one in Bhita, which is dated to second century BCE. | Mukhalingas are found throughout India<ref name="Daniélou1995"/> and Nepal.<ref name="Kossak139"/> They also appear in the former [[Champa]] kingdom, presently in [[Vietnam]] as well as [[Cambodia]] and [[Borneo]] in the south east Asia<ref name="HardyCucarzi2009">{{cite book|author1=Andrew David Hardy|author2=Mauro Cucarzi|author3=Patrizia Zolese|title=Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fj8l8v_yP5oC&pg=PA159|year=2009|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-451-7|pages=138, 159}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_054_1e_OConnor_EkamukhalingaFromPeninsularSiam.pdf | title=AN EKAMUKHALINGA FROM PENINSULAR SIAM | publisher=The Siam Society | work=The Journal of the Siam Society | date=1961 | accessdate=2 July 2014 | author=O'Connor, S.J.}}</ref> and Afghanistan to the west of India.<ref name="MET">{{cite book|author=Philippe De Montebello|title=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Guide|year=1994|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-0-87099-710-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/metropolitanmuse00metr/page/102 102]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/metropolitanmuse00metr/page/102}}</ref> One of earliest specimen of a mukhalinga is a five-faced one in Bhita, which is dated to second century BCE. | ||
[[Alain Daniélou]] says that mukhalingas of Shiva resemble similar depictions of phalluses with carved faces from Greece and those from [[Celts|Celtic]] Europe. He also notes the phalluses with full human figures are also found in France and India, citing the second-century | [[Alain Daniélou]] says that mukhalingas of Shiva resemble similar depictions of phalluses with carved faces from Greece and those from [[Celts|Celtic]] Europe. He also notes the phalluses with full human figures are also found in France and India, citing the second-century [[Gudimallam Lingam]] as an early example.<ref name="Daniélou1995"/> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
Latest revision as of 00:31, 7 February 2025
A mukhalinga or mukhalingam (Sanskrit: मुखलिङ्गम्, romanized: mukhaliṅga; literally "lingam with a face") is a lingam represented with one or more human faces in Hindu iconography.[1] A lingam is an aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva. Mukhalingas may be of stone or can be made of a metal sheath, which covers the normal lingam.
A mukhalinga generally has one, four, or five faces. Mukhalingas having four faces are also regarded to have an invisible fifth face on top of the linga. The four- and five-faced mukhalingas represent the five aspects of Shiva,[2] which also relate to the classical elements, and the cardinal directions.
While the formless aspect of Shiva is classified as nishkala (non-material), mukhalingas are classified as sakala nishkala (material-non-material).[3]
Iconography of stone Mukhalingas in texts[edit | edit source]
The iconography and making of the mukhalinga is prescribed in the Agamas and the Tantras.[4] These sculptured lingas fall under the classification of manusha-linga ("man-made lingas"), the other category being Swayambhu or naturally occurring lingas.[4] A manusha-linga has three parts: the Brahma-bhaga, the lowest part of the linga which is a square platform; Vishnu-bhaga - the middle section of the linga with a pedestal or pitha and Rudra-bhaga, the topmost part of the central shaft with a rounded tip.[4] Mukhalinga should be sarvasama ("all-equal"), where the three parts are equal. On the topmost rudra-bhaga or puja-bhaga, one face and a maximum of five faces may be carved. If the sanctum (garbhagriha) has only one door, then the linga should have only one face on the front (the east), facing the door. In case of two doors, it should have two faces - front and back - facing the doors in the east and the west. In case of three doors, the linga should have three faces, except in the west. When the shrine has four doors, the linga may have four or five faces. The four faces should face the doors in the four cardinal directions; in addition if a fifth face exists, it should be carved on the top and face the front, the east. When mukhalinga is four-faced, instead of only faces, the busts of the deities are carved on the four side; each having two arms.[4]
The stone mukhalingas may be depicted comprising just of the central shaft, but may be part of the full assemble, where the shaft is embedded in the pitha pedestal, denoting the yoni, the feminine counterpart.[5][6][7]
Mukhalingas as metal sheaths[edit | edit source]
A normal linga may be converted into a mukhalinga by covering with a kavacha ("armour"), a metal (generally gold) covering carved in the shape of the head of Shiva. It has displays the third eye of Shiva on the forehead, the crescent moon over his head and a crown.[8] The covering or sheath is also known as a kosha or linga-kosha, and can be called of metal alloys, gold or silver or[9] copper.[5] Another form of cover is carved in shape of a linga, with a rounded top, with four faces carved on four sides.[10]
One-faced Mukhalinga[edit | edit source]
The one-faced mukhalinga is called eka-mukhalinga, "linga with a single face". The face is created in high relief. He wears his hair piled on his head like a bun, while longer hair flow over his shoulders.[11] He may also wear earrings and a necklace and have the crescent moon on his head and the third eye on the forehead.[7] The faces of Shiva are carved generally from the ear onwards, emerging from the linga.[12]
Four/Five-faced Mukhalinga[edit | edit source]
_(3123143466).jpg)
The five-faced mukhalinga is called pancha-mukhalinga. The five faces relate Shiva to the classical elements, the directions, the five senses and five parts of the body. These represent Shiva's five aspects: Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha and Ishana.[8] A four-faced linga is said also to represent the five aspects of Shiva, the fifth aspect is center, the shaft itself or is assumed to be emerging from the top of the shaft and denotes the formless Absolute.[5][10] Thus, a four-faced mukhalinga can be also called a pancha-mukhalinga ("linga with five faces" of Shiva).[5] These four-faced lingas are the most commonly found mukhalingas.
The 13th Century A.D. pancha mukha sivalinga is in Kalahasti, Andhra Pradesh.The fifth face would not be shown to highlight the Nishkala character of Sivalinga.[13]
The top face is known as Ishana or Sadashiva, who is rarely depicted and governs zenith and the sky (Akasha). The east face is Sadyojata or Mahadeva, the regent of the earth (Prithvi). The west face is Tatpurusha or Nandi (Shiva's bull mount) or Nandivaktra (the face of Nandi), denoting the wind, Vayu. While Vamadeva or Uma (Parvati, Shiva's consort) or Umavaktra (the face of Parvati) or Tamreshvara (water, Ap) faces north, Aghora or Bhairava looks south (fire, Agni). In some texts, the eastern face is called and the western one Sadyojata.[4][5][10] The icon of the five aspects represents the entire universe.[10]
In Nepal, the four aspects have similar faces. They wear similar crowns and hairstyles and have Shiva's third eye. Mahadeva may have a moustache and has matted hair piled up on his head. Nandi bears on the forehead the sectarian mark (tilaka) of the Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva) and floral earrings. The face of Uma also bears the Shaiva mark and depicts Shiva as Ardhanarishvara, the composite androgynous form of Shiva and Parvati. The right half is the male Shiva with a moustache, while the left half is the female Parvati; the eyes, the lips, the earrings (a serpent and floral earring) as well as the sides of the crown may differ in the halves. Bhairava, the terrible form of Shiva, is generally depicted angry; however may have a gentler expression. He wears serpent-earrings or asymmetrical earrings and has curled hair. All of them are depicted with two hands, carrying an akshamala (rosary) in the right and a water pot in the left. The rosary-bearing hand is held in abhayamudra, gesture of assurance. The rosary signifies Death or Time, while the water-pot stands for its antithesis, amrita, the elixir of life. The hands indicate that Shiva will lead his devotees to moksha, emancipation.[5][10]
Eight faced shivalinga is located at Mandsaur (Madhya Pradesh) along the banks of River Shivana locally known as "Ashtamukhi Pashupatinath" which is claimed to be unique in terms of its sculpture. The eight faces carved on the lingam exhibit eight moods / facial expressions facing the four directions, two each in one direction placed one above the other.
Evolution[edit | edit source]
Mukhalingas are found throughout India[8] and Nepal.[5] They also appear in the former Champa kingdom, presently in Vietnam as well as Cambodia and Borneo in the south east Asia[9][14] and Afghanistan to the west of India.[7] One of earliest specimen of a mukhalinga is a five-faced one in Bhita, which is dated to second century BCE.
Alain Daniélou says that mukhalingas of Shiva resemble similar depictions of phalluses with carved faces from Greece and those from Celtic Europe. He also notes the phalluses with full human figures are also found in France and India, citing the second-century Gudimallam Lingam as an early example.[8]
See also[edit | edit source]
Notes[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Stutley, Margaret and James (2019-04-09). A Dictionary of Hinduism: Its Mythology, Folklore and Development 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1500. Routledge. p. 345. ISBN 978-0-429-62754-5.
- ↑ Rao, T. A. Gopinatha (1985). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 97. ISBN 978-81-208-0878-2.
- ↑ ALAYAM : The Hindu Temple;An Epitome of Hindu Culture; G.Venkataramana Reddy; Published by Adhyaksha; Sri Ramakrishna Math; ISBN 978-81-7823-542-4; Page 46
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Rao pp. 86-88
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Kossak p.139
- ↑ Kossak p. 143
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Philippe De Montebello (1994). The Metropolitan Museum of Art Guide. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-87099-710-5.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Alain Daniélou (1995). The Phallus: Sacred Symbol of Male Creative Power. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-1-59477-731-8.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Andrew David Hardy; Mauro Cucarzi; Patrizia Zolese (2009). Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam). NUS Press. pp. 138, 159. ISBN 978-9971-69-451-7.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Pratapaditya Pal (1 January 1985). Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection. University of California Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-520-05407-3.
- ↑ Kossak p. 94
- ↑ Kramrisch p. 178
- ↑ ALAYAM: The Hindu Temple;An Epitome of Hindu Culture; G.Venkataramana Reddy; Published by Adhyaksha; Sri Ramakrishna Math; ISBN 978-81-7823-542-4; Page 47
- ↑ O'Connor, S.J. (1961). "AN EKAMUKHALINGA FROM PENINSULAR SIAM" (PDF). The Journal of the Siam Society. The Siam Society. Retrieved 2 July 2014.
References[edit | edit source]
- Rao, T.A. Gopinatha (1916). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I. Madras: Law Printing House. OCLC 630452416.
- Kramrisch, Stella (1988). "Linga: The Linga and the Face of Siva". The Presence of Siva. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120804913.
- Steven Kossak (1991). The Lotus Transcendent: Indian and Southeast Asian Art from the Samuel Eilenberg Collection. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-613-9.