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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Short description|Medieval invasion of one polity over another}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Chola invasion of Srivijaya
| conflict         = Chola invasion of Srivijaya
|partof=[[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]]
| partof           = [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]]
|image= Rajendra map new.svg
| image             = Rajendra map new.svg
|caption= Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 CE
| caption           = Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 CE
|date=1025
| date             = 1025–1030 CE
|place=[[Palembang]] ([[Sumatra]]) and [[Kedah]] ([[Malay Peninsula]]), [[Srivijaya]]
| place             = [[Palembang]] ([[Sumatra]]) and [[Kedah]] ([[Malay Peninsula]]), [[Srivijaya]]
|result=Chola victory
| result           = [[Chola]] and [[Khmer Empire]]  Victory
|combatant1=[[Chola Empire]]
*[[Srivijaya]] becomes a Chola Subordinate
|combatant2=[[Srivijaya]]
*[[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]] is captured
|commander1=[[Rajendra Chola]]
| combatant1       = [[Chola Empire]]
|commander2=[[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]]
| combatant2       = [[Srivijaya]]
|strength1=  
| commander1       = [[Rajendra I]] <br/>
|strength2=  
Beemaseenan  <br/>
|casualties1=  
Amarabujangan Divakara <br/>
|casualties2=  
Karunaakaran
| commander2       = [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]]{{POW}}<br/>
[[Samara Vijayatunggavarman]]
| strength1         =  
| strength2         =  
| casualties1       =  
| casualties2       =
| units1            = [[Chola Navy]]<br/>
[[Chola army]]
| units2            = Srivijaya Navy <br/>
Srivijaya Army
}}
}}


In [[1025 in India|1025]], [[Rajendra Chola I]], the [[Chola]] Emperor from [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[South India]], launched naval raids on the city-state of [[Srivijaya]] in [[maritime Southeast Asia]],<ref name="Munoz">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> Rajendra's overseas expedition against [[Srivijaya]] was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of [[Southeast Asia]]. Several places in present day [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] were invaded by [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]].<ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke,K Kesavapany,Vijay Sakhuja p.170</ref><ref>Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India  by Moti Chandra p.214</ref>  The [[Chola]] invasion furthered the expansion of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 by Tansen Sen p.159</ref><ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium  by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H. O'Rourke p.69</ref><ref>Wink, André, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. I, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th-11th centuries'', p.325, {{ISBN|978-0391041738}}</ref><ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization  by Sailendra Nath Sen p.564</ref> The Cholan invasion led to the fall of the [[Sailendra Dynasty]] of [[Srivijaya]] and the Chola invasion also coincides with return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar [[Atiśa]] from [[Sumatra]] to [[India]] and [[Tibet]] in 1025.<ref>Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana  by  Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91</ref> The expedition of [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Cholan I]]
In [[1025 in India|1025]] CE, the [[Chola]] Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] launched naval raids on [[Srivijaya]] in [[maritime Southeast Asia]],<ref name="Munoz">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> Rajendra's overseas expedition against [[Srivijaya]] was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of [[Southeast Asia]]. Several places in present-day [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] were invaded by [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]].<ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke,K Kesavapany,Vijay Sakhuja p.170</ref><ref>Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India  by Moti Chandra p.214</ref>  The [[Chola]] invasion furthered the expansion of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 by Tansen Sen p.159</ref><ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium  by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H. O'Rourke p.69</ref><ref>Wink, André, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. I, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th-11th centuries'', p.325, {{ISBN|978-0391041738}}</ref><ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization  by Sailendra Nath Sen p.564</ref> The Cholan invasion led to the fall of the [[Sailendra Dynasty]] of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar [[Atiśa]] from [[Sumatra]] to [[India]] and [[Tibet]] in 1025 CE.<ref>Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana  by  Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91</ref>
 
Cholan rule or influence on Srivijaya would last until 1070.


==Background==
==Background==
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient [[India]] and [[Indonesia]] enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history. In the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Srivijaya]] maintained close relations with the [[Pala Empire]] in [[Bengal]], and an 860 [[Nalanda inscription]] records that Maharaja [[Balaputra]] of [[Srivijaya]] dedicated a monastery at the [[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]] in Pala territory. The relation between [[Srivijaya]] and the [[Chola dynasty]] of southern [[India]] was friendly during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]]. In 1006 CE a [[Srivijaya]]n Maharaja from [[Sailendra]] dynasty — king [[Maravijayattungavarman]] — constructed the [[Chudamani Vihara]] in the port town of [[Nagapattinam]].<ref name="sastri219220">[[#Sastri|Sastri]], pp 219–220</ref> However, during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked [[Srivijaya]]n cities.<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium  by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} In the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Srivijaya]] maintained close relations with the [[Pala Empire]] in [[Bengal]], and an 860 CE [[Nalanda inscription]] records that Maharaja [[Balaputra]] of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the [[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]] in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the [[Chola dynasty]] of southern [[India]] was friendly during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]]. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from [[Sailendra]] dynasty — king [[Maravijayattungavarman]] — constructed the [[Chudamani Vihara]] in the port town of [[Nagapattinam]].<ref name="sastri219220">{{cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |title=The CōĻas |publisher=University of Madras |year=1935 |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri |page=219–220 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n235/mode/2up}}</ref> However, during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium  by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>


The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both [[piracy]] and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOfjaW7C3AsC&pg=PA367&dq=Chola+piracy#v=onepage |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |author=Craig A. Lockard |date=27 December 2006  |publisher=Cengage Learning |page=367 |isbn=0618386114 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref> While [[Srivijaya]] that controlled two major naval choke points; [[Malacca Strait|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait]]; at that time was a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. Malacca strait's northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on Peninsula side and from [[Pannai]] on the [[Sumatra]]n side, while [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] ([[Melayu Kingdom|Jambi]]) and [[Palembang]] controlled its southeast opening and also [[Sunda Strait]]. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise being plundered.{{fact|date=July 2020}}
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both [[piracy]] and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOfjaW7C3AsC&dq=Chola+piracy&pg=PA367 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |author=Craig A. Lockard |date=27 December 2006  |publisher=Cengage Learning |page=367 |isbn=0618386114 |access-date=23 April 2022}}</ref> Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points ([[Malacca Strait|Malacca]] and the [[Sunda Strait]]) and was at that time a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on the [[Malay Peninsula]] side and from [[Pannai]] on the [[Sumatra]]n side, while [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] ([[Melayu Kingdom|Jambi]]) and [[Palembang]] controlled its southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.<ref name="Naval Melaka Straits">{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=October 2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |pages=380-399}}</ref>


The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear with [[Nilakanta Sastri]] suggesting that the attack was probably caused by [[Srivijaya]]n attempt to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially [[China]]), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his ''digvijaya'' to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.<ref name="Kulke"/> Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King [[Suryavarman I]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] requested aid from [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]] against [[Tambralinga]] kingdom.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers</ref> After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the [[Srivijaya]] king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref> This eventually led to the [[Chola Empire]] coming into conflict with the [[Srivijaya]] Empire. This alliance somewhat also had religious nuance, since both Chola and [[Khmer empire|Khmer]] are [[Shivaist]] [[Hindu]], while [[Tambralinga]] and [[Srivijaya]] are [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist]].{{fact|date=July 2020}}
The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian [[Nilakanta Sastri]] suggested that the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his ''[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]'' to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.<ref name="Kulke"/> Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King [[Suryavarman I]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against [[Tambralinga]] kingdom.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers</ref> After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref>


==Invasion==
==Invasion==
[[File:Battle of kedah.jpg|thumb|right|A Siamese painting depicting the Chola raid on Kedah.]]
The Chola invasion against [[Srivijaya]] was a swift campaign that left [[Srivijaya]] unprepared. To sail from [[India]] to the [[Indonesian Archipelago]], vessels from [[India]] sailed eastward across the [[Bay of Bengal]] and called at the ports of Lamuri in [[Aceh]] or [[Kedah]] in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola armada sailed directly to the [[Sumatra]]n west coast. The port of [[Barus]] in the west coast of [[North Sumatra]] at that time belonged to Tamil trading guilds and served as a port to replenish after crossing the [[Indian Ocean]]. The Chola armada then continued to sail along [[Sumatra]]'s west coast southward and sailed into [[Sunda Strait|Strait of Sunda]].<ref name="Munoz"/> The [[Srivijaya]] navy guarded [[Kedah]] and surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca strait completely unaware that the [[Chola]] invasion was coming from the [[Sunda Strait]] in the south. The first [[Srivijaya]]n city being raided was [[Palembang]], the capital of [[Srivijaya]] empire. The unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the ''Kadatuan'' royal palace and monasteries. [[Tamil_inscriptions_in_the_Malay_world#Tanjore_Inscription|Thanjavur inscription]] states that Rajendra captured King [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] of [[Srivijaya]] and took a large heap of treasures including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of [[Srivijaya]] adorned with great splendor.<ref name="Kulke">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&pg=PA1&dq=Chola+captured+Srivijaya+jeweled+gate#v=onepage |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |author1=Hermann Kulke |author2=K. Kesavapany |author3=Vijay Sakhuja |year=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian, 2009 |page=1 |isbn=9789812309372 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref>
The Chola invasion against [[Srivijaya]] was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. Moreover, during this time in the [[11th century]], the [[Chola Navy|Chola navy]] had developed strongly, while Srivijaya sea power was relatively weak.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43863212 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=385 |issn=0022-4634}}</ref> To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago, vessels from India sailed eastward across the [[Bay of Bengal]] and called at the ports of Lamuri in [[Aceh]] or [[Kedah]] in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola armada sailed directly to the [[Sumatra]]n west coast. The port of [[Barus]] in the west coast of [[North Sumatra]] at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish after crossing the [[Indian Ocean]]. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along [[Sumatra]]'s west coast southward and sailed into [[Sunda Strait|Strait of Sunda]].<ref name="Munoz"/> The Srivijaya navy guarded Kedah and the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the [[Sunda Strait]] in the south. The first Srivijayan city that was raided was [[Palembang]], the capital of Srivijaya empire. The unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the ''Kadatuan'' royal palace and monasteries. The [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world#Tanjore Inscription|Thanjavur inscription]] states that Rajendra captured King [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya, adorned with great splendor.<ref name="Kulke">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&dq=Chola+captured+Srivijaya+jeweled+gate&pg=PA1 |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |year=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian, 2009 |page=1 |isbn=9789812309372 |access-date=23 April 2022}}</ref>


After plundering the royal palace of [[Palembang]], the Cholas launched successive attacks on other [[Srivijaya]]n ports including [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]], [[Temasek|Tumasik]], [[Pannai]] and Kedah. The Chola invasion did not result in administration over defeated cities as the armies moved fast and plundered the [[Srivijaya]]n cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken advantage of the [[Southeast Asia]]n [[monsoon]] for moving from one port to another swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it did not allow the [[Srivijaya]]n mandala to prepare the defences, reorganize themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate.<ref name="Munoz"/><ref name="Munoz 163">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |pages=163|isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> The war ended with a victory for the [[Chola]]s and major losses for the [[Srivijaya]] Empire ending the [[Srivijaya]] maritime monopoly in the region.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342"/><ref name="Southeast Asia p.43">Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43</ref><ref>Early kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161</ref>
The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as the armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken advantage of the [[Southeast Asia]]n [[monsoon]] for moving from one port to another swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan [[Mandala (political model)|''mandala'']] to prepare their defenses, reorganize themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate.<ref name="Munoz"/><ref name="Munoz 163">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |pages=163|isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> The war ended with a victory for the Cholas and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342"/><ref name="Southeast Asia p.43">Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43</ref><ref>Early kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161</ref>


==Aftermath==
==Aftermath==
With the Maharaja [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sang Rama Vijaya Tungga Varman]] imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderless [[Srivijaya]] mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The invasion marked the end of the [[Sailendra]] dynasty. According to the 15th-century [[Malay Annals]], [[Rajendra Chola I]] after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sang Rama Vijaya Tungga Varman]].<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref> This invasion forced [[Srivijaya]] to make peace with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] kingdom of [[Kahuripan]]. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sang Rama Vijaya Tungga Varman]], a [[Srivijaya]]n princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King [[Airlangga]] in [[East Java]]. She also became the queen consort of [[Airlangga]] named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, [[Airlangga]] constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.<ref name="Munoz 163"/>
[[File:Charter_issued_by_king_Rājendra_Chola_I_Or._1687.pdf|left|thumb|250x250px|[[Charter]] issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a [[Vihāra|Buddhist Vihara]] in Srivijaya.]]
With the Maharaja [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderless [[Srivijaya]] mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The invasion marked the end of the [[Sailendra]] dynasty. According to the 15th-century [[Malay Annals]], [[Rajendra Chola I]] after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref> This invasion forced [[Srivijaya]] to make peace with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] kingdom of [[Kahuripan]]. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King [[Airlangga]] in [[East Java]]. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.<ref name="Munoz 163" />


Despite the devastation, [[Srivijaya]] mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over [[Srivijaya]], since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the [[Srivijaya]]n hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like [[Kahuripan]] and its successor, [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] in [[Java]] based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of [[China]] in 1028 CE.<ref name="Munoz 163"/> Although the invasion was not followed by direct [[Chola]]n occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. [[Tamil people|Tamil]] traders encroached on the [[Srivijaya]]n realm traditionally controlled by [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]] traders and the [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds' influence increased on the [[Malay Peninsula]] and north coast of [[Sumatra]].<ref name="Munoz 163"/>
Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the [[Srivijaya]]n hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like [[Kahuripan]] and its successor, [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] in [[Java]] based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. [[Sri Deva]] was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of [[China]] in 1028 CE.<ref name="Munoz 163" /> Although the invasion was not followed by direct [[Chola]]n occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. [[Tamil people|Tamil]] traders encroached on the [[Srivijaya]]n realm traditionally controlled by [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]] traders and the [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds' influence increased on the [[Malay Peninsula]] and north coast of [[Sumatra]].<ref name="Munoz 163" />


With the growing presence of [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds in the region, relations improved between [[Srivijaya]] and the [[Chola]]s. [[Chola]] nobles were accepted in [[Srivijaya]] court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a [[Srivijaya]]n ambassador to the Imperial Court of [[China]]. The prince who was the nephew of [[Rajendra Chola]] later was enthroned in 1070 CE as [[Kulothunga Chola I]]. Later during the Kedah rebellion, [[Srivijaya]] asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE, [[Virarajendra Chola]] launched a naval raid to help [[Srivijaya]] reclaim [[Kedah]].<ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305">Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.305</ref> [[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]] reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the [[Srivijaya]]n Maharaja and Kedah accepted the [[Srivijaya]]n sovereignty.<ref name="Munoz"/><ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305"/>
With the growing presence of [[Tamils|Tamil]] guilds in the region, relations improved between Srivijaya and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the Imperial Court of China. The prince who was the nephew of [[Rajendra Chola]] later was enthroned in 1070 CE as [[Kulothunga Chola I]]. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE, [[Virarajendra Chola]] launched a naval raid to help Srivijaya reclaim [[Kedah]].<ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305">Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.305</ref> [[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]] reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the Srivijayan Maharaja and Kedah accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty.<ref name="Munoz"/><ref name="Suvarnadwipa p.305"/>


==See also==
==See also==
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[[Category:Conflicts in 1025]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1025]]
[[Category:Overseas empires]]
[[Category:Overseas empires]]
[[Category:Invasions by India]]
[[Category:Invasions by India]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Cholas]]

Revision as of 15:15, 9 December 2022


Chola invasion of Srivijaya
Part of South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I

Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 CE
Date1025–1030 CE
Location
Palembang (Sumatra) and Kedah (Malay Peninsula), Srivijaya
Result

Chola and Khmer Empire Victory

Belligerents
Chola Empire Srivijaya
Commanders and leaders

Rajendra I
Beemaseenan
Amarabujangan Divakara

Karunaakaran

Sangrama VijayatunggavarmanTemplate:POW

Samara Vijayatunggavarman
Units involved

Chola Navy

Chola army

Srivijaya Navy

Srivijaya Army

In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval raids on Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia,[1] Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places in present-day Indonesia and Malaysia were invaded by Rajendra I of the Chola dynasty.[2][3] The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia.[4][5][6][7] The Cholan invasion led to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025 CE.[8]

Background

Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history.[citation needed] In the 9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty — king Maravijayattungavarman — constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.[9] However, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[10]

The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.[11] Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points (Malacca and the Sunda Strait) and was at that time a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu (Jambi) and Palembang controlled its southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.[12]

The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian Nilakanta Sastri suggested that the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.[13] Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom.[14] After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.[14][15]

Invasion

The Chola invasion against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. Moreover, during this time in the 11th century, the Chola navy had developed strongly, while Srivijaya sea power was relatively weak.[16] To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago, vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port of Barus in the west coast of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along Sumatra's west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda.[1] The Srivijaya navy guarded Kedah and the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first Srivijayan city that was raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal palace and monasteries. The Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured King Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya, adorned with great splendor.[13]

The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as the armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken advantage of the Southeast Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan mandala to prepare their defenses, reorganize themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate.[1][17] The war ended with a victory for the Cholas and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.[14][15][18][19]

Aftermath

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Charter issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a Buddhist Vihara in Srivijaya.

With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The invasion marked the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay Annals, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.[20][21] This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.[17]

Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.[17] Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.[17]

With the growing presence of Tamil guilds in the region, relations improved between Srivijaya and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the Imperial Court of China. The prince who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola later was enthroned in 1070 CE as Kulothunga Chola I. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE, Virarajendra Chola launched a naval raid to help Srivijaya reclaim Kedah.[22] Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the Srivijayan Maharaja and Kedah accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty.[1][22]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 981-4155-67-5.
  2. ↑ Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke,K Kesavapany,Vijay Sakhuja p.170
  3. ↑ Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India by Moti Chandra p.214
  4. ↑ Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 by Tansen Sen p.159
  5. ↑ Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H. O'Rourke p.69
  6. ↑ Wink, André, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. I, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th-11th centuries, p.325, ISBN 978-0391041738
  7. ↑ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.564
  8. ↑ Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana by Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91
  9. ↑ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1935). The CōĻas. University of Madras. p. 219–220.
  10. ↑ Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67
  11. ↑ Craig A. Lockard (27 December 2006). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. Cengage Learning. p. 367. ISBN 0618386114. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  12. ↑ Heng, Derek (October 2013). "State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 44: 380–399.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay, eds. (2009). Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian, 2009. p. 1. ISBN 9789812309372. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers
  16. ↑ Heng, Derek (2013). "State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 44 (3): 385. ISSN 0022-4634.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. p. 163. ISBN 981-4155-67-5.
  18. ↑ Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43
  19. ↑ Early kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161
  20. ↑ Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226
  21. ↑ Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.305
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