Ambalavasi: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:57, 2 November 2025

Ambalavasi, more properly Ampalavasi, (IAST: Ampalavāsi, Template:Ipa; lit. 'temple-dwelling') is the generic name for a group of castes among Hindus in Kerala, India, who have traditionally rendered temple services.^[1]

Castes[edit | edit source]

Ampalavasi women with flower baskets- An old image

The Ambalavasis are broadly divided into two groups, being those who wear the sacred thread and those who do not.

Sacred thread wearers[edit | edit source]

Pushpakan[edit | edit source]

Pushpaka (Pushpakan Unni)^[1]
Theeyatt Unni^{[citation needed]}
Puppalli^{[citation needed]}
Plappalli (Pilappalli)^{[citation needed]}
Nambidi^{[citation needed]}
Nambeesan^{[citation needed]}

Threadless Ambalavasis[edit | edit source]

Others[edit | edit source]

Temple services[edit | edit source]

Though all Ampalavāsis have to do service in temples, they have sufficiently distinct functions to perform. Pushpakans and Nambeesans are teachers in the Pathasalas or Mutts and suppliers of flowers to temple.^[1] Chakyar stages dramas called Kooth and Koodiyattam.^[4] Marars are temple musicians. Variar and Poduval performed managerial and executive functions of temple committees and served as storekeepers and watchmen.^[5]

Social status[edit | edit source]

Their ritual rank in Hinduism lies between that of a Brahmin and Nair.^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9] Ambalavasis who wear the sacred thread are Brahmins, while those who do not wear the thread, are not considered Brahmins in temple rituals. Ambalavasis were known as Antharala Jathikal.^{[citation needed]}

Kazhakams[edit | edit source]

Kazhakams or Ambalakkazhakams refer to associations of Ambalavasi peoples in a temple to perform specific duties in the temple.^[10]

Temple arts[edit | edit source]

Idakka artist
Sri. Chendamangalam Unnikrishna Maarar in action - In the middle.

Traditionally, Ambalavasis are associated with various types of temple arts. Earlier, each of these temple arts were performed only by specific Ambalavasi castes. Now there is no community or caste barrier.^{[citation needed]}

Temple Art	Associated Ambalavasi castes
Koodiyattam	Chakyar^[11]
Kooth	Chakyar,^[12] Nangyar (women of Nambiar)^[13]
Certain roles of Krishnanattam
Mizhavu (Musical Instrument)	Nambiar^[14]
Thullal
Pathakam	Nambiar^[15]
Theeyattu
Ilathalam (Musical instrument)
Vadyams (Musical instruments) like Chenda, Thimila, Idakka, Udukku etc.	Marar^[3]
Sopanasangeetham
Panchavadyam
Thayampaka
Pandi Melam
Panchari Melam
Brahmanippattu	Brahmani (women of Nambeesan)^[16]^[17]

References[edit | edit source]

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Fuller, Christopher J. (1976). The Nayars Today. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-52129-091-3.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 Gough, Kathleen (1961). "Nayars: Central Kerala". In Schneider, David Murray; Gough, Kathleen (eds.). Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. pp. 309–311. ISBN 978-0-520-02529-5.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 Lalitha, Nandini (27 December 2018). "This instrument represents the sastras and vedas". The Hindu.
↑ Daugherty, Diane (Spring 1996). "The Nangyār: Female Ritual Specialist of Kerala". Asian Theatre Journal. 13 (1): 54–67. doi:10.2307/1124302. JSTOR 1124302.
↑ People of India - India's Communities N-Z. Oxford University Press. 1998. pp. 2861–2863.
↑ Census commissioner Cochin (India)., Achyuta menon B A (10 November 1893). "Report on the Census of Cochin, 1891 A.D. - 1066 M.E."
↑ Gundert, Hermann (1868). "Keralolpathi".
↑ Census report of cochin (1901). {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
↑ Pisharoti, Rama (1926). "Pisharoti rituals". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 56: 83–89. doi:10.2307/2843601. JSTOR 2843601.
↑ People of India - India's Communities N-Z. Oxford University Press. 1998. pp. 3605–3607.
↑ Narayanan, Mundoli (2006). "Over-Ritualization of Performance: Western Discourses on Kutiyattam". TDR. 50 (2): 136–153. doi:10.1162/dram.2006.50.2.136. JSTOR 4492680. S2CID 57567794.
↑ "Latest India News | Breaking News | World & Business News | Sports & Entertainment news". Expressbuzz.com. Retrieved 30 September 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}
↑ "The 'Florance' of Nangiar Koothu". No. 10 September 2015. Mathurubhumi Daily. 10 September 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2019. Quote: Nangyarkoothu is a traditional artform performed by the women of the Ambalavasi Nambiar community of Kerala, called Nangyaramma. However, people from other castes also has been performing the artform since the second half of the 20th century.
↑ Dutta, Madhumita (2008). Let's Know Music and Musical Instruments of India. Star Publications. p. 16.
↑ "Padakam, the poor cousin of Chakyarkoothu - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
↑ Nampoothiri, M.V. Vishnu (2012). Folklore: The Identity of Culture. Department of Information & Public Relations, Government of Kerala. p. 73.
↑ V.T., Induchudan (1969). The Secret Chamber: A Historical, Anthropological & Philosophical Study of the Kodungallur Temple. Cochin Devaswom Board. p. 260.

[fuller-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Fuller, Christopher J. (1976). The Nayars Today. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-52129-091-3.

[Gough1961-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 Gough, Kathleen (1961). "Nayars: Central Kerala". In Schneider, David Murray; Gough, Kathleen (eds.). Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. pp. 309–311. ISBN 978-0-520-02529-5.

[:0-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Lalitha, Nandini (27 December 2018). "This instrument represents the sastras and vedas". The Hindu.

[4] Daugherty, Diane (Spring 1996). "The Nangyār: Female Ritual Specialist of Kerala". Asian Theatre Journal. 13 (1): 54–67. doi:10.2307/1124302. JSTOR 1124302.

[5] People of India - India's Communities N-Z. Oxford University Press. 1998. pp. 2861–2863.

[6] Census commissioner Cochin (India)., Achyuta menon B A (10 November 1893). "Report on the Census of Cochin, 1891 A.D. - 1066 M.E."

[7] Gundert, Hermann (1868). "Keralolpathi".

[8] Census report of cochin (1901). {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

[9] Pisharoti, Rama (1926). "Pisharoti rituals". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 56: 83–89. doi:10.2307/2843601. JSTOR 2843601.

[10] People of India - India's Communities N-Z. Oxford University Press. 1998. pp. 3605–3607.

[11] Narayanan, Mundoli (2006). "Over-Ritualization of Performance: Western Discourses on Kutiyattam". TDR. 50 (2): 136–153. doi:10.1162/dram.2006.50.2.136. JSTOR 4492680. S2CID 57567794.

[12] "Latest India News | Breaking News | World & Business News | Sports & Entertainment news". Expressbuzz.com. Retrieved 30 September 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}

[13] "The 'Florance' of Nangiar Koothu". No. 10 September 2015. Mathurubhumi Daily. 10 September 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2019. Quote: Nangyarkoothu is a traditional artform performed by the women of the Ambalavasi Nambiar community of Kerala, called Nangyaramma. However, people from other castes also has been performing the artform since the second half of the 20th century.

[14] Dutta, Madhumita (2008). Let's Know Music and Musical Instruments of India. Star Publications. p. 16.

[15] "Padakam, the poor cousin of Chakyarkoothu - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 16 January 2018.

[16] Nampoothiri, M.V. Vishnu (2012). Folklore: The Identity of Culture. Department of Information & Public Relations, Government of Kerala. p. 73.

[17] V.T., Induchudan (1969). The Secret Chamber: A Historical, Anthropological & Philosophical Study of the Kodungallur Temple. Cochin Devaswom Board. p. 260.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Group of Hindu castes in Kerala, India}}
+{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
 {{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
-'''Ambalavasi''', ({{lang-ml|അമ്പലവാസി}}; [[IAST]]:Ampalavāsi) {{literally|temple-dwelling}}, is a generic name for a group of [[Caste system in India|castes]] among [[Hindus]] in [[Kerala]], India, who render temple services. Some Ambalavasi castes are [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]], while the others are [[Matrilineality|matrilineal]]. Those that practise matrilineality share many cultural similarities with the [[Nair]] caste. Their ritual [[Varna (Hinduism)|rank]] in Hinduism lies below the [[Brahmin]] castes and above the Nairs.<ref name="fuller">{{cite book |title=The Nayars Today |first1=Christopher J. |last1=Fuller |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-52129-091-3 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13}}</ref><ref name="Gough1961" />
+'''Ambalavasi''', more properly '''Ampalavasi''', ([[IAST]]: Ampalavāsi, {{ipa|ml|ɐmbɐlɐʋaːsi|ipa}}; {{literally|temple-dwelling}}) is the generic name for a group of [[Caste system in India|castes]] among [[Hindus]] in [[Kerala]], India, who have traditionally rendered temple services.<ref name="fuller">{{cite book |title=The Nayars Today |first1=Christopher J. |last1=Fuller |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-52129-091-3 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13}}</ref>
 ==Castes==
@@ Line 9: / Line 11: @@
 ===Sacred thread wearers===
-====Pushpaka Brahmins====
+====Pushpakan====
-{{main|Pushpaka Brahmin}}
+{{main|Pushpakan}}
-* [[Pushpaka]] (Pushpakan Unni), who bring flowers to the temples<ref name="fuller"/><ref name="Report">{{cite book |title=Report on the Socio-economic Survey on Castes/communities, Kerala 1968|publisher=Bureau of Economics & Statistics, Government of Kerala|year=1969|page=42}}</ref>
+* [[Pushpaka]] (Pushpakan Unni)<ref name="fuller"/>
-* [[Theeyattunni|Theeyatt Unni]]{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
+* [[Theeyattunni|Theeyatt Unni]]{{cn|date=October 2023}}
-* [[Nambeesan]]<ref name="Reserv1965">{{cite book |title=Report of the Commission for Reservation of Seats in Educational Institutions, Kerala, 1965 |date=1966 |publisher=Commission for Reservation of Seats in Educational Institutions, Kerala, India |location=Kerala |page=140}}</ref>
+* [[Puppalli]]{{cn|date=October 2023}}
-* [[Kurukkal]]<ref name="Report"/><ref name="Reserv1965"/>
+* [[Plappalli (caste)|Plappalli]] (Pilappalli){{cn|date=October 2023}}
-* [[Puppalli]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Temple |first1=Richard Carnac |title=The Indian Antiquary Vol-xxxvii |date=1908 |publisher=British India Press |location=Brotrtu, London |pages=335–337}}</ref>
+* [[Nambidi]]{{cn|date=October 2023}}
-* [[Nambidi]]<ref name="Reserv1965"/>
+* [[Nambeesan]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}
+===Threadless Ambalavasis===
+*[[Pisharody]]<ref name="Gough1961"/>
+*[[Marar (Caste)|Marar]]<ref name=":0" />
+*[[Variar|Varyar]]<ref name="Gough1961">{{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor-link=David M. Schneider |editor2-first=Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first1=Kathleen |last1=Gough |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=309–311 |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA311 |author-link=Kathleen Gough}}</ref>
+*[[Pothuval]]<ref name="Gough1961"/>
 ====Others====
-* [[Chakyar]],<ref name="Gough1961"/> who stages dramas called [[Kooth]] and [[Koodiyattam]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daugherty |first1=Diane |title=The Nangyār: Female Ritual Specialist of Kerala |journal=Asian Theatre Journal |volume= 13 |date=Spring 1996 |issue=1 |pages=54–67 |doi=10.2307/1124302|jstor=1124302}}</ref>
+* [[Chakyar]]<ref name="Gough1961"/>
 * [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi/Mizhavu)|Nambiar]]<ref name="Gough1961"/>
+* [[Kurukkal]]
+* [[Padamangalam Nair|Padamangalam]]
-===Threadless Ambalavasis===
+==Temple services==
-*[[Pisharody]]<ref name="Gough1961"/>
+Though all Ampalavāsis have to do service in temples, they have sufficiently distinct functions to perform.  Pushpakans and Nambeesans are teachers in the Pathasalas or Mutts and suppliers of flowers to temple.<ref name="fuller"/>  Chakyar stages dramas called [[Kooth]] and [[Koodiyattam]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daugherty |first1=Diane |title=The Nangyār: Female Ritual Specialist of Kerala |journal=Asian Theatre Journal |volume= 13 |date=Spring 1996 |issue=1 |pages=54–67 |doi=10.2307/1124302|jstor=1124302}}</ref> Marars are temple musicians.  Variar and Poduval performed managerial and executive functions of temple committees and served as storekeepers and watchmen.<ref>{{cite book |title=People of India - India's Communities N-Z|date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=2861–2863}}</ref>
-*[[Maaran|Marar]],<ref name="Gough1961"/> who act as temple musicians
-*[[Variar|Warrier]],<ref name="Gough1961">{{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor-link=David M. Schneider |editor2-first=Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first1=Kathleen |last1=Gough |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=309–311 |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA311 |author-link=Kathleen Gough}}</ref> though some families are known to conduct "[[Upanayana|yajnopaveetham]]" but remove the thread immediately after.
-*[[Poduval]],<ref name="Gough1961"/> who works as temple watchman<ref>{{cite book |title=People of India - India's Communities N-Z|date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=2861–2863}}</ref><ref name="Census">{{cite book |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 23, Travancore. Pt. 2, Imperial tables|year=1912|page=53}}</ref>
-The feminine names of threadless ''ambalavasi'' castes are formed by adding the suffix ''-syar'' to the masculine names as Adi-Adisyar, Pisharadi-Pisharasyar, Marar-Marasyar, Variar-Varasyar, Poduval-Poduvalsyar.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
+==Social status ==
+Their ritual rank in Hinduism lies between that of a [[Brahmin]] and [[Nair]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Census commissioner Cochin (India). |first1=Achyuta menon B A |title=Report on the Census of Cochin, 1891 A.D. - 1066 M.E. |date=10 November 1893 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NUVIAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA32}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gundert |first1=Hermann |title=Keralolpathi |date=1868}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Census report of cochin |date=1901}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pisharoti |first1=Rama |title=Pisharoti rituals |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1926 |volume=56 |issue= |pages=83–89 |doi=10.2307/2843601 |jstor=2843601 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2843601|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ambalavasis who wear the sacred thread are Brahmins, while those who do not wear the thread, are not considered Brahmins in temple rituals. Ambalavasis were known as Antharala Jathikal.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}
-==Temple services==
-Though all Ampalavāsis have to do service in temples, they have sufficiently distinct functions to perform.  Pushpakans and Nambeesans are teachers in the Pathasalas or Mutts and suppliers of flowers to temple.  Chakyar stages drama.  Marar serves as temple musician.  Variar and Poduval did managerial and executive functions of temple committees and served as storekeepers <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Madhavan |first1=K.S. |title=INTERNALIST PERCEPTION OF "JATI" — A STUDY OF BRAHMANICAL CANONICAL LITERATURE IN KERALA |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume= 62 |year=2001 |pages=84–97}}</ref>
 ==Kazhakams==
-''Kazhakams'' or ''Ambalakkazhakams'' refer to associations of ambalavasi peoples in a temple to perform specific duties in the temple.<ref>{{cite book |title=People of India - India's Communities N-Z|date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=3605–3607}}</ref>
+''Kazhakams'' or ''Ambalakkazhakams'' refer to associations of Ambalavasi peoples in a temple to perform specific duties in the temple.<ref>{{cite book |title=People of India - India's Communities N-Z|date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=3605–3607}}</ref>
 ==Temple arts==
@@ Line 49: / Line 52: @@
 ! Temple Art !! Associated<br>Ambalavasi castes
 |-
-| [[Koodiyattam]] || [[Chakyar]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narayanan |first1=Mundoli |title=Over-Ritualization of Performance: Western Discourses on Kutiyattam |journal=TDR |date=2006 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=136–153 |doi=10.1162/dram.2006.50.2.136 |jstor=4492680 |s2cid=57567794 }}</ref> [[Pushpakan Unni]]
+| [[Koodiyattam]] || [[Chakyar]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narayanan |first1=Mundoli |title=Over-Ritualization of Performance: Western Discourses on Kutiyattam |journal=TDR |date=2006 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=136–153 |doi=10.1162/dram.2006.50.2.136 |jstor=4492680 |s2cid=57567794 }}</ref>
 |-
 | [[Kooth]] || [[Chakyar]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.expressbuzz.com/edition/story.aspx?Title=Bhagavadhoothu+chakyar+koothu+at+Oottupura&artid=5M4Hn2iFH8=&SectionID=9R67TMeNb/w=&MainSectionID=9R67TMeNb/w=&SEO=&SectionName=gUhH3Holuas= |title=Latest India News &#124; Breaking News &#124; World & Business News &#124; Sports & Entertainment news |publisher=Expressbuzz.com |access-date=2013-09-30 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>  [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi caste)|Nangyar]] (women of Nambiar)<ref>{{cite news |title=The 'Florance' of Nangiar Koothu |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/the-%60florance-of-nangiar-koothu--1.522820 |access-date=17 February 2019 |issue=10 September 2015 |publisher=Mathurubhumi Daily |date=10 September 2015}}  Quote: Nangyarkoothu is a traditional artform performed by the women of the Ambalavasi Nambiar community of Kerala, called Nangyaramma. However, people from other castes also has been performing the artform since the second half of the 20th century.</ref>
 |-
-| Certain roles of [[Krishnanattam]]|| [[Nambeesan]]  or [[Pushpaka Unni]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sikora |first1=Martha Bush |title=Krishnanattam |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford & IBH Publishing Company}}</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2018}}
+| Certain roles of [[Krishnanattam]]||
 |-
 | [[Mizhavu]] (Musical Instrument)|| [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi caste)|Nambiar]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Madhumita |title=Let's Know Music and Musical Instruments of India |date=2008 |publisher=Star Publications |page=16}}</ref>
 |-
-| Kuzhithalam (Musical Instrument)|| [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi caste)|Nangyar]] (women of Nambiar){{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
+| [[Ottan Thullal|Thullal]] ||
 |-
-| [[Ottan Thullal|Thullal]] || [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi caste)|Nambiar]]{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
+| [[Pathakam]] || [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi caste)|Nambiar]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Padakam-the-poor-cousin-of-Chakyarkoothu/articleshow/53285438.cms|title=Padakam, the poor cousin of Chakyarkoothu - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref>
 |-
-| [[Theeyattu]] || [[Theeyatt Unni]], [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi caste)|Thiyyadi Nambiar]]{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
+| [[Theeyattu]] ||
 |-
-| [[Pathakam]] || [[Nambiar (Ambalavasi caste)|Nambiar]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Padakam-the-poor-cousin-of-Chakyarkoothu/articleshow/53285438.cms|title=Padakam, the poor cousin of Chakyarkoothu - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref>
+| [[Ilathalam]] (Musical instrument) ||
+|-
+| Vadyams (Musical instruments) like <br>[[Chenda]], [[Thimila]], [[Idakka]], [[Udukku]] etc. || [[Marar (Caste)|Marar]]<ref name=":0">{{cite news |last1=Lalitha |first1=Nandini |title=This instrument represents the sastras and vedas |newspaper=The Hindu |date=27 December 2018 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/idakka-the-folk-instrument-of-kerala/article25840844.ece}}</ref>
+|-
+| [[Sopana Sangeetham|Sopanasangeetham]] ||
+|-
+| [[Panchavadyam]] ||
 |-
-| Vadyams (Musical Instruments) like <br>[[Chenda]], [[Idakka]], [[Udukku]] etc. || [[Maarar]]{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
+| [[Thayampaka]] ||
 |-
-| [[Panchavadyam]] || [[Marar]]{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
+| [[Pandi Melam]] ||
 |-
-| [[Sopana Sangeetham|Sopanasangeetham]] || [[Marar]], [[Pothuval]]{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
+| [[Panchari Melam]] ||
 |-
 | [[Brahmanippattu]] || [[Nambeesan|Brahmani]] (women of Nambeesan)<ref>{{cite book |title=Folklore: The Identity of Culture |first1=M.V. Vishnu |last1=Nampoothiri |publisher=Department of Information & Public Relations, Government of Kerala |year=2012 |page=73 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Secret Chamber: A Historical, Anthropological & Philosophical Study of the Kodungallur Temple|first1=Induchudan |last1=V.T. |publisher=Cochin Devaswom Board|year=1969 |page=260 }}</ref>
 |}
-==Temple types==
-They lived in villages either where the land was owned solely by one [[Nambudiri]] Brahmin family or where the land was owned by a temple, the running of which was in the control of a group of Nambudiri families. The latter villages were called ''sanketams''.<ref name="Gough1961"/>
-The temples in which they worked comprised four basic types:<ref name="Gough1961"/>
-*Those in ''sanketams'' were large and were dedicated to deities which were worshipped throughout India, such as [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]].
-*Private temples, owned by Nambudiri families, which were the smaller versions of those found in the ''sanketams''.
-*The private temples of the royal lines, feudatory chiefs and vassal chiefs of what is now Kerala, which were dedicated to [[Bhagavati]] ([[Bhadrakali]])
-==See also==
-*[[Nair]]
 ==References==
@@ Line 91: / Line 88: @@
 [[Category:Social groups of Kerala]]
 [[Category:Liturgical castes]]
+[[Category:Indian castes]]
+[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
+[[Category:South Indian communities]]