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{{Short description|School of thought within Islamic jurisprudence}} | {{Short description|School of thought within Islamic jurisprudence}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}} | ||
{{ | {{Italics title}} | ||
A ''' | {{Usul al-Fiqh}} | ||
A '''''madhhab''''' ({{langx|ar|مَذْهَب|madhhab|way to act}}, {{IPA|ar|ˈmaðhab|IPA}}, pl. {{langx|ar|مَذَاهِب|madhāhib|label=none}}, {{IPA|ar|ˈmaðaːhib|}}) refers to any [[school of thought]] within [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]]. The major [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] ''madhhab'' are [[Hanafi school|Hanafi]], [[Maliki school|Maliki]], [[Shafi'i school|Shafi'i]], and [[Hanbali school|Hanbali]].<ref name="rabb">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Intisar A. |last=Rabb |author-link=Intisar A. Rabb |title=Fiqh |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |editor-link=John L. Esposito |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |year=2009 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135}} | |||
</ref> They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all [[Islamic jurist|Islamic jurists]] aligned themselves with a particular ''madhhab''.<ref name="hussin">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Iza |last=Hussin |author-link=Iza Hussin |title=Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001|isbn=9780199739356}}</ref> These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries.<ref name="hussin" /><ref name="rabb" /> [[Fatwa|Rulings]] (''Fatwa'') of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world.<ref name="hussin" /><ref name="rabb" /> | |||
For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in East Africa and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia.<ref name="hussin" /><ref name="rabb" /><ref name="vikor">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Knut S. |last=Vikør |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |editor-link=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |url=http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |access-date=3 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202054116/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni ''madhhabs''.<ref name="calder">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Norman |last=Calder |title=Law. Legal Thought and Jurisprudence |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121033722/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Zahiri]] school, which is considered to be endangered, continues to exert influence over legal thought.<ref name="calder" /><ref name="rabb" /><ref name="hussin" /> The development of [[Shia]] legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in the formation of the [[Ja'fari school|Ja'fari]] ''madhhab'' amongst [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver Shias]], as well as the [[Ismaili|Isma'ili]] and [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]] ''madhhabs'' amongst [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ilis]] and [[Zaydism|Zaydis]] respectively, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools.<ref name="calder" /><ref name="vikor" /> The [[Ibadi]] legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia ''madhhabs'', is predominant in Oman.<ref name="rabb" /> Unlike Sunnis, Shias, and Ibadis, [[non-denominational Muslims]] are not affiliated with any ''madhhab''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tan|first1=Charlene|title=Reforms in Islamic Education: International Perspectives|date=2014|publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9781441146175|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-bMAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT79|quote=This is due to the historical, sociological, cultural, rational and non-denominational (non-''madhhabi'') approaches to Islam employed at IAINs, STAINs, and UINs, as opposed to the theological, normative and denominational approaches that were common in Islamic educational institutions in the past}}</ref><ref>Rane, Halim, Jacqui Ewart, and John Martinkus. "Islam and the Muslim World." Media Framing of the Muslim World. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. 15-28</ref><ref>Obydenkova, Anastassia V. "Religious pluralism in Russia." Politics of religion and nationalism: Federalism, consociationalism and secession, Routledge (2014): 36-49</ref> | |||
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the ''madhhab'' system. With the spread of codified state laws in the Muslim world, the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly drew on rulings from multiple madhhabs, and legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ''ulama'' as interpreters of the resulting laws.<ref name=hussin/> In the 20th century, | The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the ''madhhab'' system. With the spread of codified state laws in the Muslim world, the influence of the ''madhhabs'' beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly drew on rulings from multiple ''madhhabs'', and legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ''[[ulama]]'' as interpreters of the resulting laws.<ref name="hussin" /> In the 20th century, some jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional ''madhhabs''.<ref name="messick" /> With the spread of [[Salafi movement|Salafi]] influence and [[Islah|reformist]] currents in the 20th century; a handful of Salafi scholars have asserted independence from being strictly bound by the traditional [[Fiqh|legal mechanisms]] of the four schools. Nevertheless, the majority of Sunni scholarship continues to uphold [[Post-classical history|post-classical]] creedal belief in rigorously adhering (''[[taqlid]]'') to one of the four schools in all legal details.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Auda |first=Jasser |title=Maqasid al-SharÏah as Philosophy of Islamic Law: A Systems Approach |publisher=The International Institute of Islamic Thought |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-56564-424-3 |location=669, Herndon, VA 20172, USA |pages=143–145 |chapter=5: Contemporary Theories in Islamic Law}}</ref> | ||
The [[Amman Message]], which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] schools ([[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]]), two [[Shia Islam|Shia]] schools ([[Ja'fari jurisprudence|Ja'fari]], [[Zaidiyyah| | The [[Amman Message]], which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] schools ([[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]]), two [[Shia Islam|Shia]] schools ([[Ja'fari jurisprudence|Ja'fari]], [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]]), the [[Ibadi]] school, and the [[Zahiri]] school.<ref name="3Points">{{Cite web|url=https://ammanmessage.com/|title=Amman Message – The Official Site}}</ref> Schools of Islamic jurisprudence are located in [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Nigeria]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], [[China]], the [[Philippines]], [[Algeria]], [[Libya]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and multiple other countries. | ||
== | == History == | ||
== | === "Ancient" schools === | ||
According to [[John Burton (scholar)|John Burton]], "modern research shows" that [[fiqh|''fiqh'']] was first "regionally organized" with "considerable disagreement and variety of view". In the second century of Islam, schools of ''fiqh'' were noted for the loyalty of their jurists to the legal practices of their local communities, whether [[Mecca]], [[Kufa]], [[Basra]], Syria, etc.<ref name="JBSILITA1990:13">[[#JBSILITA1990|Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990]]: p.13</ref> (Egypt's school in [[Fustat]] was a branch of Medina's school of law and followed such practices—up until the end of the 8th century—as basing verdict on one single witness, not two, and the oath of the claimant. Its principal jurist in the second half of the 8th century was al-Layth b. Sa'd.){{#tag:ref|It is usually assumed that no regional school developed in Egypt (unlike in Syria, Iraq and the Hijaz). [[Joseph Schach]] states that the legal milieu of [[Fustat]] (ancient Cairo) was a branch of the Medinan school of law.<ref>J. Schacht, ''The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950), p. 9</ref> Regarding judicial practices, the qadis (judges) of Fustat resorted to the procedure called "''al-yamin ma'a l-shahid''", that is, the ability of the judge to base his verdict on one single witness and the oath of the claimant, instead of two witnesses as was usually required. Such a procedure was quite common under the early Umayyads, but by the early Abbasid period it had disappeared in Iraq and it was now regarded as the {{'}}''amal'' ("good practice") of Medina. Up until the end of the 8th century, the qadis of Fustat were still using this "Medinan" procedure and differentiated themselves from Iraqi practices. From a doctrinal point of view, however, the legal affiliation of Egypt could be more complex. The principal Egyptian jurist in the second half of the 8th century is al-Layth b. Sa'd.<ref>R.G. Khoury, "Al-Layth Ibn Sa'd (94/713–175/791), grand maître et mécène de l’Egypte, vu à travers quelques documents islamiques anciens", ''[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]'' 40, 1981, p. 189–202</ref> The only writing of his that has survived is a letter he wrote to Malik b. Anas, which has been preserved by Yahya b. Ma'in and al-Fasawi. In this letter, he proclaims his theoretical affiliation to the Medinan methodology and recognizes the value of the {{'}}''amal''. Nevertheless, he distances himself from the Medinan School by opposing a series of Medinan legal views. He maintains that the common practice in other cities is also valuable, and thus implicitly defends the Egyptians' adherence to their own local tradition. Thus it is possible that, even though it did not develop into a formal school of law, a specific Egyptian legal milieu was distinct of the Medinan School in the 8th century.<ref>Mathieu Tillier, "[https://www.academia.edu/1470575/Les_premiers_cadis_de_Fus_a_et_les_dynamiques_regionales_de_linnovation_judiciaire_750-833_ Les "premiers" cadis de Fusṭāṭ et les dynamiques régionales de l'innovation judiciaire (750–833)]", ''Annales Islamologiques'', 45 (2011), p. 214–218</ref>|group=Note}} [[Al-Shafiʽi]] wrote that, "every capital of the Muslims is a seat of learning whose people follow the opinion of one of their countrymen in most of his teachings".<ref name="Schacht-OoMJ-1959-246">{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first1=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-year=1950 |year=1959 |page=246}}</ref><ref name="tr-III-148">{{cite book|last1=Shafi'i |page=148. Kitab Ikhtilaf Malid wal-Shafi'i |title=[[Kitab al-Umm]] vol. vii}}</ref> | |||
The "real basis" of legal doctrine in these "ancient schools" was not a body of reports of [[Muhammad]]'s sayings, doings, silent approval (the [[ahadith|Hadith]]) or even those of [[Companions of the Prophet|his Companions]], but the "living tradition" of the school as "expressed in the consensus of the scholars", according to [[Joseph Schacht]].<ref name="Schacht-OoMJ-1959-98">{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first1=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-year=1950 |year=1959 |page=98}}</ref> | |||
=== Al-Shafi‘i and afterwards === | |||
It has been asserted that ''madhahib'' were consolidated in the 9th and 10th centuries as a means of excluding dogmatic theologians, government officials and non-Sunni sects from religious discourse.<ref name="stewart">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Islamic_law.aspx |title=Law, Islamic |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |access-date=13 March 2012}}</ref> Historians have differed regarding the times at which the various schools emerged. One interpretation is that Sunni Islam was initially{{when|date=December 2013}} split into four groups: the [[Hanafi]]tes, [[Maliki]]tes, [[Shafi'i]]tes, and [[Zahiri]]tes.<ref>Mohammad Sharif Khan and Mohammad Anwar Saleem, ''Muslim Philosophy And Philosophers'', pg. 34. [[New Delhi]]: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.</ref> Later, the [[Hanbali]]tes and [[Jariri]]tes developed two more schools; then various dynasties effected the eventual exclusion of the Jarirites;<ref name="mel">[[Christopher Melchert]], ''The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law'': 9th–10th Centuries C.E., pg. 178. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers]], 1997.</ref> eventually, the Zahirites were also excluded when the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] established a total of four independent [[Qadi|judicial positions]], thus solidifying the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, and Hanbali schools.<ref name="stewart" /> During the era of the [[Islamic Gunpowders]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] reaffirmed the official status of these four schools as a reaction to Shi'ite Persia.<ref name="chib">Chibli Mallat, ''Introduction to Middle Eastern Law'', pg. 116. [[Oxford]]: [[Oxford University Press]], 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-19-923049-5}}</ref> Some are of the view that Sunni jurisprudence falls into two groups: ''Ahl al-Ra'i'' ("people of opinions", emphasizing scholarly judgment and reason) and ''[[Ahl al-Hadith]]'' ("people of traditions", emphasizing strict interpretation of scripture).<ref>Murtada Mutahhari, [http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/ijtihad-legislation.htm ''The Role of Ijtihad in Legislation''], [http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/ Al-Tawhid] volume IV, No.2, Publisher: [http://www.itf.org.ir/ Islamic Thought Foundation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314212635/http://www.itf.org.ir/ |date=14 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
== | 10th century [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite]] scholar [[Ibn al-Nadim]] named eight groups: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Zahiri, [[Twelver|Imami Shi'ite]], Ahl al-Hadith, Jariri, and [[Kharijites|Kharijite]].<ref name="mel" /><ref>[[Devin J. Stewart]], THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIHRIST: IBN AL-NADIM AS HISTORIAN OF ISLAMIC LEGAL AND THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS, [[International Journal of Middle East Studies]], v.39, pg.369–387, [[Cambridge University Press]], 2007</ref> [[Abu Thawr]] also had a school named after him. In the 12th century Jariri and Zahiri schools were absorbed by the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools respectively.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Crone|first1=Patricia|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|date=2013|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|page=498|isbn=978-0691134840|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&q=zahiri+absorbed+princeton&pg=PA498|access-date=13 May 2015}}</ref> [[Ibn Khaldun]] defined only three Sunni ''madhahib'': Hanafi, Zahiri, and one encompassing the Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools as existing initially,<ref>[[Ignác Goldziher]], ''The Zahiris'', pg. 5. Trns. Wolfgang Behn, intro. [[Camilla Adang]]. Volume three of Brill Classics in Islam. [[Leiden]]: [[Brill Publishers]], 2008. {{ISBN|9789004162419}}</ref><ref>Meinhaj Hussain, A New Medina, [https://archive.today/20130103002610/http://www.grandestrategy.com/2012/01/6655434312-chapter-nine-new-medina.html The Legal System], Grande Strategy, 5 January 2012</ref> noting that by the 14th-century historian the Zahiri school had become extinct,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wolfgang|first1=Behn|title=The Zahiris|date=1999|publisher=BRILL|page=178|isbn=9004026320|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_OIhpI9jfEC&q=ibn+khaldun+zahiri&pg=PA178|access-date=11 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Berkey|first1=Jonathon|title=The Formation of Islam|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=216|isbn=9780521588133|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLV6lo4mvj0C&q=khaldun+zahiri&pg=PA216|access-date=11 May 2015}}</ref> only for it to be revived again in parts of the Muslim world by the mid-20th century.<ref>Daniel W. Brown, ''Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought'': Vol. 5 of Cambridge Middle East Studies, pgs. 28 and 32. [[Cambridge]]: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1996. {{ISBN|9780521653947}}</ref><ref>M. Mahmood, ''The Code of Muslim Family Laws'', pg. 37. Pakistan Law Times Publications, 2006. 6th ed.</ref><ref>Hassan Ahmed Ibrahim, "An Overview of al-Sadiq al-Madhi's Islamic Discourse." Taken from ''The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought'', pg. 172. Ed. Ibrahim Abu-Rabi'. [[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken]]: [[Wiley-Blackwell]], 2008. {{ISBN|9781405178488}}</ref> | ||
Historically, the ''fiqh'' schools were often in political and academic conflict with one another, vying for favor with the ruling government in order to have their representatives appointed to legislative and especially judiciary positions.<ref name=chib /> | |||
== | === Modern era === | ||
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the ''madhhab'' system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the ''madhhabs'' beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of ''takhayyur'' (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular ''madhhab'') and ''talfiq'' (combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional [[ulema|''ulama'']] as interpreters of the resulting laws. | |||
Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different ''madhhabs'' and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the [[Quran]] and Hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation.<ref name="hussin" /> In the 20th century many Islamic jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence.<ref name="messick">{{cite encyclopedia|first1=Brinkley|last1=Messick |first2=Joseph A.|last2=Kéchichian|title=Fatwā. Process and Function|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120012810/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 November 2015}}</ref> Examples of the latter approach include networks of Indonesian ''ulama'' and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, who have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law.<ref name="hussin" /> | |||
==Schools== | |||
[[File:Madhhab Map3.png|thumb|550x550px|Some regions have a dominant or official ''madhhab''; others recognize a variety.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islamic Jurisprudence & Law {{!}} ReOrienting the Veil |url=https://veil.unc.edu/religions/islam/law/ |access-date=2025-04-15 |language=en-US}}</ref>{{Needs update|date=May 2025|reason=Our Fiqh map does need an update, for example Bahrain is mostly orange (representing Ja'fari) while its Monarchy is Maliki and a majority of its citizens Sunni. Would be very helpful to get an update to date SVG version of the map as there are some tiny island Indian Ocean countries who are not shown on the map}}]] | |||
Generally, Sunnis will follow one particular ''madhhab'' which varies from region to region, but also believe that ''[[ijtihad]]'' must be exercised by the contemporary scholars capable of doing so. Most rely on ''[[taqlid]]'', or acceptance of religious rulings and epistemology from a higher religious authority in deferring meanings of analysis and derivation of legal practices instead of relying on subjective readings.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sahihmuslim.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=MNJ06&articleID=MNJ060001&articlePages=1 | title=Salafi Publications | on Ijtihad and Taqlid}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rissc.jo/docs/1N-WithCovers(lowres).pdf|title=On Islam, Muslims and the 500 most influential figures}}</ref> | |||
Experts and scholars of ''fiqh'' follow the [[principles of Islamic jurisprudence]] (''usul'') of their own ''madhhab'', but they also study the ''usul'', evidences, and opinions of other ''madhahib''. | |||
[[ | |||
The | === Sunni === | ||
The four main schools of jurisprudence of Sunni Islam are the [[Hanafi school|Hanafi]], [[Shafi'i school|Shafi'i]], [[Maliki school|Maliki]], and [[Hanbali school|Hanbali]] schools.<ref>{{Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|volume=5|title=Mad̲h̲hab|page(s)=|first=|last=|authorlink=|url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EIEO/SIM-8798.xml?rskey=Pjm5Yu&result=1|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8798}}</ref> There is also the [[Zahiri school]], but it has less followers. Historically, there were other schools of jurisprudence but they became extinct which include the [[Jariri school|Jariri]], [[Awza'i school|Awza'i]], [[Laythi school|Laythi]], and [[Thawri school|Thawri]] schools.<ref name="GR">{{Cite book |last=Fathi |first=Saul Silas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-B3-EAAAQBAJ&dq=hanafi%20afghanistan%20pakistan%20levant&pg=PA344 |title=Gods and Religions |date=2023-12-22 |publisher=Writers Republic LLC |isbn=979-8-89100-466-5 |pages=344 |language=en}}</ref> The reason for the survival and dominance of the main schools was because of a number of factors including state support for specific scholars, dominance in debates and student numbers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rane |first=Halim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOHb6MCGuVQC&dq=awza'i%20laythi&pg=PA82 |title=Islam and Contemporary Civilisation |date=2010 |publisher=Academic Monographs |isbn=978-0-522-85728-3 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref> Sunni schools take their name from the classical jurist who founded them.<ref name="GR" /> | |||
=== | ==== Hanafi ==== | ||
The order of priority for deducing law by the Hanafi school is:<ref name="GR" /><ref name="CC">{{Cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Hisham M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZS7EaHTQX8C&dq=hanafi&pg=PA26 |title=Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary |date=2006 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0991-9 |pages=26–29 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
The | |||
# [[Quran]] | |||
# [[Sunnah]] | |||
# [[Ijma]] of the [[Companions of the Prophet|Sahabah]] | |||
# Individual opinions of the Sahaba | |||
# [[Qiyas]] | |||
# ''[[Istihsan]]'' | |||
# ''[[Urf]]'' | |||
==== Maliki ==== | ==== Maliki ==== | ||
The | The order of priority for deducing law by the Maliki school is:<ref name="GR" /><ref name="CC" /> | ||
# Quran | |||
# Sunnah, a hadith would be rejected if it contradicted the practice of the people of Medina | |||
# ʻAmal, the practice of the people of [[Medina]] | |||
# Ijma of the Sahaba | |||
# Individual opinion of the Sahaba | |||
# Qiyas | |||
# Isolated customs and practices of pockets of Medinans were also given some weight | |||
# ''[[Istislah]]'' | |||
# Urf | |||
The | ==== Shafi'i ==== | ||
The order of priority for deducing law by the Shafi'i school is:<ref name="GR" /><ref name="CC" /> | |||
# Quran | |||
# Sunnah | |||
# Ijma | |||
# Individual opinions of the Sahabah | |||
# Qiyas | |||
==== Hanbali ==== | ==== Hanbali ==== | ||
The | The order of priority for deducing law by the Hanbali school is:<ref name="ZA">{{Cite web |title=Zahiri |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133342854#:~:text=Quick%20Reference,by%20four%20extant%20Sunni%20schools. |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en}}</ref><ref name="PP">{{Cite book |last=Visser |first=Hans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIXe3rY_OkgC&dq=zahiri+school+extinct&pg=PA17 |title=Islamic Finance: Principles and Practice |date=2009-01-01 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-84844-947-3 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
# Quran | |||
# Sunnah | |||
# Ijma of the Sahabah, but not the ijma after that period | |||
# Individual opinions of the Sahabah | |||
# Weak Hadith unless its weakness is attributed to transmission by degenerates or liars | |||
# Qiyas (sometimes) | |||
==== Zahiri ==== | ==== Zahiri ==== | ||
The | The order of priority for deducing law by the Zahiri school is:<ref name="GR" /><ref name="CC" /> | ||
#Quran | |||
#Sunnah | |||
#Ijmah of the Sahabah | |||
#Religious Inference (some scholars) | |||
=== | === Shia === | ||
[[Twelver]] | The [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver]] school of jurisprudence is known as the [[Ja'fari school]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bill |first1=James A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDRc3GSGLQkC&pg=PA21 |title=Roman Catholics and Shi'i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics |last2=Williams |first2=John Alden |date=2003-08-01 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-5499-0 |pages=21 |language=en}}</ref> The other two schools are the [[Zaydism|Zaydi]] and [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] schools.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leaman |first=Oliver |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ogJuEAAAQBAJ&dq=shia%20schools%20jurisprudence%20jafari%20zaydi%20ismaili&pg=PT331 |title=Routledge Handbook of Islamic Ritual and Practice |date=2022-06-08 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-58390-8 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
==== | ==== Ja'fari ==== | ||
The Ja'fari school was named after the sixth [[Imamate in Twelver doctrine|Imam]], [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]]. The order of priority for deducing law by the Ja'fari school is:<ref name="CC" /> | |||
# Quran | |||
# Sunnah | |||
# Ijtihad of the Imam | |||
# | |||
# | |||
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== See also == | == See also == | ||
* [[ | {{Portal|Islam}} | ||
=== General links === | |||
* [[Glossary of Islam]] | |||
* [[Outline of Islam]] | |||
* [[Schools of Islamic theology]] | * [[Schools of Islamic theology]] | ||
* [[Islamic schools and branches]] | * [[Islamic schools and branches]] | ||
* [[ | * [[The four Sunni Imams]] | ||
* [[Verse of Obedience]] | * [[Verse of Obedience]] | ||
== | === Terms === | ||
* ''[[Fiqh]]'' | |||
* [[Sharia]] (Islamic law) | |||
* ''[[Ikhtilaf]]'' | |||
* ''[[Ijtihad]]'' | |||
* ''[[Taqlid]]'' | |||
* [[Ulu'l-amr]] | |||
* ''[[Istihsan]]'' | |||
* [[Qiyas]] | |||
== Notes == | |||
{{Reflist|group=Note}} | {{Reflist|group=Note}} | ||
==References== | |||
===Citations=== | ===Citations=== | ||
{{Reflist|30em}} | {{Reflist|30em}} | ||
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===Sources=== | ===Sources=== | ||
{{refbegin}} | {{refbegin}} | ||
* {{Cite book| first1=John |last1=Burton | title=The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation | publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] | year=1990 | isbn=0-7486-0108-2 |url=http://www.almuslih.org/Library/Burton,%20J%20-%20The%20Sources%20of%20Islamic%20Law.pdf |ref=JBSILITA1990}} | * {{Cite book |first1=John |last1=Burton |title=The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=0-7486-0108-2 |url=http://www.almuslih.org/Library/Burton,%20J%20-%20The%20Sources%20of%20Islamic%20Law.pdf |ref=JBSILITA1990 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-date=4 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104171116/http://www.almuslih.org/Library/Burton,%20J%20-%20The%20Sources%20of%20Islamic%20Law.pdf |url-status=dead}} | ||
* Branon Wheeler, [https://books.google.com/books?id=slLpouSlzPcC Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥanafī Scholarship], [[SUNY Press]], 1996. | * Branon Wheeler, [https://books.google.com/books?id=slLpouSlzPcC Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥanafī Scholarship], [[SUNY Press]], 1996. | ||
{{refend}} | {{refend}} | ||
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==External links== | ==External links== | ||
* | *{{Commons category-inline}} | ||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
[[Category:Madhhab| ]] | [[Category:Madhhab| ]] | ||
Latest revision as of 03:15, 25 February 2026
Template:Usul al-Fiqh
A madhhab (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., ar, pl. Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., ar) refers to any school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni madhhab are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali.[1] They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all Islamic jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab.[2] These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries.[2][1] Rulings (Fatwa) of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world.[2][1]
For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in East Africa and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia.[2][1][3] The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs.[4] The Zahiri school, which is considered to be endangered, continues to exert influence over legal thought.[4][1][2] The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in the formation of the Ja'fari madhhab amongst Twelver Shias, as well as the Isma'ili and Zaydi madhhabs amongst Isma'ilis and Zaydis respectively, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools.[4][3] The Ibadi legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.[1] Unlike Sunnis, Shias, and Ibadis, non-denominational Muslims are not affiliated with any madhhab.[5][6][7]
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. With the spread of codified state laws in the Muslim world, the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly drew on rulings from multiple madhhabs, and legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulama as interpreters of the resulting laws.[2] In the 20th century, some jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional madhhabs.[8] With the spread of Salafi influence and reformist currents in the 20th century; a handful of Salafi scholars have asserted independence from being strictly bound by the traditional legal mechanisms of the four schools. Nevertheless, the majority of Sunni scholarship continues to uphold post-classical creedal belief in rigorously adhering (taqlid) to one of the four schools in all legal details.[9]
The Amman Message, which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), two Shia schools (Ja'fari, Zaydi), the Ibadi school, and the Zahiri school.[10] Schools of Islamic jurisprudence are located in Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Egypt, Turkey, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Russia, China, the Philippines, Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and multiple other countries.
History[edit | edit source]
"Ancient" schools[edit | edit source]
According to John Burton, "modern research shows" that fiqh was first "regionally organized" with "considerable disagreement and variety of view". In the second century of Islam, schools of fiqh were noted for the loyalty of their jurists to the legal practices of their local communities, whether Mecca, Kufa, Basra, Syria, etc.[11] (Egypt's school in Fustat was a branch of Medina's school of law and followed such practices—up until the end of the 8th century—as basing verdict on one single witness, not two, and the oath of the claimant. Its principal jurist in the second half of the 8th century was al-Layth b. Sa'd.)[Note 1] Al-Shafiʽi wrote that, "every capital of the Muslims is a seat of learning whose people follow the opinion of one of their countrymen in most of his teachings".[15][16]
The "real basis" of legal doctrine in these "ancient schools" was not a body of reports of Muhammad's sayings, doings, silent approval (the Hadith) or even those of his Companions, but the "living tradition" of the school as "expressed in the consensus of the scholars", according to Joseph Schacht.[17]
Al-Shafi‘i and afterwards[edit | edit source]
It has been asserted that madhahib were consolidated in the 9th and 10th centuries as a means of excluding dogmatic theologians, government officials and non-Sunni sects from religious discourse.[18] Historians have differed regarding the times at which the various schools emerged. One interpretation is that Sunni Islam was initially[when?] split into four groups: the Hanafites, Malikites, Shafi'ites, and Zahirites.[19] Later, the Hanbalites and Jarirites developed two more schools; then various dynasties effected the eventual exclusion of the Jarirites;[20] eventually, the Zahirites were also excluded when the Mamluk Sultanate established a total of four independent judicial positions, thus solidifying the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, and Hanbali schools.[18] During the era of the Islamic Gunpowders, the Ottoman Empire reaffirmed the official status of these four schools as a reaction to Shi'ite Persia.[21] Some are of the view that Sunni jurisprudence falls into two groups: Ahl al-Ra'i ("people of opinions", emphasizing scholarly judgment and reason) and Ahl al-Hadith ("people of traditions", emphasizing strict interpretation of scripture).[22]
10th century Shi'ite scholar Ibn al-Nadim named eight groups: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Zahiri, Imami Shi'ite, Ahl al-Hadith, Jariri, and Kharijite.[20][23] Abu Thawr also had a school named after him. In the 12th century Jariri and Zahiri schools were absorbed by the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools respectively.[24] Ibn Khaldun defined only three Sunni madhahib: Hanafi, Zahiri, and one encompassing the Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools as existing initially,[25][26] noting that by the 14th-century historian the Zahiri school had become extinct,[27][28] only for it to be revived again in parts of the Muslim world by the mid-20th century.[29][30][31]
Historically, the fiqh schools were often in political and academic conflict with one another, vying for favor with the ruling government in order to have their representatives appointed to legislative and especially judiciary positions.[21]
Modern era[edit | edit source]
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of takhayyur (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and talfiq (combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulama as interpreters of the resulting laws.
Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and Hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation.[2] In the 20th century many Islamic jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence.[8] Examples of the latter approach include networks of Indonesian ulama and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, who have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law.[2]
Schools[edit | edit source]
Generally, Sunnis will follow one particular madhhab which varies from region to region, but also believe that ijtihad must be exercised by the contemporary scholars capable of doing so. Most rely on taqlid, or acceptance of religious rulings and epistemology from a higher religious authority in deferring meanings of analysis and derivation of legal practices instead of relying on subjective readings.[33][34]
Experts and scholars of fiqh follow the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (usul) of their own madhhab, but they also study the usul, evidences, and opinions of other madhahib.
Sunni[edit | edit source]
The four main schools of jurisprudence of Sunni Islam are the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools.[35] There is also the Zahiri school, but it has less followers. Historically, there were other schools of jurisprudence but they became extinct which include the Jariri, Awza'i, Laythi, and Thawri schools.[36] The reason for the survival and dominance of the main schools was because of a number of factors including state support for specific scholars, dominance in debates and student numbers.[37] Sunni schools take their name from the classical jurist who founded them.[36]
Hanafi[edit | edit source]
The order of priority for deducing law by the Hanafi school is:[36][38]
Maliki[edit | edit source]
The order of priority for deducing law by the Maliki school is:[36][38]
- Quran
- Sunnah, a hadith would be rejected if it contradicted the practice of the people of Medina
- ʻAmal, the practice of the people of Medina
- Ijma of the Sahaba
- Individual opinion of the Sahaba
- Qiyas
- Isolated customs and practices of pockets of Medinans were also given some weight
- Istislah
- Urf
Shafi'i[edit | edit source]
The order of priority for deducing law by the Shafi'i school is:[36][38]
- Quran
- Sunnah
- Ijma
- Individual opinions of the Sahabah
- Qiyas
Hanbali[edit | edit source]
The order of priority for deducing law by the Hanbali school is:[39][40]
- Quran
- Sunnah
- Ijma of the Sahabah, but not the ijma after that period
- Individual opinions of the Sahabah
- Weak Hadith unless its weakness is attributed to transmission by degenerates or liars
- Qiyas (sometimes)
Zahiri[edit | edit source]
The order of priority for deducing law by the Zahiri school is:[36][38]
- Quran
- Sunnah
- Ijmah of the Sahabah
- Religious Inference (some scholars)
Shia[edit | edit source]
The Twelver school of jurisprudence is known as the Ja'fari school.[41] The other two schools are the Zaydi and Ismaili schools.[42]
Ja'fari[edit | edit source]
The Ja'fari school was named after the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq. The order of priority for deducing law by the Ja'fari school is:[38]
- Quran
- Sunnah
- Ijtihad of the Imam
See also[edit | edit source]
General links[edit | edit source]
- Glossary of Islam
- Outline of Islam
- Schools of Islamic theology
- Islamic schools and branches
- The four Sunni Imams
- Verse of Obedience
Terms[edit | edit source]
Notes[edit | edit source]
- ↑ It is usually assumed that no regional school developed in Egypt (unlike in Syria, Iraq and the Hijaz). Joseph Schach states that the legal milieu of Fustat (ancient Cairo) was a branch of the Medinan school of law.[12] Regarding judicial practices, the qadis (judges) of Fustat resorted to the procedure called "al-yamin ma'a l-shahid", that is, the ability of the judge to base his verdict on one single witness and the oath of the claimant, instead of two witnesses as was usually required. Such a procedure was quite common under the early Umayyads, but by the early Abbasid period it had disappeared in Iraq and it was now regarded as the 'amal ("good practice") of Medina. Up until the end of the 8th century, the qadis of Fustat were still using this "Medinan" procedure and differentiated themselves from Iraqi practices. From a doctrinal point of view, however, the legal affiliation of Egypt could be more complex. The principal Egyptian jurist in the second half of the 8th century is al-Layth b. Sa'd.[13] The only writing of his that has survived is a letter he wrote to Malik b. Anas, which has been preserved by Yahya b. Ma'in and al-Fasawi. In this letter, he proclaims his theoretical affiliation to the Medinan methodology and recognizes the value of the 'amal. Nevertheless, he distances himself from the Medinan School by opposing a series of Medinan legal views. He maintains that the common practice in other cities is also valuable, and thus implicitly defends the Egyptians' adherence to their own local tradition. Thus it is possible that, even though it did not develop into a formal school of law, a specific Egyptian legal milieu was distinct of the Medinan School in the 8th century.[14]
References[edit | edit source]
Citations[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Rabb, Intisar A. (2009). "Fiqh". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001. ISBN 9780195305135.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Hussin, Iza (2014). "Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001. ISBN 9780199739356.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Vikør, Knut S. (2014). "Sharīʿah". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Calder, Norman (2009). "Law. Legal Thought and Jurisprudence". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008.
- ↑ Tan, Charlene (2014). Reforms in Islamic Education: International Perspectives. A&C Black. ISBN 9781441146175.
This is due to the historical, sociological, cultural, rational and non-denominational (non-madhhabi) approaches to Islam employed at IAINs, STAINs, and UINs, as opposed to the theological, normative and denominational approaches that were common in Islamic educational institutions in the past
- ↑ Rane, Halim, Jacqui Ewart, and John Martinkus. "Islam and the Muslim World." Media Framing of the Muslim World. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. 15-28
- ↑ Obydenkova, Anastassia V. "Religious pluralism in Russia." Politics of religion and nationalism: Federalism, consociationalism and secession, Routledge (2014): 36-49
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Messick, Brinkley; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009). "Fatwā. Process and Function". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 20 November 2015.
- ↑ Auda, Jasser (2007). "5: Contemporary Theories in Islamic Law". Maqasid al-SharÏah as Philosophy of Islamic Law: A Systems Approach. 669, Herndon, VA 20172, USA: The International Institute of Islamic Thought. pp. 143–145. ISBN 978-1-56564-424-3.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ↑ "Amman Message – The Official Site".
- ↑ Burton, Islamic Theories of Abrogation, 1990: p.13
- ↑ J. Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950), p. 9
- ↑ R.G. Khoury, "Al-Layth Ibn Sa'd (94/713–175/791), grand maître et mécène de l’Egypte, vu à travers quelques documents islamiques anciens", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40, 1981, p. 189–202
- ↑ Mathieu Tillier, "Les "premiers" cadis de Fusṭāṭ et les dynamiques régionales de l'innovation judiciaire (750–833)", Annales Islamologiques, 45 (2011), p. 214–218
- ↑ Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. p. 246.
- ↑ Shafi'i. Kitab al-Umm vol. vii. p. 148. Kitab Ikhtilaf Malid wal-Shafi'i.
- ↑ Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. p. 98.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Law, Islamic". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
- ↑ Mohammad Sharif Khan and Mohammad Anwar Saleem, Muslim Philosophy And Philosophers, pg. 34. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Christopher Melchert, The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law: 9th–10th Centuries C.E., pg. 178. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Chibli Mallat, Introduction to Middle Eastern Law, pg. 116. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-923049-5
- ↑ Murtada Mutahhari, The Role of Ijtihad in Legislation, Al-Tawhid volume IV, No.2, Publisher: Islamic Thought Foundation Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ Devin J. Stewart, THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIHRIST: IBN AL-NADIM AS HISTORIAN OF ISLAMIC LEGAL AND THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS, International Journal of Middle East Studies, v.39, pg.369–387, Cambridge University Press, 2007
- ↑ Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 498. ISBN 978-0691134840. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
- ↑ Ignác Goldziher, The Zahiris, pg. 5. Trns. Wolfgang Behn, intro. Camilla Adang. Volume three of Brill Classics in Islam. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2008. ISBN 9789004162419
- ↑ Meinhaj Hussain, A New Medina, The Legal System, Grande Strategy, 5 January 2012
- ↑ Wolfgang, Behn (1999). The Zahiris. BRILL. p. 178. ISBN 9004026320. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
- ↑ Berkey, Jonathon (2003). The Formation of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 216. ISBN 9780521588133. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
- ↑ Daniel W. Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought: Vol. 5 of Cambridge Middle East Studies, pgs. 28 and 32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 9780521653947
- ↑ M. Mahmood, The Code of Muslim Family Laws, pg. 37. Pakistan Law Times Publications, 2006. 6th ed.
- ↑ Hassan Ahmed Ibrahim, "An Overview of al-Sadiq al-Madhi's Islamic Discourse." Taken from The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought, pg. 172. Ed. Ibrahim Abu-Rabi'. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. ISBN 9781405178488
- ↑ "Islamic Jurisprudence & Law | ReOrienting the Veil". Retrieved 15 April 2025.
- ↑ "Salafi Publications | on Ijtihad and Taqlid".
- ↑ "On Islam, Muslims and the 500 most influential figures" (PDF).
- ↑ Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch., eds. (1986). "Mad̲h̲hab". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Volume V: Khe–Mahi (2nd ed.). Leiden: E. J. Brill. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8798. ISBN 978-90-04-07819-2.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 Fathi, Saul Silas (22 December 2023). Gods and Religions. Writers Republic LLC. p. 344. ISBN 979-8-89100-466-5.
- ↑ Rane, Halim (2010). Islam and Contemporary Civilisation. Academic Monographs. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-522-85728-3.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 Ramadan, Hisham M. (2006). Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary. Rowman Altamira. pp. 26–29. ISBN 978-0-7591-0991-9.
- ↑ "Zahiri". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
- ↑ Visser, Hans (1 January 2009). Islamic Finance: Principles and Practice. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84844-947-3.
- ↑ Bill, James A.; Williams, John Alden (1 August 2003). Roman Catholics and Shi'i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8078-5499-0.
- ↑ Leaman, Oliver (8 June 2022). Routledge Handbook of Islamic Ritual and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-58390-8.
Sources[edit | edit source]
- Burton, John (1990). The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation (PDF). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-0108-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- Branon Wheeler, Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥanafī Scholarship, SUNY Press, 1996.
Further reading[edit | edit source]
- Haddad, Gibril F. (2007). The Four Imams and Their Schools. London: Muslim Academic Trust.