Yoga: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Spiritual practices from ancient India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}

{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

{{Hinduism |schools}}

'''Yoga''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|j|oʊ|g|ə|audio=Yoga pronunciation.ogg}};<ref name=OED>{{cite web|title=yoga, n.|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/232036|website=[[Oxford English Dictionary|OED Online]]|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=9 September 2015|date=September 2015}}</ref> {{lang-sa|योग|lit=yoke' or 'union}} {{IPA-sa|joːɡɐ|pron}}) is a group of [[Asana|physical]], mental, and [[Spirituality#Asian traditions|spiritual]] practices or disciplines which originated in [[History of India|ancient India]] and aim to control (yoke) and [[Śūnyatā|still the mind]], [[Jnana|recognizing]] a detached [[Purusha|witness-consciousness]] untouched by the mind (''[[Chit (consciousness)|Chitta]]'') and mundane suffering (''[[Duḥkha]]''). There is a wide variety of schools of yoga, practices, and goals{{sfn|White|2011|p=2}} in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]],<ref>Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody (1996), ''Serene Compassion''. Oxford University Press US. p. 68.</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">Stuart Ray Sarbacker, ''Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga''. SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 1–2.</ref><ref name="Tattvarthasutra 2007 p. 102">Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102.</ref> and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news |title=Yoga: How did it conquer the world and what's changed? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-40354525 |access-date=14 June 2021 |work=BBC News |date=22 June 2017}}</ref>

Two general theories exist on the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga originated in the Vedic period, as reflected in the [[Vedas|Vedic textual corpus]], and influenced Buddhism; according to author Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, this model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of non-Vedic and Vedic elements; this model is favoured in Western scholarship.{{sfn|Crangle|1994|pp=1–6}}{{sfn|Crangle|1994|pp=103–138}}

The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga and a [[yoga as exercise|posture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and relaxation technique]],{{sfn|Burley|2000|pp=1–2}} consisting largely of [[asana]]s;<ref>{{cite web |title=Yoga Landed in the U.S. Way Earlier Than You'd Think—And Fitness Was Not the Point |url=https://www.history.com/news/yoga-vivekananda-america |website=HISTORY |access-date=14 June 2021}}</ref> this differs from traditional yoga, which focuses on [[meditation]] and release from worldly attachments.{{sfn|Burley|2000|pp=1–2}}<ref>Marek Jantos (2012), in Oxford Textbook of Spirituality in Healthcare (Editors: Mark Cobb et al.), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-957139-0}}, pp. 362–363.</ref> It was introduced by [[guru]]s from [[India]] after the success of [[Swami Vivekananda]]'s adaptation of yoga without asanas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{sfn|White|2011|p=xvi–xvii, 2}} Vivekananda introduced the ''Yoga Sutras'' to the West, and they became prominent after the 20th-century success of hatha yoga.{{sfn|White|2014|pp=xvi–xvii}}

[[File:Patanjali Statue.jpg|alt=Outdoor statue|thumb|A statue of [[Patanjali]], author of the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'', meditating in the [[lotus position]]]]

'''Translation 2''': The illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to the illuminating godhead, to the vast, to the luminous in consciousness;<br />

the one knower of all manifestation of knowledge, he alone orders the things of the sacrifice. Great is the praise of Savitri, the creating godhead.<ref name=sriauro>Sri Aurobindo (1916, Reprinted 1995), A Hymn to Savitri V.81, in The Secret of Veda, {{ISBN|978-0-914955-19-1}}, page 529</ref>|group=note}}

{{anchor|Definition in classic Indian texts}}

== Definitions in classical texts ==

{| class="wikitable"

One of the best-known early expressions of [[Brahmin]]ical yoga thought is the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'' (early centuries CE,{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=xxxiv}}{{sfn|Desmarais|2008|p=16-17}}{{refn|group=note|name=YS_dating}} the original name of which may have been the ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra-sāṃkhya-pravacana'' (c. 325–425 CE); some scholars believe that it included the sutras and a commentary.{{sfn|Mallinson|Singleton|2017|pp=xvi–xvii}} As the name suggests, the metaphysical basis of the text is [[samkhya]]; the school is mentioned in Kauṭilya's [[Arthashastra]] as one of the three categories of ''anviksikis'' (philosophies), with yoga and ''[[Charvaka|Cārvāka]]''.<ref>Original Sanskrit: साङ्ख्यं योगो लोकायतं च इत्यान्वीक्षिकी |<br />English Translation: [https://archive.org/stream/Arthasastra_English_Translation/Arthashastra_of_Chanakya_-_English#page/n9/mode/2up Arthasastra Book 1, Chapter 2] Kautiliya, R Shamasastry (Translator), page 9</ref><ref>Olivelle, Patrick (2013), King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthasastra, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-989182-5}}, see Introduction</ref> Yoga and samkhya have some differences; yoga accepted the concept of a personal god, and Samkhya was a rational, non-theistic system of Hindu philosophy.<ref name="lpfl" />{{sfn|Burley|2012|pp=31–46}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=453}} Patanjali's system is sometimes called "Seshvara Samkhya", distinguishing it from [[Kapila]]'s Nirivara Samkhya.{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1971|p=344}} The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so close that [[Max Müller]] says, "The two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord."{{sfn|Müller|1899|p=104}} [[Karel Werner]] wrote that the systematization of yoga which began in the middle and early Yoga Upanishads culminated in the ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''.{{refn|Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a systematic training, and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middle Upanishads....Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by Patanjali's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga."{{sfn|Werner|1998|p=24}}|group=note}}

The ''Yoga Sutras'' are also influenced by the Sramana traditions of Buddhism and Jainism, and may be a further Brahmanical attempt to adopt yoga from those traditions.{{sfn|Mallinson|Singleton|2017|pp=xvi–xvii}} Larson noted a number of parallels in ancient samkhya, yoga and [[Abhidharma]] Buddhism, particularly from the second century BCE to the first century AD.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}} Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras'' are a synthesis of the three traditions. From Samkhya, they adopt the "reflective discernment" (''adhyavasaya'') of ''prakrti'' and ''purusa'' (dualism), their metaphysical rationalism, and their three [[epistemology|epistemological]] methods of obtaining knowledge.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}} Larson says that the ''Yoga Sutras''  pursue an altered state of awareness from Abhidharma Buddhism's ''nirodhasamadhi''; unlike Buddhism's "no self or soul", however, yoga (like Samkhya) believes that each individual has a self.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}} The third concept which the ''Yoga Sutras'' synthesize is the [[Sannyasa|ascetic]] tradition of meditation and introspection.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}}

=={{anchor|Reception in other religions}}Reception by other religions==

===Christianity===

Some Christians integrate [[Asana|physical aspects]] of yoga, stripped from the [[Yoga (philosophy)|spiritual roots]] of [[Hinduism]], and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with [[Christian prayer|prayer]], [[Christian meditation|meditation]] and [[Jesus|Jesus-centric]] affirmations.<ref name="nytimes_vatican">{{cite news|last=Steinfels|first=Peter|date=7 January 1990|title=Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/07/weekinreview/ideas-trends-trying-to-reconcile-the-ways-of-the-vatican-and-the-east.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808214350/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/07/weekinreview/ideas-trends-trying-to-reconcile-the-ways-of-the-vatican-and-the-east.html|archive-date=8 August 2009}}</ref><ref name="vice21">{{cite news|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/7xxa3a/inside-the-growing-world-of-christian-yoga|work=Vice|last=Solomon|first=Serena|date=5 September 2017|title=Inside the Growing Wold of Christian Yoga|access-date=3 September 2021}}</ref> The practice also includes renaming poses in English (rather than using the original [[Sanskrit]] terms), and abandoning [[Mantra|involved Hindu mantra]]s as well as [[Yoga (philosophy)|the philosophy of Yoga]]; Yoga is associated and reframed into [[Christianity]].<ref name="vice21" /> This has drawn charges of [[cultural appropriation]] from various Hindu groups;<ref name="vice21" /><ref name="abc20">{{cite news|last=Carleton|first=James|year=2020|title=Mental and spiritual wellness in isolation|work=ABC|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/godforbid/mental-and-spiritual-wellness-in-isolation-lockdown/13467828|access-date=3 September 2021}}</ref> scholars remain skeptical.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jain|first=Andrea R.|title=Selling Yoga : from Counterculture to Pop culture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0-19-939024-3}}</ref> Previously, the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and [[New Age]] practices that include yoga and meditation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1989/12/16/vatican-warns-against-practicing-eastern-meditation/e974fb62-c018-4cbb-a002-39fd03ec1075/|year=1989|author=Victor L. Simpson|title=Vatican warns against practicing Eastern meditation| newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] }}</ref><ref name="bbc01">{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm |title=Vatican sounds New Age alert |publisher=BBC |date=4 February 2003 |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Wayne |last=Teasdale |title=Catholicism in dialogue: conversations across traditions |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2004 |page=74 |isbn=0-7425-3178-3}}</ref>

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* {{cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |year=2012 |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-64887-5}}

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* {{cite book |last=Dass |first=Baba Hari |year=1999 |title=The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A Study Guide for Book I: Samadhi Pada |location=Santa Cruz, CA |publisher=Sri Rama Publishing |isbn=0-918100-20-8}}

* {{cite book |last1=Dumoulin |first1=Heinrich |last2=Heisig |first2=James W. |last3=Knitter |first3=Paul F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CYeWYtYBS4C |title=Zen Buddhism: a History: India and China |publisher=World Wisdom |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-941532-89-1}}

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* {{cite book |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |author-link=Georg Feuerstein |title=The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice |year=2001 |publisher=Hohm Press |isbn=978-1-890772-18-5}}

* {{cite book |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |author-link=Georg Feuerstein |title=The Yoga Tradition |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2002 |location=Delhi}}

* {{cite book |last=Goldberg |first=Philip |title=American Veda. From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation. How Indian Spirituality Changed the West |publisher=Harmony Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-385-52134-5 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/americanvedafrom00gold}}

* {{cite book |last=Hari Dass |first=Baba |title=Ashtanga Yoga Primer |year=1978 |pages=bk. cover |location=Santa Cruz |publisher=Sri Ram Publishing |isbn=978-0-918100-04-7}}

* {{cite book |author=Kundakunda |title=Niyamasara |title-link=Niyamasara}}

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* {{cite book |last=Larson |first=Gerald James |author-link=Gerald James Larson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6pURGdBBmIC |title=The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-208-3349-4}}

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* {{cite book |last=Mehta |first=Silva; Mehta, Mira; Mehta, Shyam |date=1990 |title=Yoga: The Iyengar Way |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-86318-420-8|title-link=Yoga: The Iyengar Way }}

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* {{cite book |last=Possehl |first=G. |author-link=Gregory Possehl |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |year=2003 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Rowman Altamira]] |isbn=978-0-7591-0172-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC}}

* {{cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-69534-3}}

* {{cite book |last=Singleton |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Singleton (yoga scholar) |title=Yoga Body: the origins of modern posture practice |title-link=Yoga Body |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-539534-1 |oclc=318191988}}

|year=2001 |publisher=Weiser Books}}

* {{cite book |last=Taimni |first=I. K. |title=The Science of Yoga |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |year=1961 |isbn=81-7059-212-7 |location=Adyar, India }}

* {{cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |author-link=Vivekananda |title=Swami Vivekananda at the Parliament of Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lw4gkcQS7cEC |publisher=Indic Publication |isbn=978-1-301-19120-8}}

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* {{cite book |last=Whicher |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Qo9K9hPvQgC |title=The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7914-3815-2 }}

* {{cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |author-link=David Gordon White |chapter=Yoga, Brief History of an Idea |title=Yoga in Practice |chapter-url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9565.pdf |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=1–23}}

* {{cite book |last=Worthington |first=Vivian |year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5aI9AAAAIAAJ |title=A History of Yoga |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-7100-9258-X}}

* {{cite book |last=Wynne |first=Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ElIupyX_SYAC&pg=PA51 |title=The Origin of Buddhist Meditation |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-09741-8}}

* {{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |title=Philosophies of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC |year=1951 |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer |location=New York, New York |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01758-1}} Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell.

* {{cite book |last=Zydenbos |first=Robert |title=Jainism Today and Its Future |location=Munich |publisher=Manya Verlag |year=2006 |page=66}}

{{refend}}

==External links==

* [[c:Category:Yoga|Yoga media on Commons]]

* [[b:Yoga|Yoga Wikibooks]]