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{{short description|Ancient kingdom in the southern Balkans}}
[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Map of Alexander the Great's empire]]
{{redirect|Macedon||Macedon (disambiguation)|and|Macedonia (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{featured article}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name            = {{lang|grc|Μακεδονία}}
|conventional_long_name = Macedonia
|common_name            = Macedon
|era                    = [[Classical Antiquity]]
|government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
|year_start            = 808 BC
|year_end              = 168 BC
|life_span              = {{plainlist|
*808–168 BC
*150–148 BC}}
|event_start            = [[Founding myth|Founded]] by [[Caranus (king)|Caranus]]
|date_start            =
|event_end              = [[Battle of Pydna]]
|date_end              =
|event1                = [[Vassal]] of [[Achaemenid Persia|Persia]]<ref name="sprawski 135–138 olbrycht 342–345">{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=135–138}}; {{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=342–345}}.</ref>
|date_event1            = 512/511–493 BC
|event2                = [[Achaemenid Macedonia|Incorporated into the Persian Empire]]<ref name="sprawski 135–138 olbrycht 342–345"/>
|date_event2            = 492–479 BC
|event3                = [[Rise of Macedon]]
|date_event3            = 359–336 BC
|event4                = [[League of Corinth|Founding of the Hellenic League]]
|date_event4            = 338–337 BC
|event5                = [[Wars of Alexander the Great|Conquest of Persia]]
|date_event5            = 335–323 BC
|event6                = [[Partition of Babylon]]
|date_event6            = 323 BC
|event7                = [[Wars of the Diadochi]]
|date_event7            = 322–275 BC
|event_pre              =
|date_pre              =
|event_post            =
|date_post              =
|p1                    = Greek Dark Ages
|p2                    =
Achaemenid Macedonia
|p3                    =
League of Corinth
|p4                    =
Achaemenid Empire
|p5                    =
Pauravas
|s1                    = Lysimachian Empire
|s2                    = Seleucid Empire
|s3                    = Ptolemaic Kingdom
|s4                    = Kingdom of Pergamon
|s5                    = Macedonia (Roman province){{!}}Macedonia province
|image_coat            = Vergina Sun WIPO.svg
|coa_size              = 100px
|symbol_type            = Vergina Sun
|symbol_type_article    = Vergina Sun
|image_map              = Map Macedonia 336 BC-en.svg
|image_map_caption      = The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange)
|capital                = {{plainlist|
*[[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aigai]]<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=105–106}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=156}}.</ref><br>(808–399 BC)
*[[Pella]]<ref>{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=92}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=156}}.</ref><br>(399–168 BC)}}
|latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW=
|common_languages      = [[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]], [[Attic Greek|Attic]], [[Koine Greek]]
|religion              = [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek polytheism]], [[Hellenistic religion]]
|currency              = [[Tetradrachm]]
|leader1                = [[Caranus of Macedon|Caranus]] (first)
|leader2                = [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] (last)
|year_leader1          = 808–778 BC
|year_leader2          = 179–168 BC
|title_leader          = [[List of kings of Macedon|King]]
|legislature            = [[Synedrion]]
|
|stat_year1            = 323 BC<ref name="Turchin">{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D. | title = East-West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=223 |url =http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=12 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref name="Taagepera">{{cite journal|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|journal=Social Science History|date=1979|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=121|doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959}}</ref>
|stat_area1            = 5200000
|stat_pop1              =
|footnotes              =
}}
<!-- Please do not change the following text without first discussing it on the talk page. -->
'''Macedonia''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Macedonia.ogg|ˌ|m|æ|s|ᵻ|ˈ|d|oʊ|n|i|ə}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Μακεδονία}}), also called '''Macedon''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|æ|s|ᵻ|d|ɒ|n}}), was an [[Classical antiquity|ancient]] [[monarchy|kingdom]] on the periphery of [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] and [[Classical Greece]],<ref>{{harvnb|Hornblower|2008|pp=55–58}}.</ref> and later the dominant state of [[Hellenistic Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Austin|2006|pp=1–4}}.</ref> The [[History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|kingdom was founded]] and initially ruled by the royal [[Argead dynasty]], which was followed by the [[Antipatrid dynasty|Antipatrid]] and [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid]] dynasties. Home to the [[ancient Macedonians]], the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the [[Greek peninsula]],<ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia|title=Macedonia|date=23 October 2015|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=5 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208092317/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia|archive-date=8 December 2008}}.</ref> and bordered by [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] to the west, [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]] to the north, [[Thrace]] to the east and [[Ancient Thessaly|Thessaly]] to the south.


Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great [[city-states]] of [[Athens]], [[Sparta]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and [[Achaemenid Macedonia|briefly subordinate]] to [[Achaemenid Persia]].<ref name="sprawski 135–138 olbrycht 342–345"/> During the reign of the Argead king [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}II]] (359–336 BC), Macedonia [[Rise of Macedon|subdued]] [[mainland Greece]] and the [[Thracians|Thracian]] [[Odrysian kingdom]] through conquest and diplomacy. With a reformed [[Ancient Macedonian army|army]] containing [[Macedonian phalanx|phalanxes]] wielding the ''[[sarissa]]'' pike, Philip{{nbsp}}II defeated the old powers of [[Second Athenian League|Athens]] and [[Theban hegemony|Thebes]] in the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338{{nbsp}}BC. Philip{{nbsp}}II's son [[Alexander the Great]], leading a [[League of Corinth|federation of Greek states]], accomplished his father's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he [[Battle of Thebes|destroyed Thebes]] after the city revolted. During Alexander's subsequent [[Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia|campaign of conquest]], he [[Wars of Alexander the Great|overthrew]] the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and conquered territory that stretched as far as the [[Indus River]]. For a brief period, his '''Macedonian Empire''' was the most powerful in the world – the definitive [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] state, inaugurating the transition to a new period of [[Culture of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek civilization]]. [[Hellenistic art|Greek arts]] and [[Hellenistic literature|literature]] flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in [[Ancient Greek philosophy|philosophy]], [[Ancient Greek engineering|engineering]], and [[Ancient Greek science|science]] spread throughout much of the ancient world. Of particular importance were the contributions of [[Aristotle]], tutor to Alexander, [[Aristotelianism|whose writings]] became a keystone of [[Western philosophy]].
'''Macedonia''' (Greek: Μακεδονία) or '''Macedon''' was an Ancient Greek [[Monarchy|kingdom]] of the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] and [[Classical Greece]],<ref>{{harvnb|Hornblower|2008|pp=55–58}}.</ref> and later the most powerful [[state]] of [[Hellenistic Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Austin|2006|pp=1–4}}.</ref> The [[History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|kingdom was established]] and was at first ruled by the royal [[Argead dynasty]], which was followed by the [[Antipatrid dynasty|Antipatrid]] and [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid]] dynasties. Home to the [[ancient Macedonians]], the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the [[Greek peninsula]],<ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia|title=Macedonia|date=23 October 2015|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|accessdate=5 February 2017|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208092317/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia|archivedate=8 December 2008}}.</ref> and bordered by [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] to the west, [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]] to the north, [[Thrace]] to the east and [[Ancient Thessaly|Thessaly]] to the south.


After [[death of Alexander the Great|Alexander's death]] in 323{{nbsp}}BC, the ensuing [[wars of the Diadochi]], and the partitioning of Alexander's short-lived empire, Macedonia remained a Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], the [[Seleucid Empire]], and the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]]. Important cities such as [[Pella]], [[Pydna]], and [[Amphipolis]] were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as [[Thessalonica]] by the usurper [[Cassander]] (named after his wife [[Thessalonike of Macedon]]).<ref name="Adams 2010 215">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=215}}.</ref> Macedonia's decline began with the [[Macedonian Wars]] and [[Rise of Rome|the rise]] of [[ancient Rome|Rome]] as the leading [[Mediterranean region|Mediterranean]] power. At the end of the [[Third Macedonian War]] in 168{{nbsp}}BC, [[Roman Greece|the Macedonian monarchy was abolished]] and replaced by Roman [[client state]]s. A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the [[Fourth Macedonian War]] in 150–148{{nbsp}}BC ended with the establishment of the [[Roman province]] of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]].
[[Alexander the Great]] made it the most powerful kingdom in the [[Near East]] for a few years. When he died the empire fell apart and the [[Antigonid dynasty]] ruled Macedonia as a small empire. Centuries later the [[Roman Empire]] conquered Macedonia and much of Alexander's empire.


The Macedonian kings, who wielded [[Absolute monarchy|absolute power]] and commanded [[State ownership|state resources]] such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to [[Mint (facility)|mint]] [[Ancient Greek coinage|currency]], finance [[Antigonid Macedonian army|their armies]] and, by the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II, a Macedonian navy. Unlike the other ''[[diadochi]]'' [[successor state]]s, the [[imperial cult]] fostered by Alexander was never adopted in Macedonia, yet Macedonian rulers nevertheless assumed roles as [[high priest]]s of the kingdom and leading patrons of domestic and international [[Ancient Greek religion|cults]] of the [[Hellenistic religion]]. The authority of Macedonian kings was theoretically limited by the institution of the army, while [[Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|a few municipalities]] within the [[Koinon of Macedonians|Macedonian commonwealth]] enjoyed a high degree of autonomy and even had [[History of democracy|democratic governments]] with [[popular assemblies]].
== Kings ==
{{Div col}}


==Etymology==
=== [[Argead dynasty]] ===
{{see also|Makedon (mythology)|Macedonia (terminology)}}
* [[Karanus of Macedon|Karanus]] 808-778 BC
The name Macedonia ({{lang-el|Μακεδονία}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Makedonía}}'') comes from the [[ethnonym]] {{lang|grc|Μακεδόνες}} ({{transl|grc|Makedónes}}), which itself is derived from the [[ancient Greek]] adjective [[Makednos|μακεδνός]] ({{transl|grc|makednós}}), meaning "tall, slim", also the name of a people related to the [[Dorians]] ([[Herodotus]]), and possibly descriptive of [[Ancient Macedonians]].{{Sfn|Beekes|2009|p=894}} It is most likely [[cognate]] with the adjective {{lang|grc|μακρός}} ({{transl|grc|makros}}), meaning "long" or "tall" in [[Ancient Greek]].{{Sfn|Beekes|2009|p=894}} The name is believed to have originally meant either "highlanders", "the tall ones", or "high grown men".<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=89}}; {{harvnb|Borza|1995|p=114}}; [[Eugene N. Borza]] writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".</ref> Linguist [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] claims that both terms are of [[Pre-Greek substrate]] origin and cannot be explained in terms of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] morphology,<ref>{{harvnb|Beekes|2009|p=894}}</ref> however Filip De Decker rejects Beekesʼ arguments as insufficient.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Decker |first1=Filip |title=An Etymological Case Study On The And Vocabulary In Robert Beekes's New Etymological Dictionary Of Greek: M |journal=Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis |date=2016 |volume=133 |issue=2 |doi=10.4467/20834624SL.16.006.5152}}</ref>
* [[Koinos of Macedon|Koinos]]
* [[Tyrimmas of Macedon|Tyrimmas]]
* [[Perdiccas I of Macedon|Perdiccas I]] 700-678 BC
* [[Argaeus I of Macedon|Argaeus I]] 678-640 BC
* [[Philip I of Macedon|Philip I]] 640-602 BC
* [[Aeropus I of Macedon|Aeropus I]] 602-576 BC
* [[Alcetas I of Macedon|Alcetas I]] 576-547 BC
* [[Amyntas I of Macedon|Amyntas I]] 547-498 BC
* [[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]] 498-454 BC
* [[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdiccas II]] 454-413 BC
* [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus]] 413-399 BC
* [[Craterus of Macedon|Craterus]] 399 BC
* [[Orestes of Macedon|Orestes]] 399-396 BC
* [[Archelaus II of Macedon|Archelaus II]] 396-393 BC
* [[Amyntas II of Macedon|Amyntus II]] 393 BC
* [[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]] 393 BC
* [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]] 393 BC
* [[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus II]] 393-392 BC
* [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]] (restored) 392-370 BC
* [[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] 370-368 BC
* [[Ptolemy I of Macedon|Ptolemy I]] 368-365 BC
* [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]] 365-359 BC
* [[Amyntas IV of Macedon|Amyntas IV]] 359-356 BC
* [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] 359-336 BC
* [[Alexander the Great|Alexander III (the Great)]] 336-323 BC
** [[Antipater]], Regent of Macedon 334-319 BC
* [[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III Arrhidaeus]] 323-317 BC
* [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]] 323-310 BC
** [[Perdiccas]], Regent of Macedon 323-321 BC
** [[Antipater]], Regent of Macedon 321-319 BC
** [[Polyperchon]], Regent of Macedon 319-317 BC
** [[Cassander]], Regent of Macedon 317-306 BC


==History==
=== [[Antipatrid dynasty]] ===
{{main|History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}
* [[Cassander]] 306-297 BC
* [[Philip IV of Macedon|Philip IV]] 297-296 BC
* [[Alexander V of Macedon|Alexander V]] 296-294 BC
* [[Antipater II of Macedon|Antipater II]] 296-294 BC


===Early history and legend===
=== [[Antigonid dynasty]] ===
{{main|Achaemenid Macedonia|Argead dynasty}}
* [[Demetrius I Poliorcetes]] 294-288 BC
{{further|List of ancient Macedonians#Kings}}
* [[Lysimachus]] (divided with Pyrrhus of Epirus) 288-281 BC
[[File:Vergina2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The entrance to one of the royal tombs at [[Vergina]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
* [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] (divided with Lysimachus) 288-285 BC
The [[Classical Greece|Classical]] [[Greek historiography|Greek historians]] [[Herodotus]] and [[Thucydides]] reported the [[Origin myth|legend]] that the [[List of Macedonian kings|Macedonian kings]] of the [[Argead dynasty]] were descendants of [[Temenus]], king of [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], and could therefore claim the mythical [[Heracles]] as one of their [[ancestor]]s as well as [[Family tree of the Greek gods|a direct lineage]] from [[Zeus]], chief god of the [[Greek mythology|Greek pantheon]].<ref name="king 376 sprawski 127 errington 2 3">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=127}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=2–3}}.</ref> Contradictory legends state that either [[Perdiccas I of Macedon]] or [[Caranus of Macedon]] were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas{{nbsp}}I.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=3, 251}}.</ref> The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the ''[[Hellanodikai]]'' authorities of the [[Ancient Olympic Games]], permitting [[Alexander I of Macedon]] ({{reign|498|454|era=BC}}) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage.<ref>{{harvnb|Badian|1982|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=142}}.</ref> Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander{{nbsp}}I's father [[Amyntas I of Macedon]] ({{reign|547|498|era=BC}}) during the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]].<ref name="king 2010 376"/>
* [[Ptolemy Ceraunus|Ptolemy II Ceraunus]] 281-279 BC
* [[Meleager (king)|Meleager]] 279 BC
* [[Antipater II of Macedon|Antipater II Etesias]] 279 BC
* [[Sosthenes of Macedon|Sosthenes]] (Army Commander) 279-277 BC
* [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] 277-274 BC
* [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] (restored) 274-272 BC
* [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] (restored) 272-239 BC
* [[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius II Aetolicus]] 239-229 BC
* [[Antigonus III of Macedon|Antigonus III Doson]] 229-221 BC
* [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] 221-179 BC
* [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] 179-168 BC
*{{Div col end}}


The [[History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|kingdom of Macedonia]] was situated along the [[Haliacmon]] and [[Vardar|Axius]] rivers in [[Lower Macedonia]], north of [[Mount Olympus]]. Historian [[Robert Malcolm Errington]] suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established [[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aigai]] (modern [[Vergina]]) as their capital in the mid-7th century{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=2}}.</ref> Before the 4th century{{nbsp}}BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the [[Western Macedonia|western]] and [[Central Macedonia|central]] parts of the [[Macedonia (Greece)|region of Macedonia]] in modern [[Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thomas|2010|pp=67–68, 74–78}}.</ref> It gradually expanded into the region of [[Upper Macedonia]], inhabited by the Greek [[Lynkestis|Lyncestae]] and [[Elimiotis|Elimiotae]] tribes, and into regions of [[Emathia]], [[Eordaia]], [[Bottiaea]], [[Mygdonia]], [[Crestonia]], and [[Almopia]], which were inhabited by various peoples such as [[Thracians]] and [[Phrygians]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Lewis|Boardman|1994|pp=723–724}}, see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=105–108}} for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the [[Phrygians]].</ref> Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, [[Illyrians]] to the northwest, and [[Paeonians]] to the north, while the lands of [[Thessaly]] to the south and [[Epirus]] to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=5–6}}.</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}


[[File:Oktadrachm of Alexander I 498 – 454 BCE.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A silver ''[[drachm|octadrachm]]'' of [[Alexander I of Macedon]] ({{reign|498|454|era=BC}}), [[Mint (facility)|minted]] {{circa|465–460 BC}}, showing an [[equestrianism|equestrian]] figure wearing a ''[[chlamys]]'' (short cloak) and ''[[petasos]]'' (head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse]]
== Books ==
{{multiple image
* Eugene N. Borza: ''Before Alexander: constructing early Macedonia.'' Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 1999. Pp.&nbsp;89. {{ISBN|0941690970}} (pb)
| align        = right
** [http://www.trentu.ca/ahc/bmcr2001enb.html Review by Konrad H. Kinzl (Trent University)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218054248/http://www.trentu.ca/ahc/bmcr2001enb.html |date=2006-02-18 }}
| footer_align = center
* Robin Lane Fox, ''Alexander the Great,'' Penguin Books, 1973, {{ISBN|0-14-008878-4}} (pb).
| image1      = Xerxes I tomb Ionian with petasos or kausia soldier circa 480 BCE cleaned up.jpg
* Nicholas G. L. Hammond, ''The Macedonian State'', Oxford University Press, 1989, {{ISBN|0-19-814883-6}}. Pg. 12-13.
| width1      = 106
| image2      = Xerxes tomb Ionian with petasos.jpg
| width2      = 150
| footer      = The "Ionians with shield-hats" ([[Old Persian cuneiform]]: [[Wikt:𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠|𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠𐏐𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠]], ''Yaunā takabarā'')<ref>[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dna/? Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 29]</ref> depicted on the tomb of [[Xerxes I]] at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]], were probably Macedonian soldiers in the service of the [[Achaemenid army]], wearing the [[petasos]] or [[kausia]], c.480 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=343–344}}</ref>
}}
A year after [[Darius I of Persia]] ({{reign|522|486|era=BC}}) launched [[European Scythian campaign of Darius I|an invasion]] into Europe against the [[Scythians]], [[Paeonians]], [[Thrace|Thracians]], and several Greek city-states of the [[Balkans]], the Persian general [[Megabazus]] used diplomacy to convince Amyntas{{nbsp}}I to submit as a [[Vassal state|vassal]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ushering in the period of [[Achaemenid Macedonia]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=342–343}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=131, 134}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=8–9}}. <br>Errington is skeptical that at this point [[Amyntas I of Macedon]] offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian [[tyrant]] [[Hippias (tyrant)|Hippias]] to take refuge at [[Anthemous]] in 506{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> Achaemenid Persian [[hegemony]] over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the [[Ionian Revolt]] (499–493{{nbsp}}BC), yet the Persian general [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] brought it back under Achaemenid [[suzerainty]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=344}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=135–137}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=9–10}}.</ref>


Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of [[autonomy]] and was never made a [[satrap]]y (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the [[Achaemenid army]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=343–344}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=137}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=10}}.</ref> Alexander{{nbsp}}I provided Macedonian military support to [[Xerxes I]] ({{reign|486|465|era=BC}}) during the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece]] in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Platea]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=344–345}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=138–139}}.</ref> Following the [[Battle of Salamis|Greek victory at Salamis]] in 480{{nbsp}}BC, Alexander{{nbsp}}I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with [[Classical Athens|Athens]], an offer that was rejected.<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=139–140}}.</ref> Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were [[Wars of the Delian League|forced to withdraw from mainland Europe]], marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=345}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=139–141}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=11–12}} for further details.</ref>
== External links ==
* [http://www.macedonia.com/english/history/ History of Macedon]
* [http://vergina.eng.auth.gr/macedonia/7.html Ancient Macedonia] at [http://vergina.eng.auth.gr/macedonia/ Macedonia, The Historical Profile], by D. Pandermalis, {{ISBN|960-243-001-X}}
* [http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html Ancient Macedonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183445/http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html |date=2016-03-03 }} at [http://www.livius.org Livius], by Jona Lendering
* [http://www.history-of-macedonia.com History of Macedonia through ages]
* [http://amchron.soundenterprises.net/articles/view/108052 Selian Е. The Mystery of the Name “Macedon”. In: American Chronicle, June 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220109/http://amchron.soundenterprises.net/articles/view/108052 |date=2013-10-04 }}


===Involvement in the Classical Greek world===
[[Category:History of Greece]]
{{further|Delian League|Spartan hegemony|Theban hegemony}}
[[Category:Empires]]]
[[File:Map Peloponnesian War 431 BC-en.svg|thumb|400px|Macedon (orange) during the [[Peloponnesian War]] around 431{{nbsp}}BC, with [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and the [[Delian League]] (yellow), [[Sparta]] and [[Peloponnesian League]] (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] (purple)]]
[[Category:History of India]]
Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander{{nbsp}}I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and [[Sparta]]n-led coalition of Greek city-states.<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=141–143}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=9, 11–12}}.</ref> His successor [[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II]] ({{reign|454|413|era=BC}}) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the [[Delian League]], while incursions by the Thracian ruler [[Sitalces]] of the [[Odrysian kingdom]] threatened Macedonia's [[territorial integrity]] in the northeast.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=145–147}}.</ref> The Athenian statesman [[Pericles]] promoted colonization of the [[Strymon River]] near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of [[Amphipolis]] was founded in 437/436{{nbsp}}BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as [[timber]] and [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] to support the [[Athenian navy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=72}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=13–14}} for further details.</ref> Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them.<ref name="roisman 2010 146 147"/> This changed due to an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II who had rebelled against him.<ref name="roisman 2010 146 147">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}.</ref> Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="roisman 2010 146 147"/> The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in [[Chalcidice]] and subsequently won over the strategic city of [[Potidaea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=18}} for further details.</ref> After capturing the Macedonian cities [[Therma]] and [[Veria|Beroea]], Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a [[peace treaty]] brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=147–148}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=19–20}}.</ref>
 
Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II sided [[Peloponnesian League|with Sparta]] in the [[Peloponnesian War]] (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to a shortage of provisions in winter.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=149–150}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=20}}.</ref> In 424 BC, [[Arrhabaeus]]<!-- This is intentionally linked to a disambiguation page, at least until an article is made about this individual. -->, a local ruler of [[Lynkestis]] in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his [[suzerain|overlord]] Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=150–152}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=21–22}}.</ref> At the [[Battle of Lyncestis]] the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general [[Brasidas]], whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian [[baggage train]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=152}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=22}}.</ref> Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=152–153}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=22–23}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Didrachm of Archelaos I King of Macedonia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A Macedonian [[didrachm]] minted during the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]] ({{reign|413|399|era=BC}})]]
Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the [[Peace of Nicias]], that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=153}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=22–23}}.</ref> Following the 418{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)|Battle of Mantinea]], the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with [[History of Argos|Argos]], a military pact Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=153–154}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=23}} for further details.</ref> When Argos suddenly switched sides as a pro-Athenian [[democracy]], the Athenian navy was able to form a [[blockade]] against Macedonian [[seaport]]s and invade Chalcidice in 417{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=23}} for further details.</ref> Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II sued for peace in 414{{nbsp}}BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus{{nbsp}}I]] ({{reign|413|399|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=23–24}}.</ref> Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus{{nbsp}}I in the 410{{nbsp}}BC Macedonian siege of [[Pydna]], in exchange for timber and naval equipment.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=154–155}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=24}}.</ref>
 
Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by [[Sirras]] of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=155–156}}.</ref> Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus{{nbsp}}I moved the [[capital city|capital]] of the kingdom north to [[Pella]], which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the [[Aegean Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=26}}.</ref> He improved Macedonia's [[currency]] by minting [[coin]]s with a [[Silver coin|higher silver content]] as well as issuing separate [[Coinage metals|copper coinage]].<ref name="Roisman 2010 156 157">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=156–157}}.</ref> His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian [[playwright]] [[Euripides]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=156–157}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=26}}.</ref> When Archelaus{{nbsp}}I was assassinated (perhaps following a [[Homosexuality in ancient Greece|homosexual]] love affair with [[royal page]]s at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393{{nbsp}}BC that included the reign of four different monarchs: [[Orestes of Macedon|Orestes]], son of Archelaus{{nbsp}}I; [[Aeropus II of Macedon|Aeropus{{nbsp}}II]], uncle, [[regent]], and murderer of Orestes; [[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]], son of Aeropus{{nbsp}}II; and [[Amyntas II of Macedon|Amyntas{{nbsp}}II]], who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus{{nbsp}}I.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=157–158}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=28–29}}.</ref> Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas{{nbsp}}III]] ({{reign|393|370|era=BC}}), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas{{nbsp}}I, killed Pausanias and claimed the Macedonian throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=158}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=28–29}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Coin of Amyntas III-161113.jpg|thumb|300px|A silver ''[[stater]]'' of [[Amyntas III of Macedon]] ({{reign|393|370|era=BC}})]]
Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383{{nbsp}}BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the Illyrian [[Dardani]] led by [[Bardylis]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=158–159}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=30}} for further details; the Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393{{nbsp}}BC and 383{{nbsp}}BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by [[Bardylis]] of the [[Dardani]].</ref> The [[pretender]] to the throne [[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus]] ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas{{nbsp}}III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=159}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=30}} for further details.</ref> Amyntas{{nbsp}}III was also nearly overthrown by the forces of the Chalcidian city of [[Olynthos]], but with the aid of [[Teleutias]], brother of the Spartan king [[Agesilaus II]], the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their [[Chalcidian League]] in 379{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=159–160}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=32–33}}.</ref>
 
[[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] ({{reign|370|368|era=BC}}), son of [[Eurydice I of Macedon|Eurydice{{nbsp}}I]] and Amyntas{{nbsp}}III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the ''[[Tagus (title)|tagus]]'' (supreme Thessalian military leader) [[Alexander of Pherae]], capturing the city of [[Larissa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=34–35}}.</ref> The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander{{nbsp}}II and Alexander of Pherae as their [[overlord]]s, appealed to [[Pelopidas]] of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic [[hostage]]s including Alexander{{nbsp}}II's brother and future king [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}II]] ({{reign|359|336|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=161–162}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=35–36}}.</ref> When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law [[Ptolemy of Aloros]], the latter acted as an overbearing regent for [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas{{nbsp}}III]] ({{reign|368|359|era=BC}}), younger brother of Alexander{{nbsp}}II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the [[age of majority]] in 365{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=162–163}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=36}}.</ref> The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=162–163}}.</ref> However, an Athenian invasion led by [[Timotheus (general)|Timotheus]], son of [[Conon]], managed to capture [[Methoni, Pieria|Methone]] and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas{{nbsp}}III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=163–164}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=37}}.</ref>
 
===Rise of Macedon===
{{Main|Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II}}
{{further|Argead dynasty|Amyntas IV of Macedon|League of Corinth}}
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| footer = Left, a bust of [[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336|era=BC}}) from the [[Hellenistic period]], located at [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]]. Right, another bust of Philip&nbsp;II, a 1st-century AD [[Hellenistic art#Later Roman copies|Roman copy]] of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic Greek]] original, now in the [[Vatican Museums]].
}}
[[File:Expansion of Macedon (English).svg|thumb|400px|Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}II]] in 336{{nbsp}}BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431{{nbsp}}BC (red outline), and [[dependent state]]s (yellow)]]
 
Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=166–167}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under [[Berisades]] to cease their support of [[Pausanias (pretender)|Pausanias]], a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of [[Argaeus II of Macedon|another pretender]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonian]] allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=38}}.</ref> He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who [[Battle of Erigon Valley|had threatened his borders]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=167}}.</ref>
 
Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]]. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the [[Macedonian phalanx]] armed with [[Pike (weapon)|long pikes]] (i.e. the ''[[sarissa]]''), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=168}}.</ref> Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip{{nbsp}}II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his [[Adolescence|adolescent]] years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the [[Theban hegemony]], especially after meeting with the general [[Epaminondas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=168–169}}.</ref>
 
The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced [[monogamy]], but Philip{{nbsp}}II practiced [[polygamy]] and married seven wives with [[Cleopatra Eurydice|perhaps only one]] that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169–170, 179}}. <br>Müller is skeptical about the claims of [[Plutarch]] and [[Athenaeus]] that Philip{{nbsp}}II of Macedon married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon]], a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own [[midlife crisis]]. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], who along with his father-in-law [[Parmenion]] were given command posts in [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.</ref> His first marriages were to [[Phila of Elimeia]] of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess [[Audata]] to ensure a marriage alliance.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=169}}.</ref> To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman [[Philinna]] in 358{{nbsp}}BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] ({{reign|323|317|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=170}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|p=62}}.</ref> In 357{{nbsp}}BC, he married [[Olympias]] to secure an alliance with [[Arybbas of Epirus|Arybbas]], the [[King of Epirus]] and the [[Molossians]]. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander{{nbsp}}III (better known as [[Alexander the Great]]) and claim descent from the legendary [[Achilles]] by way of his [[Aeacidae|dynastic heritage from Epirus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=170–171}}; {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=187}}.</ref> It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip{{nbsp}}II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas{{nbsp}}III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and [[Menelaus (son of Amyntas III)|Menelaus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167, 169}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=161}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II had Archelaus put to death in 359{{nbsp}}BC, while Philip{{nbsp}}II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a ''[[casus belli]]'' for the [[Olynthian War]] (349–348{{nbsp}}BC) against the Chalcidian League.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169, 173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=84}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=38–39}}.</ref>
 
While Athens was preoccupied with the [[Social War (357–355 BC)]], Philip{{nbsp}}II retook Amphipolis from them in 357{{nbsp}}BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=74–75}}.</ref> In 356{{nbsp}}BC, he took [[Crenides (Macedonia)|Crenides]], refounding it as [[Philippi]], while his general [[Parmenion]] defeated the Illyrian king [[Grabos II]] of the [[Grabaei]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=172}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}.</ref> During the 355–354{{nbsp}}BC siege of Methone, Philip{{nbsp}}II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63, 176–181}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=185–187}}. <br>Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.</ref>
 
Philip II then involved Macedonia in the [[Third Sacred War]] (356–346{{nbsp}}BC). It began when [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]] captured and plundered the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the [[Amphictyonic League]] to declare war on Phocis and a [[civil war]] among the members of the [[Thessalian League]] aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=8, 20–22, 26–29}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II's initial campaign against [[Pherae]] in Thessaly in 353{{nbsp}}BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general [[Onomarchus]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=172–173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=60, 185}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63–64, 176–181}}. <br>Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354{{nbsp}}BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the [[Battle of Crocus Field]] occurred in 353{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352{{nbsp}}BC at the [[Battle of Crocus Field]], which led to Philip{{nbsp}}II's election as leader (''[[archon]]'') of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding [[Nicesipolis]], niece of the tyrant [[Jason of Pherae]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=62, 66–68}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=74–75, 78–80}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=61–63}}.</ref>
 
Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting [[satraps]] and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]] [[Artabazos II]], who was in rebellion against [[Artaxerxes III]], was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general [[Memnon of Rhodes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Howe |first1=Timothy |last2=Brice |first2=Lee L. |title=Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean |date=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004284739 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=248DCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170}}</ref><ref name="EDC">{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Elizabeth Donnelly |title=Women and Monarchy in Macedonia |date=2000 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=9780806132129 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbI2hZBy_EkC&pg=PA101}}</ref> [[Barsine]], daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court.<ref name="EDC"/>
 
After campaigning against the Thracian ruler [[Cersobleptes]], in 349{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375{{nbsp}}BC following a temporary disbandment.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Schwahn|1931|loc=col. 1193–1194}}.</ref> Despite an Athenian intervention by [[Charidemus]],<ref>{{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=86}}.</ref> Olynthos was captured by Philip{{nbsp}}II in 348{{nbsp}}BC, and its inhabitants were [[Slavery in ancient Greece|sold into slavery]], including some [[Athenian citizenship|Athenian citizens]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=474–475}}.</ref> The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by [[Demosthenes]] known as the ''[[Olynthiacs]]'', were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346{{nbsp}}BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia [[Peace of Philocrates|known as the Peace]] of [[Philocrates]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=75–78}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=96–98}}.</ref> The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip{{nbsp}}II would not attack Athenian settlements in the [[Thracian Chersonese]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=98–101}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Phocis and [[Thermopylae]] were captured by Macedonian forces, the [[Pythia|Delphic temple]] robbers were executed, and Philip{{nbsp}}II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of [[master of ceremonies]] over the [[Pythian Games]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=174–175}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=95, 104, 107–108}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|pp=275–277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=478–479}}.</ref> Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration ''[[On the Peace]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=175}}.</ref>
{{multiple image
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| footer = Left, a ''Niketerion'' (victory medallion) bearing the effigy of king [[Philip II of Macedon]], 3rd century{{nbsp}}AD, probably minted during the reign of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Alexander Severus]]. Right, the ruins of the [[Philippeion]] at [[Olympia, Greece]], which was built by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to celebrate his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=227}}.</ref>
}}
 
Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler [[Pleuratus I]], deposed Arybbas in [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] in favor of his brother-in-law [[Alexander I of Epirus|Alexander{{nbsp}}I]] (through Philip{{nbsp}}II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the [[Hellespont]] in anticipation of an invasion into [[Classical Anatolia|Achaemenid Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=175–176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=114–117}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|p=482}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}.</ref> In 342{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II conquered [[History of Plovdiv|a Thracian city]] in what is now [[Bulgaria]] and renamed it [[Philippopolis (Thracia)|Philippopolis]] (modern [[Plovdiv]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Mollov|Georgiev|2015|p=76}}.</ref> War broke out with Athens in 340{{nbsp}}BC while Philip{{nbsp}}II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of [[Perinthus]] and [[Byzantion]], followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the [[Danube]] and Macedonia's involvement in the [[Fourth Sacred War]] against [[Amphissa (city)|Amphissa]] in 339{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=136–142}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=82–83}}.</ref> Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from [[Nicaea, Locris|Nicaea (near Thermopylae)]], leading Thebes to join Athens, [[Megara]], Corinth, [[Achaea]], and [[Euboea]] in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=176–177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=143–148}}.</ref> After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip{{nbsp}}II installed an [[oligarchy]] in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–168}}.</ref> He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the [[League of Corinth]] that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II was elected as the leader (''[[hegemon]]'') of its council (''[[synedrion]]'') and the [[commander-in-chief]] (''[[strategos]] [[autokrator]]'') of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=177–179}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–171}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=16}} for further details.</ref> Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davis Hanson|first1=Victor|title=Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome|url=https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans|url-access=limited|date=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691137902|page=[https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans/page/n131 119]|quote=Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.}}</ref> as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=348, 351}}</ref> The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340{{nbsp}}BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king [[Artaxerxes III]] further consolidated his control over satrapies in [[Geography of Anatolia|western Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=347–349}}</ref> The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=351}}</ref>
 
When Philip II married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]], niece of general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip{{nbsp}}II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias.<ref name="muller 179–180 cawkwell 170"/> They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref name="muller 179–180 cawkwell 170">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=179–180}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=170}}.</ref> When Philip{{nbsp}}II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and [[Ada of Caria]], daughter of [[Pixodarus]], the Persian satrap of [[Caria]], Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip{{nbsp}}II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors [[Ptolemy I|Ptolemy]], [[Nearchus]], and [[Harpalus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=180–181}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=14}} for further details.</ref> To reconcile with Olympias, Philip{{nbsp}}II had their daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]] marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander{{nbsp}}I of Epirus, but Philip{{nbsp}}II was assassinated by his bodyguard, [[Pausanias of Orestis]], during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=181–182}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=186}}; see {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3–5}} for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate [[Philip II of Macedon]].</ref>
 
===Empire<!--'Macedonian Empire' redirects here-->===
{{further|Wars of Alexander the Great|Wars of the Diadochi|Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia}}
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| footer = Left, Bust of [[Alexander the Great]] by the Athenian sculptor [[Leochares]], 330{{nbsp}}BC, [[Acropolis Museum]], Athens. Right, Bust of Alexander the Great, a [[Roman sculpture|Roman copy]] of the [[Roman Empire|Imperial Era]] (1st or 2nd century{{nbsp}}AD) after an original [[bronze sculpture]] made by the [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek sculptor]] [[Lysippos]], [[Louvre]], Paris.
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[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|350px|Alexander's empire and his route]]
 
Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of [[Alexander III of Macedon|Alexander{{nbsp}}III "the Great"]] and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip{{nbsp}}II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as [[regent of Greece]] and deputy ''hegemon'' of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip{{nbsp}}II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=183}}. <br>Without implicating [[Alexander III of Macedon]] as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate [[Philip II of Macedon]], [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as [[Demosthenes]] and [[Darius III]]: {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=8–12}}.</ref> Alexander{{nbsp}}III ({{reign|336|323|era=BC}}) was immediately proclaimed king by [[Popular assembly|an assembly]] of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being [[Antipater]] and Parmenion.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=183}}; {{harvnb|Renault|2001|pp=61–62}}; {{harvnb|Fox|1980|p=72}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3–5}} for further details.</ref> By the end of his reign and military career in 323{{nbsp}}BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of [[mainland Greece]], [[Asia Minor]], the [[Levant]], [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], and much of [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]] (i.e. modern [[Pakistan]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=186}}.</ref> Among his first acts was the burial of his father at Aigai.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=190}}.</ref> The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip{{nbsp}}II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as ''hegemon'' of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=190–191}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=15–16}} for further details.</ref>
 
In 335 BC, Alexander [[Alexander's Balkan campaign|fought against the Thracian tribe]] of the [[Triballi]] at [[Haemus Mons]] and along the [[Danube]], forcing their surrender on [[Peuce Island]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=34–38}}.</ref> Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian king [[Cleitus (Dardania)|Cleitus]] of the [[Dardani]] threatened to attack Macedonia, but Alexander took the initiative and [[Siege of Pelium|besieged the Dardani]] at [[Pelion (Chaonia)|Pelion]] (in modern [[Albania]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=40–47}}.</ref> When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in the [[Cadmea]], Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he [[Battle of Thebes|placed under siege]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=91}} and {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=47}} for further details.</ref> After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as [[prisoners of war]], and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=191–192}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=91–92}} for further details.</ref>
 
Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=192–193}}.</ref> His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the [[Battle of the Granicus]] in 334{{nbsp}}BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a [[cavalry charge]] from his [[companion cavalry]].<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=193}}.</ref> Alexander led the cavalry charge at the [[Battle of Issus]] in 333{{nbsp}}BC, forcing the Persian king [[Darius III]] and his army to flee.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193"/> Darius{{nbsp}}III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in 331{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193"/> The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of [[Bactria]] and kinsman, [[Bessus]], in 330{{nbsp}}BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now [[Afghanistan]], securing the region of [[Sogdia]] in the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=193–194}}; {{harvnb|Holt|2012|pp=27–41}}.</ref> At the 326{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] (modern-day [[Punjab]]), when the [[war elephant]]s of [[King Porus]] of the [[Pauravas]] threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their ''sarissa'' pikes.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=193–194}}.</ref> When his Macedonian troops threatened [[mutiny]] in 324{{nbsp}}BC at [[Opis]], [[Babylonia]] (near modern [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=194}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=113}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Stag hunt mosaic, Pella.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Stag Hunt Mosaic]], c.{{nbsp}}300{{nbsp}}BC, from [[Pella]]; the figure on the right is possibly [[Alexander the Great]] due to the date of the [[mosaic]] along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (''anastole''); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with [[Hephaistos]]) is perhaps [[Hephaestion]], one of Alexander's loyal companions.]]
Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of [[wiktionary:megalomania|megalomania]].<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 195"/> While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the [[Gordian Knot]], he also attempted to portray himself as a [[Sacred king|living god]] and son of Zeus following his visit to the [[oracle]] at [[Siwah]] in the [[Libyan Desert]] (in modern-day Egypt) in 331{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=194–195}}.</ref> His attempt in 327{{nbsp}}BC to have his men prostrate before him in [[Bactra]] in an act of ''[[proskynesis]]'' borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian [[Callisthenes]] refused to perform this ritual.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 195">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=195}}.</ref> When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at [[Ecbatana]] (near modern [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]]) in 330{{nbsp}}BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=105–106}}.</ref> His murder of [[Cleitus the Black]] in 328{{nbsp}}BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=198}}.</ref> Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed [[Roxana]], a Sogdian princess of Bactria.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|1989|pp=67–68}}.</ref> He then married [[Stateira II]], eldest daughter of Darius{{nbsp}}III, and [[Parysatis II]], youngest daughter of [[Artaxerxes III]], at the [[Susa weddings]] in 324{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=196}}.</ref>
 
Meanwhile, in Greece, the [[Spartan king]] [[Agis III]] attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=199}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=93}}.</ref> He was defeated in 331{{nbsp}}BC at the [[Battle of Megalopolis]] by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy ''hegemon'' of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=199–200}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=44, 93}}. <br>Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of [[Antipater]] aside from deputy ''[[hegemon]]'' of the [[League of Corinth]], with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general.<br>[[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=32}}.</ref> Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the [[Peloponnese]], Memnon, the governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=200–201}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=58}}.</ref> Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=201}}.</ref> Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330{{nbsp}}BC, Alexander declared that the [[tyrannies]] installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=201–203}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Diadochi LA.svg|thumb|400px|Kingdoms of the [[diadochi]] c.{{nbsp}}301{{nbsp}}BC, after the [[Battle of Ipsus]]
{{legend|#787CAD|Kingdom of [[Ptolemy I Soter]]}}
{{legend|#50A249|Kingdom of [[Cassander]]}}
{{legend|#C38833|Kingdom of [[Lysimachus]]}}
{{legend|#C3B933|Kingdom of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]}}
{{legend|#AF3662|[[Epirus]]}}
Other
{{legend|#A361BD|[[Carthage]]}}
{{legend|#70A9BE|[[Roman Republic]]}}
{{legend|#85AB54|[[Ancient Greece|Greek States]]}}]]
[[File:Coins of Philip III Arrhidaeus. 323-317 BC.jpg|thumb|A golden ''[[stater]]'' of [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] ({{reign|323|317|era=BC}}) bearing images of [[Athena]] (left) and [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] (right)]]
When [[Death of Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great died]] at [[Babylon]] in 323{{nbsp}}BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}} for further details.</ref> With no official [[heir apparent]], the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip{{nbsp}}III Arrhidaeus ({{reign|323|317|era=BC}}) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander{{nbsp}}IV]] ({{reign|323|309|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=115–117}} for further details.</ref> Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the [[Lamian War]] (323–322{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; {{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=209}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=69–70, 119}}.</ref> When Antipater was defeated at the 323{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Thermopylae (323 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]], he fled to [[Lamia (city)|Lamia]] where he was besieged by the Athenian commander [[Leosthenes]]. A Macedonian army led by [[Leonnatus]] rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=204–205}}; {{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=209–210}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=69, 119}}.</ref> Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319{{nbsp}}BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in [[Wars of the Diadochi|a power struggle]] between the ''[[diadochi]]'', the former generals of Alexander's army.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=205}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=118}} for further details.</ref>
 
A [[Partition of Babylon|council of the army convened in Babylon]] immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip{{nbsp}}III as king and the [[chiliarch]] [[Perdiccas]] as his regent.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=208–209}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=117}}.</ref> Antipater, [[Antigonus Monophthalmus]], [[Craterus]], and Ptolemy formed a coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's [[Tomb of Alexander the Great|seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=210–211}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=119–120}}.</ref> Perdiccas was assassinated in 321{{nbsp}}BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the [[Nile River]] resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=211}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=120–121}}.</ref> Although [[Eumenes of Cardia]] managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on the outcome of the 321{{nbsp}}BC [[Partition of Triparadisus]] in [[Syria (region)|Syria]] where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=211–212}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=121–122}}.</ref> Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319{{nbsp}}BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist [[Polyperchon]] as his successor, passing over his own son [[Cassander]] and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip{{nbsp}}III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=207 n. #1, 212}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=122–123}}.</ref>
 
Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and [[Lysimachus]], Cassander had his officer [[Nicanor (Antipatrid general)|Nicanor]] capture the [[Munichia]] fortress of Athens' port town [[Piraeus]] in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the [[Second War of the Diadochi]] (319–315{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=212–213}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=124–126}}.</ref> Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}III, by way of his politically engaged wife [[Eurydice II of Macedon]], officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.<ref name="adams 213 errington 126–127"/> Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus.<ref name="adams 213 errington 126–127">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=213}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=126–127}}.</ref> A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip{{nbsp}}III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=213–214}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=127–128}}.</ref> Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316{{nbsp}}BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=214}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=128–129}}.</ref>
 
Cassander married Philip II's daughter [[Thessalonike of Macedon|Thessalonike]] and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as [[Epidamnos]] (modern [[Durrës]], Albania). By 313{{nbsp}}BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king [[Glaucias of Taulantii]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=214–215}}.</ref> By 316{{nbsp}}BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject [[Seleucus Nicator]] from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315{{nbsp}}BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.<ref name="Adams 2010 215"/> Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander{{nbsp}}IV and the [[queen mother]] Roxana.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=215–216}}.</ref> The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311{{nbsp}}BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=216}}.</ref> Cassander had Alexander{{nbsp}}IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310{{nbsp}}BC, and between 306 and 305{{nbsp}}BC the ''diadochi'' were declared kings of their respective territories.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=129}}.</ref>
 
===Hellenistic era===
{{further|Antipatrid dynasty|Antigonid dynasty|Hellenistic period|Pyrrhic War|Chremonidean War|Cleomenean War}}
{{multiple image|right||perrow=2|total_width=300|
|image1=Pyrrhus MAN Napoli Inv6150 n03.jpg|width1=100
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|image4=Lisimaco (c.d.), copia augustea (23 ac-14 dc) da orig. del II sec ac. 6141.JPG|width4=76|
|footer=The portrait busts of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] (top left), [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] (top right), [[Seleucus I Nicator]] (bottom left), and [[Lysimachus]] (bottom right), [[Roman portraiture|Roman-era copies]] of [[Hellenistic sculpture|Hellenistic Greek originals]] from the [[Villa of the Papyri]] at [[Herculaneum]], [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]]}}
 
The beginning of [[Hellenistic Greece]] was defined by the struggle between the [[Antipatrid dynasty]], led first by [[Cassander]] ({{reign|305|297|era=BC}}), son of Antipater, and the [[Antigonid dynasty]], led by the Macedonian general [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]] ({{reign|306|301|era=BC}}) and his son, the future king [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius{{nbsp}}I]] ({{reign|294|288|era=BC}}). Cassander besieged Athens in 303{{nbsp}}BC, but was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded [[Boeotia]] to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=145}}.</ref> While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip{{nbsp}}II's [[League of Corinth|Hellenic league]] with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, [[Ptolemy I Soter]] ({{reign|305|283|era=BC}}) of Egypt's [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], [[Seleucus I Nicator]] ({{reign|305|281|era=BC}}) of the [[Seleucid Empire]], and Lysimachus ({{reign|306|281|era=BC}}), [[List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia|King of Thrace]], defeated the Antigonids at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301{{nbsp}}BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=145–147}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref>
 
Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son [[Philip IV of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}IV]] died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons [[Alexander V of Macedon]] ({{reign|297|294|era=BC}}) and [[Antipater II of Macedon]] ({{reign|297|294|era=BC}}), with their mother [[Thessalonike of Macedon]] acting as regent.<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater{{nbsp}}II killed his own mother to obtain power.<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> His desperate brother Alexander{{nbsp}}V then requested aid from [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] ({{reign|297|272|era=BC}}),<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy{{nbsp}}I.<ref name="bringmann 2007 61">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref> In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater{{nbsp}}II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=218}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=153}}.</ref> Demetrius had his nephew Alexander{{nbsp}}V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style [[autocracy]].<ref name="adams 2010 218">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=218}}.</ref>
 
War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290{{nbsp}}BC when [[Lanassa (wife of Pyrrhus)|Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus]], daughter of [[Agathocles of Syracuse]], left him for Demetrius and offered him her [[dowry]] of [[Corcyra]].<ref name="adams 218–219 bringmann 61" /> The war dragged on until 288{{nbsp}}BC, when Demetrius lost the support of [[Ancient Macedonians|the Macedonians]] and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking [[western Macedonia]] and the latter eastern Macedonia.<ref name="adams 218–219 bringmann 61">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=218–219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref> By 286{{nbsp}}BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=155}}. <br>Conversely, Errington dates [[Lysimachus]]' reunification of Macedonia by expelling [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] as occurring in 284{{nbsp}}BC, not 286{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> In 282{{nbsp}}BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus{{nbsp}}I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the [[Battle of Corupedion]], allowing Seleucus{{nbsp}}I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia.<ref name="adams 219 bringmann 61">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=156–157}}.</ref> In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus{{nbsp}}I was assassinated in 281{{nbsp}}BC by his officer [[Ptolemy Keraunos]], son of Ptolemy{{nbsp}}I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279{{nbsp}}BC by [[Galatians (people)|Celtic invaders]] in the [[Gallic invasion of Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=61–63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=159–160}}.</ref> The Macedonian army proclaimed the general [[Sosthenes of Macedon]] as king, although he apparently refused the title.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=160}}.</ref> After defeating the [[Gauls|Gallic]] ruler [[Bolgios]] and driving out the raiding party of [[Brennus (3rd century BC)|Brennus]], Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=160–161}}.</ref> The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until [[Antigonus Gonatas]], son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Lysimachia]] and was then proclaimed king [[Antigonus II of Macedon]] ({{reign|1=277|2=274|3=272|4=239|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=162–163}}.</ref>
 
In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in [[Magna Graecia]] (i.e. [[southern Italy]]) against the [[Roman Republic]] known as the [[Pyrrhic War]], followed by his [[Siege of Syracuse (278 BC)|invasion of Sicily]].<ref name="adams 219–220 bringmann 2007 63">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=219–220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}.</ref> Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty [[war elephant]]s for this endeavor.<ref name="bringmann 2007 61"/> Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275{{nbsp}}BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the [[rise of Rome]] because [[Colonies in antiquity|Greek cities in southern Italy]] such as [[Taranto|Tarentum]] now became Roman allies.<ref name="adams 219–220 bringmann 2007 63"/> Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274{{nbsp}}BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus{{nbsp}}II at the 274{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of the Aous (274 BC)|Battle of Aous]] and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=219–220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=164}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Ancient Mieza, Macedonian tombs of Lefkadia, Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg|thumb|Paintings of [[Hellenistic]]-era military arms and armor from a tomb in ancient [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] (modern-day Lefkadia), [[Imathia]], [[Central Macedonia]], [[Greece]], 2nd century{{nbsp}}BC]]
Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273{{nbsp}}BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=164–165}}.</ref> Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus{{nbsp}}II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus{{nbsp}}II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia.<ref name="adams 2010 220">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}.</ref> Pyrrhus was killed while besieging [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]] in 272{{nbsp}}BC, allowing Antigonus{{nbsp}}II to reclaim the rest of Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=167}}.</ref> He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Kingdom of Paeonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=165–166}}.</ref>
 
The [[Aetolian League]] hampered Antigonus{{nbsp}}II's control over [[central Greece]], and the formation of the [[Achaean League]] in 251{{nbsp}}BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=167–168}} about the resurgence of [[Sparta]] under [[Areus I]].</ref> While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the [[Syrian Wars]], the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus{{nbsp}}II's efforts to control mainland Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=168}}.</ref> With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman [[Chremonides]] led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=168–169}}.</ref> By 265{{nbsp}}BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus{{nbsp}}II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the [[Battle of Cos]]. Athens finally surrendered in 261{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=169–171}}.</ref> After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler [[Antiochus II]], a peace settlement between Antigonus{{nbsp}}II and [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] of Egypt was finally struck in 255{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="adams 2010 221">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Apollon Tempel im antiken Korinth.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ancient Greek temple|Temple]] of [[Apollo]] at [[Corinth]], built c.{{nbsp}}540{{nbsp}}BC, with the [[Acrocorinth]] (i.e. the [[acropolis]] of Corinth that once held a [[Antigonid Macedonian army|Macedonian garrison]])<ref name="adams 2010 222"/> seen in the background]]
In 251 BC, [[Aratus of Sicyon]] led a rebellion against Antigonus{{nbsp}}II, and in 250{{nbsp}}BC, Ptolemy{{nbsp}}II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King [[Alexander of Corinth]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=221–222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=172}}.</ref> Although Alexander died in 246{{nbsp}}BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies [[Battle of Andros (246 BC)|at Andros]], the Macedonians lost the [[Acrocorinth]] to the forces of Aratus in 243{{nbsp}}BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=172–173}}.</ref> Antigonus{{nbsp}}II made peace with the Achaean League in 240{{nbsp}}BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=173}}.</ref> Antigonus{{nbsp}}II died in 239{{nbsp}}BC and was succeeded by his son [[Demetrius II of Macedon]] ({{reign|239|229|era=BC}}). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the [[queen mother]] and regent of Epirus, [[Olympias II of Epirus|Olympias II]], offered her daughter [[Phthia of Macedon]] to Demetrius{{nbsp}}II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing [[Stratonice of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=174}}.</ref> Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius{{nbsp}}II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="adams 2010 222">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}.</ref>
 
The Achaean League managed to capture [[Megalopolis, Greece|Megalopolis]] in 235{{nbsp}}BC, and by the end of Demetrius{{nbsp}}II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from the Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=173–174}}.</ref> Demetrius{{nbsp}}II also lost an ally [[Epirus (ancient state)|in Epirus]] when the [[Deidamia II of Epirus|monarchy was toppled]] in a [[Epirote League|republican revolution]].<ref name="adams 223 errington 174">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=174}}.</ref> Demetrius{{nbsp}}II enlisted the aid of the [[Illyria]]n king [[Agron of Illyria|Agron]] to defend [[Acarnania]] against Aetolia, and in 229{{nbsp}}BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the [[Battle of Paxos]].<ref name="adams 223 errington 174"/> Another Illyrian ruler, [[Longarus]] of the [[Dardanian Kingdom]], invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius{{nbsp}}II shortly before his death in 229{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=174–175}}.</ref> Although his young son [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip]] immediately inherited the throne, his regent [[Antigonus III Doson]] ({{reign|229|221|era=BC}}), nephew of Antigonus{{nbsp}}II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=175–176}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Tetradrachm, 229-221, Antigonos Doson.jpg|thumb|A ''[[tetradrachm]]'' minted during the reign of [[Antigonus III Doson]] ({{reign|229|221|era=BC}}), possibly at [[Amphipolis]], bearing the portrait image of [[Poseidon]] on the [[obverse]] and on the reverse a scene depicting [[Apollo]] sitting on the [[Hellenistic-era warships|prow of a ship]]]]
Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226{{nbsp}}BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king [[Cleomenes III]] of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the [[Cleomenean War]] (229–222{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=223–224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=179–180}} for further details.</ref> In exchange for military aid, Antigonus{{nbsp}}III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=223–224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=180–181}}.</ref> In 224{{nbsp}}BC, Antigonus{{nbsp}}III's forces took [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]] from Sparta. After forming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip{{nbsp}}II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the [[Battle of Sellasia]] in 222{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=181–183}}.</ref> Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=182}} about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the [[Battle of Sellasia]].</ref> Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from [[tuberculosis]], leaving behind a strong [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic kingdom]] for his successor Philip{{nbsp}}V.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=183–184}}.</ref>
 
[[Philip V of Macedon]] ({{reign|221|179|era=BC}}) faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian [[Dardani]] and Aetolian League.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=229}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=184–185}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the [[Social War (220–217 BC)]], yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the [[History of Carthage|Carthaginian]] victory over [[History of the Roman Republic|the Romans]] at the [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]] in 217{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=229}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=185–186, 189}}.</ref> [[Demetrius of Pharos]] is alleged to have convinced Philip{{nbsp}}V to first [[Illyrian Wars|secure Illyria]] in advance of an invasion of the [[Italian peninsula]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=229–230}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=186–189}} for further details. <br>Errington is skeptical that Philip&nbsp;V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=189}}.</ref> In 216{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}V sent a hundred [[Hellenistic-era warships|light warships]] into the [[Adriatic Sea]] to attack Illyria, a move that prompted [[Scerdilaidas]] of the [[Ardiaean Kingdom]] to appeal to the Romans for aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=230}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=189–190}}.</ref> Rome responded by sending ten heavy [[quinquereme]]s from [[Roman Sicily]] to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip{{nbsp}}V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=230–231}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=190–191}}.</ref>
 
===Conflict with Rome===
{{main|Macedonian Wars}}
{{further|Cretan War (205–200 BC)|Punic Wars|Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty}}
[[File:Macedonia and the Aegean World c.200.png|thumb|400px|The Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) under [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}V]] ({{reign|221|179|era=BC}}), with Macedonian [[dependent state]]s (dark yellow), the [[Seleucid Empire]] (bright yellow), [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[protectorate]]s (dark green), the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] (light green), independent states (light purple), and possessions of the [[Ptolemaic Empire]] (violet purple)]]
In 215 BC, at the height of the [[Second Punic War]] with the [[Carthaginian Empire]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] authorities intercepted a ship off the [[Calabria]]n coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by [[Hannibal]] declaring an alliance with Philip{{nbsp}}V.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=231}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=192}}; also mentioned by {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=19}}.</ref> [[Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty|The treaty]] stipulated that [[History of Carthage|Carthage]] had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid if a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=80}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=231}} and {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=191–193}} for further details.</ref> Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria,<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=191–193, 210}}.</ref> the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip{{nbsp}}V had for the Adriatic region during the [[First Macedonian War]] (214–205{{nbsp}}BC). In 214{{nbsp}}BC, Rome positioned a [[Roman navy|naval fleet]] at [[Oricus]], which was assaulted along with [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]] by Macedonian forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=193}}.</ref> When the Macedonians captured [[Lissus]] in 212{{nbsp}}BC, the [[Roman Senate]] responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, [[Ancient Elis|Elis]], [[Messenia]], and [[Attalus I]] ({{reign|241|197|era=BC}}) of [[Pergamon]] to wage war against Philip{{nbsp}}V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=232–233}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=193–194}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=17–18, 20}}.</ref>
 
The Aetolian League concluded a [[peace agreement]] with Philip{{nbsp}}V in 206{{nbsp}}BC, and the [[Roman Republic]] negotiated the [[Treaty of Phoenice]] in 205{{nbsp}}BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=83}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=233–234}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=195–196}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=21}}; see also {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=18–19}} for details on the [[Aetolian League]]'s treaty with [[Philip V of Macedon]] and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.</ref> Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202{{nbsp}}BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally [[Rhodes]] in 201{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=85}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=196–197}} for further details.</ref> These states were concerned about Philip{{nbsp}}V's alliance with [[Antiochus III the Great]] of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the [[Fifth Syrian War]] (202–195{{nbsp}}BC) as Philip{{nbsp}}V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=234–235}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=196–198}}; see also {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}} for further details.</ref> Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200{{nbsp}}BC, the ''[[comitia centuriata]]'' (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=235–236}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=199–201}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=22}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Philip{{nbsp}}V conquered territories in the [[Hellespont]] and [[Bosporus]] as well as Ptolemaic [[Samos]], which led Rhodes to [[Cretan War (205–200 BC)|form an alliance with Pergamon]], [[Byzantium]], [[Cyzicus]], and [[Chios]] against Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=235}} for further details.</ref> Despite Philip{{nbsp}}V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval [[Battle of Chios (201 BC)|Battle of Chios]] in 201{{nbsp}}BC and was blockaded at [[Bargylia]] by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=197–198}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Philip V. 221-179 BCE.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A [[tetradrachm]] of [[Philip V of Macedon]] ({{reign|221|179|era=BC}}), with the king's portrait on the [[obverse]] and [[Athena Alkidemos]] brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse]]
While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=86–87}}. <br>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=202–203}}: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war."</ref> The Roman Senate demanded that Philip{{nbsp}}V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=87}}.</ref> When the ''comitia centuriata'' finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200{{nbsp}}BC and handed their [[ultimatum]] to Philip{{nbsp}}V, demanding that a [[tribunal]] assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the [[Second Macedonian War]] (200–197{{nbsp}}BC), with [[Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus]] spearheading [[military operation]]s in Apollonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=87–88}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=199–200}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=235–236}} for further details.</ref>
 
[[File:Eumene II, fondatore della biblioteca di pergamo, copia romana (50 dc ca) da orig,. ellenistico su busto moderno, MANN 02.JPG|thumb|upright|Bronze bust of [[Eumenes II]] of [[Pergamon]], a [[Roman sculpture|Roman copy]] of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek original]], from the [[Villa of the Papyri]] in [[Herculaneum]]]]
The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=236}}.</ref> but the [[Roman consul]] [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus]] managed to expel Philip{{nbsp}}V from Macedonia in 198{{nbsp}}BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.<ref name="bringmann 2007 88">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}.</ref> When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.<ref name="bringmann 2007 88"/> In June 197{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=236}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=203}}.</ref> Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=236–237}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=204}}.</ref> Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the [[Isthmian Games]] of 196{{nbsp}}BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek [[liberty]] by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting [[tribute]] of any kind.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=88–89}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=237}}.</ref> His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king [[Nabis]], who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=89–90}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=237}} and {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=20–21, 24}} for further details.</ref>
 
Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid king]] Antiochus{{nbsp}}III landed with his army at [[Demetrias]], Thessaly, in 192{{nbsp}}BC, and was elected ''strategos'' by the Aetolians.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=90–91}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=237–238}}.</ref> Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}.</ref> The Romans [[Roman–Seleucid War|defeated the Seleucids]] in the 191{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]] as well as the [[Battle of Magnesia]] in 190{{nbsp}}BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a [[war indemnity]], dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the [[Taurus Mountains]] in the 188{{nbsp}}BC [[Treaty of Apamea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}; see also {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=30, 33}} for further details.</ref> With Rome's acceptance, Philip{{nbsp}}V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189{{nbsp}}BC that had been allied to Antiochus{{nbsp}}III, while Rhodes and [[Eumenes II]] ({{reign|197|159|era=BC}}) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=92}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}.</ref>
 
Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183{{nbsp}}BC to force Philip{{nbsp}}V to abandon [[Aenus (Thrace)|Aenus]] and [[Maroneia|Maronea]], since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=93–97}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=239}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=207–208}}. <br>Bringmann dates this event of handing over [[Aenus (Thrace)|Aenus]] and [[Maroneia|Maronea]] along the [[Thracian]] coast as 183{{nbsp}}BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> This assuaged the fear of Eumenes{{nbsp}}II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=97}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=207–208}} for further details.</ref> [[Perseus of Macedon]] ({{reign|179|168|era=BC}}) succeeded Philip{{nbsp}}V and executed [[Demetrius (son of Philip V)|his brother Demetrius]], who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with [[high treason]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=240–241}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=211–213}} for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign.</ref> Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with [[Prusias II of Bithynia]] and [[Seleucus IV Philopator]] of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes{{nbsp}}II.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=97–98}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=240}}.</ref> Although Eumenes{{nbsp}}II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the [[Boeotian League]], extended his authority into Illyria [[Abrupolis|and Thrace]], and in 174{{nbsp}}BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the [[Amphictyonic Council]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=98}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=240}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=212–213}}.</ref>
 
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Perseus of Macedon BM.jpg
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| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = The Triumph of Aemilius Paulus (detail).jpg
| width2 = 245
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| footer = Left, a [[tetradrachm]] of [[Perseus of Macedon]] ({{reign|179|168|era=BC}}), [[British Museum]]. Right, ''The Triumph of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus|Aemilius Paulus]]'' (detail) by [[Carle Vernet]], 1789.
}}
Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to [[Senate of the Roman Republic|the Senate]] denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=98–99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=241–242}}.</ref> This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168{{nbsp}}BC).<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=98–99}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=242}}, who says that "Rome&nbsp;... as the sole remaining superpower&nbsp;... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal." <br>[[Klaus Bringmann]] asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "[[Realpolitik|political calculation]]" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world".</ref> Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the [[Battle of Callinicus]] in 171{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the [[Battle of Pydna]] in June 168{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=243–244}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=215–216}}; {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=43}}.</ref> Perseus fled to [[Samothrace]] but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to [[Rome]] for the [[Roman triumph|triumph]] of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus]], and was placed under [[house arrest]] at [[Alba Fucens]], where he died in 166{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=245}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=204–205, 216}}; see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=43}} for further details.</ref> The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied [[republic]]s in its stead, their capitals located at [[Amphipolis]], [[Thessalonica]], [[Pella]], and [[Pelagonia]].<ref name="bringmann 99–100 eckstein 245">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=99–100}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=245}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=216–217}}; see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=43–46}} for further details.</ref> The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining.<ref name="bringmann 99–100 eckstein 245"/> A certain [[Andriscus]], claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman [[praetor]] Publius Juventius Thalna during the [[Fourth Macedonian War]] (150–148{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=246–247}}.</ref> Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148{{nbsp}}BC at the [[Battle of Pydna (148 BC)|second Battle of Pydna]] by [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus]], whose forces occupied the kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=104–105}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=247}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=216–217}}.</ref> This was followed in 146{{nbsp}}BC by the Roman [[destruction of Carthage]] and victory over the Achaean League at the [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|Battle of Corinth]], ushering in the era of [[Roman Greece]] and the gradual establishment of the [[Roman province of Macedonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=104–105}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=247–248}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=203–205, 216–217}}.</ref>
 
==Institutions==
{{main|Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}
 
===Division of power===
{{further|Ancient Greek law}}
[[File:Phillip Museum.jpg|thumb|The [[Vergina Sun]], the 16-ray star covering the royal burial [[larnax]] of [[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336|era=BC}}), discovered in the tomb of [[Vergina]], formerly ancient [[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aigai]]]]
At the head of [[Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia's government]] was [[List of Macedonian kings|the king]] (''[[basileus]]'').<ref group="note">Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before [[Philip II of Macedon]]'s reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of [[Herodotus]], [[Thucydides]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]]. Contemporary accounts given by those such as [[Demosthenes]] were often hostile and unreliable; even [[Aristotle]], who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. [[Polybius]] was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include [[Livy]], [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], [[Plutarch]], and [[Arrian]]. The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's [[hereditary monarchy]] and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established [[constitution]] for Macedonian government. See: {{harvnb|King|2010|pp=373–374}}. <br>However, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting [[Kings of Macedon|the king]] and involving a [[popular assembly]] of the army. See: {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=12–13}}. <br>The main textual primary sources for the organization of [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonia's military]] as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and [[Livy]] for understanding detailed aspects of [[Antigonid Macedonian army|the Antigonid-period military]]. On this, {{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=446–447}} writes: "...&nbsp;to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the '[[Alexander Sarcophagus]]' in particular and the '[[Alexander Mosaic]]'...&nbsp;In the case of the [[Antigonid Macedonian army|Antigonid army]]&nbsp;... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] and [[Plutarch]], and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]]."</ref> From at least the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II, the king was assisted by the [[royal page]]s (''basilikoi paides''), bodyguards (''[[somatophylakes]]''), companions (''[[hetairoi]]''), friends (''[[philoi]]''), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) [[magistrate]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=374}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=220–221}} for further details.</ref> Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=374}}; for an argument about the [[absolute monarchy|absolutism]] of the Macedonian monarchy, see {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=220–222}}. <br>However, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting [[Kings of Macedon|the king]] and involving a [[popular assembly]] of the army. {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=12–13}}.</ref> Before the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=375}}. <br>In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip&nbsp;II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and [[Uncodified constitution|customary privileges]] to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to [[Elective monarchy|appoint a new king]] and judge cases of [[treason]] stems from the reign of [[Alexander III of Macedon]]. See {{harvnb|Granier|1931|pp=4–28, 48–57}} and {{harvnb|King|2010|pp=374–375}}. <br>Pietro de Francisci was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an [[autocracy]] ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: {{harvnb|de Francisci|1948|pp=345–435}} as well as {{harvnb|King|2010|p=375}} and {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}} for further details.</ref>
 
===Kingship and the royal court===
The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its [[monarchy]], lasting until 167{{nbsp}}BC when it was abolished by the Romans.<ref name="king 2010 373">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=373}}.</ref> The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of [[Archaic Greece]], with Homeric aristocratic roots in [[Mycenaean Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=375–376}}.</ref> Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own [[petty king]], the tribes of [[Lower Macedonia]] eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an [[overlord]] over the lesser kings of [[Upper Macedonia]].<ref name="king 2010 376">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}.</ref> The direct line of [[Order of succession|father-to-son succession]] was broken after the assassination of [[Orestes of Macedon]] in 396{{nbsp}}BC (allegedly by his [[regent]] and successor [[Aeropus II of Macedon]]), clouding the issue of whether [[primogeniture]] was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or [[Popular assembly|of the people]] to choose another king.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=376–377}}.</ref> It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or [[Queen consort|consorts]] were always preferred over others given the accession of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]], son of [[Perdiccas II of Macedon]] and a [[Slavery in ancient Greece|slave woman]], although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated [[heir apparent]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=377}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Hades abducting Persephone.jpg|thumb|left|400px|[[Hades]] abducting [[Persephone]], fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at [[Vergina]], [[Macedonia, Greece]], c.{{nbsp}}340{{nbsp}}BC]]
It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip{{nbsp}}II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.<ref name="king 2010 378">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=378}}.</ref> After the Greek victory at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]] in 480{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian commander [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] had [[Alexander I of Macedon]] sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and [[History of Athens|Athens]]. The decision to send Alexander was based on his [[Marriage of state|marriage alliance]] with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.<ref name="king 2010 378"/> With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and [[royal land]], the early Macedonian kings were also capable of [[Bribery|bribing]] foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.<ref name="king 2010 379">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=379}}.</ref>
 
Little is known about the [[Judiciary|judicial system]] of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the [[wikt:chief judge|chief judge]] of the kingdom.<ref name="errington 1990 222"/> The Macedonian kings were also [[Commander-in-chief|supreme commanders]] of the military.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=379}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=221}}; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander&nbsp;I's role as a commander in the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] but also the city-state of [[Potidaea]]'s acceptance of [[Perdiccas II of Macedon]] as their [[commander-in-chief]] [[Battle of Potidaea|during their rebellion]] against the [[Delian League]] of Athens in 432&nbsp;BC.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the [[high priest]] of the nation. He performed daily [[ritual sacrifice]]s and led [[religious festival]]s.<ref name="king 2010 380">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=380}}.</ref> Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,<ref name="king 2010 380"/> but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=380}}; for further context, see {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> Alexander's father, Philip{{nbsp}}II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a [[Royal Secretary|royal secretary]], royal archive, royal pages, and a seated [[throne]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=345–346}}.</ref>
 
===Royal pages===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Dionysos on a cheetah, Pella, Greece.jpg
| width1 = 249
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Framentuary votive relief representing a youth ladling wine for a krater and a round table with vases, from the Agora, end of 4th&nbsp;c.&nbsp;BC, Archaeological Museum, Pella (7065345633).jpg
| width2 = 180
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left, the god [[Dionysos]] riding a [[cheetah]], [[mosaic]] floor in the "House of Dionysos" at [[Pella]], Greece, c.&nbsp;330–300&nbsp;BC. Right, a framentary [[Votive offering|votive]] [[relief]] depicting a youth [[Ladle (spoon)|ladling]] [[History of wine|wine]] from a ''[[krater]]'' next to a round table with vases, from the [[agora]] of [[Pella]], end of 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, [[Archaeological Museum of Pella]].
}}
The [[royal page]]s were adolescent boys and young men [[conscripted]] from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|pp=403–405}}. <br>According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the [[military campaigns of Alexander the Great]] in Asia.{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=380–381}}. <br>However, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] state that the [[royal page]]s are attested to as far back as the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]]. {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=13}}.</ref> Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.<ref name="king 2010 381">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=381}}.</ref> After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue.<ref name="Sawada 2010 403">{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|p=403}}.</ref> During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during ''[[symposium|symposia]]'' (i.e. formal drinking parties).<ref>{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|pp=404–405}}.</ref> Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with [[Perseus of Macedon]] to [[Samothrace]] following [[Battle of Pydna|his defeat]] by the Romans in 168{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|p=406}}.</ref>
 
===Bodyguards===
Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.<ref name="king 2010 381"/> They were split into two categories: the ''[[agema]]'' of the ''[[hypaspistai]]'', a type of ancient [[special forces]] usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.<ref name="king 2010 381"/> Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.<ref name="king 2010 381"/>
 
===Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies===
{{further|Synedrion}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Pella House atrium.jpg
| width1 = 220
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Fragmentary inscription bearing the names of 6 city archons (politarchs), 2nd c. BC, Archaeological Museum, Pella (6929923448).jpg
| width2 = 220
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left, an [[atrium (architecture)|atrium]] with a pebble-[[mosaic]] paving, in [[Pella]], Greece. Right, a fragmentary [[inscription]] bearing the names of six city ''[[archon]]s'' (''[[politarch]]s''), 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, [[Archaeological Museum of Pella]].
}}
 
The companions, including the elite [[companion cavalry]] and ''[[pezhetairoi]]'' infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=382}}. <br>The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip&nbsp;II when he expanded this institution to include [[Upper Macedonia]]n aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: {{harvnb|Sawada|2010|p=404}}.</ref> The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=382}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a [[Direct democracy|people's assembly]] during times of peace.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=384}}: the first recorded instance dates to 359&nbsp;BC, when Philip&nbsp;II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of [[Perdiccas III of Macedon]] in battle against the [[Illyria]]ns.</ref>
 
Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|pp=382–383}}.</ref> The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of [[high treason]] and [[Sentence (law)|assign punishments]] for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as [[prosecutor]] in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others [[Acquittal|were acquitted]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=5, 12}}.</ref> However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=384–389}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions [[Partition of Babylon|immediately formed a council]] to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by [[Wars of the Diadochi|open rivalry and conflict]] between [[Diadochi|its members]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=383–384}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> The army also used [[mutiny]] as a tool to achieve political ends.<ref group="note">For instance, when [[Perdiccas]] had Philip&nbsp;II's daughter [[Cynane]] murdered to prevent her own daughter [[Eurydice II of Macedon]] from marrying [[Philip III of Macedon]], the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See {{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=210}} and {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=119–120}} for details.</ref>
 
===Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states===
Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.<ref name="king 2010 390">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=390}}.</ref> This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military ''[[strategos]]'' and the [[politarch]], i.e. the elected governor (''[[archon]]'') of a large city (''[[polis]]''), as well as the politico-religious office of the ''[[epistates]]''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=390}}. <br>Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule.</ref> No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic ''philoi'' and ''hetairoi'' who filled vacancies for army officers.<ref name="errington 1990 222">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=222}}.</ref>
 
{{multiple image| align = left | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left, a silver [[tetradrachm]] issued by the city of [[Amphipolis]] in 364–363 BC (before its conquest by [[Philip II of Macedon]] in 357 BC), showing the head of [[Apollo]] on the [[obverse]] and [[Olympic flame|racing torch]] on the reverse. Right, a golden [[stater]] depicting Philip II, [[Mint (facility)|minted]] at Amphipolis in 340&nbsp;BC (or later during Alexander's reign), shortly after its conquest by Philip&nbsp;II and incorporation into the [[Koinon of Macedonians|Macedonian commonwealth]]| footer_align = left | image1 = Tetradrachm, 364-363 BC, Amphipolis.jpg | width1 = 280 | caption1  = | image2 = Anfipoli, statere di filippo II, 340 o 336-328 ac ca.JPG | width2 = 150| caption2  = }}
In [[ancient Athens]], the [[Athenian democracy]] was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Amemiya|2007|pp=11–12}}.</ref> When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed [[oligarchy]] composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Amemiya|2007|pp=11–12}}: under [[Antipater]]'s oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 ''[[drachma]]''. [[Athenian democracy]] was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319&nbsp;BC, yet his son [[Cassander]] reconquered the city, which came under the regency of [[Demetrius of Phalerum]]. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 ''drachma'', yet by 307&nbsp;BC he was exiled from the city and [[direct democracy]] was restored. [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] reconquered Athens in 295&nbsp;BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287&nbsp;BC with the aid of [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]. [[Antigonus II Gonatas]], son of Demetrius&nbsp;I, reconquered Athens in 260&nbsp;BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the [[Roman Republic]] conquered both Macedonia and then [[mainland Greece]] by 146&nbsp;BC.</ref> Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of [[autonomy]].<ref name="errington 1990 231"/> After Philip{{nbsp}}II conquered Amphipolis in 357{{nbsp}}BC, the city was allowed to retain its [[democracy]], including its constitution, [[popular assembly]], [[city council]] (''[[Boule (ancient Greece)|boule]]''), and yearly [[election]]s for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (''epistates'') to monitor the city's political affairs.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=229–230}}.</ref> [[Philippi]], the city founded by Philip{{nbsp}}II, was the only other city in the Macedonian [[commonwealth]] that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia]]'') of [[Thessaloniki]] seems to have had only a passive function in practice.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=230}}.</ref> Some cities also maintained their own municipal [[revenue]]s.<ref name="errington 1990 231">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=231}}.</ref> The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by [[Greek temple|temples]] and [[priesthood]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=231–232}}.</ref>
 
Within the [[Koinon of Macedonians|Macedonian commonwealth]], some evidence from the 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in [[Panhellenic]] events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of ''[[asylia]]'' (inviolability, [[diplomatic immunity]], and the [[right of asylum]] at [[sanctuaries]]) to certain cities was handled directly by the king.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=365–366}}.</ref> Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek ''[[Koinon|koina]]'' (i.e., [[federation]]s of city-states, the ''[[sympoliteia]]'') obeyed the federal decrees [[vote]]d on collectively by the members of their league.<ref group="note">Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the [[Achaean League]], [[Acarnanian League]], and [[Achaean League]]; see {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=366–367}}.</ref> In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of ''[[proxenia]]'' (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=366–367}}.</ref> Abundant evidence exists for the granting of ''proxenia'' as being the sole [[prerogative]] of central authorities in the neighboring [[Epirote League]], and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=367–369}}.</ref> City-states that were [[Alliance|allied]] with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding ''proxenia''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=368–369}}.</ref> Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the [[Cretan League]] signed treaties with [[Demetrius II Aetolicus]] and [[Antigonus III Doson]] ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected [[Philip V of Macedon]] as honorary protector (''[[prostates]]'') of the league.<ref name="errington 1990 242">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=242}}.</ref>
 
===Military===
{{main|Ancient Macedonian army|Antigonid Macedonian army}}
{{further|Hellenistic armies|Macedonian phalanx}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Macedonian Army Pezetairos.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Македонски штит од Бонче.jpg
| width2 = 178
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left, a Macedonian infantryman, possibly a [[hypaspist]], equipped with an ''[[aspis]]'' shield and wearing a [[linothorax]] cuirass and [[Thracian helmet]]; [[bas relief]] from the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]], 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC. Right, an ancient Macedonian bronze [[shield]] excavated from the archaeological site at [[Bonče]] in [[North Macedonia]], dated 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.
}}
 
====Early Macedonian army====
{{further|Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}
The basic structure of the [[Ancient Macedonian army]] was the division between the companion cavalry (''[[hetairoi]]'') and the foot companions (''[[pezhetairoi]]''), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=447}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=243–244}}.</ref> The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of [[Alexander I of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=447–448}}.</ref> Macedonian cavalry, wearing [[muscled cuirass]]es, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the [[Peloponnesian War]], at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=448–449}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238–239}} for further details.</ref> Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238–239; 243–244}}.</ref> As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref name="sekunda 2010 449">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=449}}.</ref> Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip{{nbsp}}II's reign in 359{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,<ref name="sekunda 2010 448 449">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=448–449}}.</ref> yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=239–240}}.</ref>
 
====Philip II and Alexander the Great====
{{further|Military tactics in Ancient Greece|Thessalian cavalry}}
 
After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip{{nbsp}}II sought to imitate the Greek example of [[Military exercise|martial exercises]] and the issuing of [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|standard equipment]] for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, [[professional army]].<ref name="errington 1990 238">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238, 247}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II adopted some of the [[military tactics]] of his enemies, such as the ''[[embolon]]'' (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the [[Scythia]]ns.<ref name="sekunda 2010 451">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}.</ref> His infantry wielded ''peltai'' shields that replaced the earlier ''[[aspis]]''-style shields, were equipped with [[Greek helmet (disambiguation)|protective helmets]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->, [[greave]]s, and either [[cuirass]]es [[breastplate]]s or ''[[kotthybos]]'' stomach bands, and armed with ''[[sarissa]]'' [[Pike (weapon)|pikes]] and  [[dagger]]s as  secondary weapons.<ref group="note">According to Sekunda, Philip&nbsp;II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the ''[[Third Philippic]]'' of [[Demosthenes]] in 341&nbsp;BC described them as [[hoplite]]s instead of lighter [[peltast]]s: {{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=449–450}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=238}} for further details. <br>However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the [[phalanx]] [[pikemen]] of either Philip&nbsp;II or Philip&nbsp;V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by [[military officer]]s, while pikemen wore the ''[[kotthybos]]'' stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as  secondary weapons along with their shields. See {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=241}}.</ref> The elite ''[[hypaspistai]]'' infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the ''pezhetairoi'', were formed during the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=450}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=244}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (''[[somatophylakes]]'').<ref name="sekunda 2010 452">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=452}}.</ref>
{{multiple image| align = left | direction = vertical | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]], Greece, 4th century BC | footer_align = left | image1 = Agios Athanasios 1 fresco.jpg | width1 = 220 | caption1  = | image2 = Agios-Athanasios.jpg | width2 = 220| caption2  = }}
 
For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary [[Cretan archers]] as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian [[javelin]] throwers, [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]], and archers.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=241–242}}.</ref> He hired engineers such as [[Polyidus of Thessaly]] and [[Diades of Pella]], who were capable of building [[state of the art]] [[siege engine]]s and [[artillery]] that fired large [[Crossbow bolt|bolts]].<ref name="sekunda 2010 451"/> Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at [[Krinides]] (renamed [[Philippi]]), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional [[standing army]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=449–451}}.</ref> The increase in state revenues under Philip{{nbsp}}II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included [[trireme]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=247–248}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=24–26}}.</ref>
 
The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,<ref name="sekunda 2010 452"/> yet he formed a ''[[Hipparchus (cavalry officer)|hipparchia]]'' (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic [[Persian people|Persians]] while campaigning in Asia.<ref name="sekunda 2010 453">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=453}}.</ref> When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 [[Thessalian cavalry|cavalrymen from Thessaly]], 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 ''[[prodromoi]]'' cavalry from [[Thrace]].<ref name="sekunda 2010 454">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=454}}.</ref> Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the [[Lamian War]] when it began in 323{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="sekunda 2010 454"/> The most elite members of Alexander's ''hypaspistai'' were designated as the ''[[agema]]'', and a new term for ''hypaspistai'' emerged after the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in 331{{nbsp}}BC: the ''[[argyraspides]]'' (silver shields).<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=455}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}.</ref> The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=455–456}}. <br>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: in regards to both the ''[[argyraspides]]'' and ''[[chalkaspides]]'', "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official."</ref> Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite ''hypaspistai'' and 9,000 of which were ''pezhetairoi''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=455–457}}. <br>However, in discussing the discrepancies among [[List of Greek historiographers|ancient historians]] about the size of [[Alexander the Great]]'s army, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] choose [[Diodorus Siculus]]' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=22–23}}.</ref> Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.<ref name="sekunda 2010 458 459"/> After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.<ref name="sekunda 2010 458 459">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=458–459}}.</ref>
 
====Antigonid period military====
[[File:Thueros affresco.jpg|thumb|upright|Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (''[[thorakitai|thorakites]]'') wearing [[chainmail]] armor and bearing a [[thureos]] shield, 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC, [[İstanbul Archaeology Museums]]]]
[[Antigonid Macedonian army|The Macedonian army]] continued to evolve under the [[Antigonid dynasty]]. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as ''somatophylakes'', which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the ''hypaspistai'' seem to have morphed into assistants of the ''somatophylakes''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=459}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. One is the evolution of the ''[[hypaspistai]]'' from an elite unit to a form of [[military police]] or [[bodyguard]] under [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip&nbsp;V]]; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."</ref> At the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]] in 197{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.<ref name="sekunda 2010 461">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=461}}.</ref> Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''sacra ala''; [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''hiera ile'') commanded by [[Philip V of Macedon]] during the [[Social War (220–217 BC)|Social War]] of 219{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="sekunda 2010 460">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=460}}.</ref> The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.<ref name="sekunda 2010 460"/> While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the [[Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe|Celtic invaders]] of the 270s BC who settled in [[Galatia]], central Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=469}}</ref>
 
Thanks to [[Military Decree of Amphipolis|contemporary inscriptions]] from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181{{nbsp}}BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip{{nbsp}}V.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=460–461}}; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by ''tetrarchai'' officers assisted by ''grammateis'' (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=242–243}}.</ref> From at least the time of [[Antigonus III Doson]], the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the [[peltast]]s, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding ''peltai'' [[javelin]]s, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than [[Macedonian phalanx]] pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=461–462}}; <br>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: "The other development, which happened at the latest under [[Antigonus III Doson|Doson]], was the formation and training of a special unit of ''[[peltast]]ai'' separate from the [[Macedonian phalanx|phalanx]]. This unit operated as a form of [[royal guard]] similar in function to the earlier ''[[hypaspistai]]''."</ref> Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite ''agema'' [[vanguard]], with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.<ref name="sekunda 2010 462">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=462}}.</ref> The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=463}}; the largest figure for elite Macedonian [[peltast]]s mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the [[Social War (220–217 BC)]].</ref> They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into ''[[chalkaspides]]'' (bronze shield) and ''[[leukaspides]]'' (white shield) regiments.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=463–464}}.</ref>
 
The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip [[Ancient navies and vessels|the navy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=247–248}}.</ref> [[Cassander]] maintained [[Hellenistic-era warships|a small fleet]] at [[Pydna]], [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] had one at Pella, and [[Antigonus II Gonatas]], while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in [[Demetrias]], [[Chalkis]], [[Piraeus]], and [[Corinth]].<ref name="errington 1990 248">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=248}}.</ref> The navy was considerably expanded during the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261{{nbsp}}BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Cos]] and 245{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Andros (246 BC)|Battle of Andros]], and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="errington 1990 248"/> Antigonus{{nbsp}}III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade [[Caria]], while Philip{{nbsp}}V sent 200 ships to fight in the [[Battle of Chios (201 BC)|Battle of Chios]] in 201{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="errington 1990 248"/> The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197{{nbsp}}BC [[peace treaty]] that concluded the [[Second Macedonian War]] with the [[Roman Republic]], although [[Perseus of Macedon]] quickly assembled some ''[[lemboi]]'' at the outbreak of the [[Third Macedonian War]] in 171{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="errington 1990 248"/>
 
==Society and culture==
{{Main|Ancient Macedonians}}
{{further|Culture of ancient Greece}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left, a Macedonian funerary [[stele]], with an [[epigram]] in [[Greek language|Greek]], mid-4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, [[Vergina]]. Right, marble cult statue of [[Aphrodite|Aphrodite Hypolympidia]], dated 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, from the sanctuary of [[Isis]] at [[Dion, Pieria]], [[Central Macedonia]], Greece, now in the [[Archaeological Museum of Dion]].| footer_align = left | image1 = Relief inscribed stele, mid 4th century B.C., Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki.jpg | width1 = 160 | caption1  = | image2 = Marble cult statue of Aphrodite Hypolympidia, from the santuary of Isis, 2nd c. BC, Archaeological Museum, Dion (7079958443).jpg | width2 = 160| caption2  = }}
 
===Language and dialects===
{{main|Ancient Macedonian language}}
{{further|History of Greek|Ancient Greek dialects}}
 
Following its adoption as the court language of [[Philip II of Macedon]]'s regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in [[Koine Greek]], the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of late [[Classical Greece|Classical]] and [[Hellenistic Greece]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|p=9}}; see also {{harvnb|Austin|2006|p=4}} for further details. <br>Edward M. Anson contends that the native [[spoken language]] of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the [[Greek alphabet]]. {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=17, n. 57, n. 58}}.</ref> Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of [[Greek language|Greek]] similar to [[Thessalian Greek]] and [[Northwestern Greek]],<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=94–95}}; {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|pp=9–10}}. <br>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=43–45}} states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than [[Koine Greek]] also betray a slight [[Phonetics|phonetic]] influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were [[Cultural assimilation|assimilated]] or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] spoken by the [[Bryges]] who migrated to [[Anatolia]]. <br>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=3–4}} affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used [[loanword]]s from [[Thracian language|Thracian]] and [[Illyrian languages]], which "does not surprise modern [[philologist]]s" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek.</ref> or a [[Hellenic languages|language closely related to Greek]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Woodard|2004|pp=12–14}}; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "[http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222134950/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf |date=2014-02-22 }}", ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017. <br>Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic."<br> {{harvnb|Georgiev|1966|pp=285–297}}: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC.</ref> The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in [[Attic Greek]] and its successor Koine.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=17, n. 57, n. 58}}; {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|pp=9–10}}; {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=43–45}}; {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=94–95}}.</ref> Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the [[Ancient Macedonian army]], although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the [[Symposium|drinking party]] where he killed [[Cleitus the Black]].<ref name="engels 2010 95">{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=95}}.</ref> Macedonian became [[Extinct language|extinct]] in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek.<ref name="engels 2010 94">{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=94}}.</ref><ref group="note">For instance, [[Cleopatra VII Philopator]], the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See {{harvnb|Jones|2006|pp=33–34}}.</ref>
 
===Religious beliefs and funerary practices===
{{main|Ancient Greek religion|Greek mythology|Hellenistic religion}}
{{further|Ancient Greek temple|Greek hero cult|Greco-Roman mysteries|Oracle of Delphi|Lion of Amphipolis|Lion of Chaeronea|Pella curse tablet}}
 
[[File:The Abduction of Persephone by Pluto, Amphipolis.jpg|300px|thumb|A [[mosaic]] of the [[Kasta Tomb]] in [[Amphipolis]] depicting the abduction of [[Persephone]] by [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]], 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC]]
[[File:Lion of Amphipolis BW 2017-10-05 09-38-25.jpg|thumb|The [[Lion of Amphipolis]] in [[Amphipolis]], [[northern Greece]], a 4th-century{{nbsp}}BC marble tomb sculpture<ref name="Sansone 2017 223">{{harvnb|Sansone|2017|p=223}}.</ref> erected in honor of [[Laomedon of Mytilene]], a general who served under [[Alexander the Great]]]]
By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the [[List of Greek mythological figures|same deities of the Greek pantheon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=17–18}}; see also {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=428–445}} for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=428–429}}.</ref> In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of [[Asklepios]], Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at [[Cassandreia]], where a cult priest honoring the city's founder [[Cassander]] was the nominal head of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=225–226}}.</ref> The main sanctuary of [[Zeus]] was maintained at [[Dion, Pieria|Dion]], while another at [[Veria]] was dedicated to [[Herakles]] and was patronized by [[Demetrius II Aetolicus]] ({{reign|239|229|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=430–431}}</ref> Meanwhile, foreign [[Ancient Egyptian religion|cults from Egypt]] were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of [[Sarapis]] at Thessaloniki.<ref name="errington 1990 226"/> The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings [[Philip III of Macedon]] and [[Alexander IV of Macedon]] made [[votive offering]]s to the internationally esteemed [[Samothrace temple complex]] of the [[Cabeiri]] [[mystery cult]].<ref name="errington 1990 226">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=226}}.</ref>
 
In the three royal tombs at [[Vergina]], professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of [[Hades]] abducting [[Persephone]] and royal hunting scenes, while lavish [[grave goods]] including [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|weapons, armor]], drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones [[Cremation|were burned]] before [[Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices|burial in golden coffins]].<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|pp=257–260}}; {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=432–433}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=5–7}} for further details.</ref> Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a [[diadem]], luxurious goods, and arms and armor.<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|pp=259–260}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=5–6}} for further details.</ref> Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since [[Manolis Andronikos|the discovery]] of their remains in 1977–1978,<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|pp=257, 260–261}}.</ref> and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sansone|2017|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=6}}. <br>Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "[http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html  Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118215400/http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html |date=2017-01-18 }}." ''Seeker''. Retrieved 17 January 2017.</ref> Located near Tomb{{nbsp}}1 are the above-ground ruins of a ''[[heroon]]'', a shrine for [[Cult (religion)|cult worship]] of the dead.<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|p=257}}.</ref> In 2014, the ancient Macedonian [[Kasta Tomb]] was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017).<ref>{{harvnb|Sansone|2017|pp=224–225}}.</ref>
 
===Economics and social class===
{{main|Economy of ancient Greece}}
{{further|Slavery in ancient Greece|Prostitution in ancient Greece|Pederasty in ancient Greece}}
 
Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in [[hunting]] and martial combat as a by-product of their [[transhumance]] lifestyle of herding [[livestock]] such as goats and sheep, while [[horse breeding]] and raising [[cattle]] were other common pursuits.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=7}}.</ref> Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with [[irrigation]], [[land reclamation]], and [[horticulture]] activities supported by the Macedonian state.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=47–48}}; for a specific example of [[land reclamation]] near [[Amphipolis]] during the reign of [[Alexander the Great]], see {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=31}}.</ref> The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by [[logging]] and by [[mining]] valuable [[mineral]]s such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=48}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=7–8, 222–223}}.</ref> The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="hatzopoulos 2011a 48">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=48}}.</ref>
 
The Macedonian king was an [[autocracy|autocratic]] figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his ''[[hetairoi]]'', the core of the Macedonian [[aristocracy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=9–10}}.</ref> These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military.<ref name="anson 2010 10"/> It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the [[Hellenistic kingdoms]] that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater [[social mobility]] for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=10–11}}.</ref> Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread [[History of slavery|use of slaves]] seen in contemporaneous Greek states.<ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=12–13}}.</ref>
 
===Visual arts===
{{main|Ancient Greek art}}
{{further|Hellenistic art|Music in ancient Greece|Pottery of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek sculpture}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left, a fresco of a [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian soldier]] resting a spear and [[Kausia|wearing a cap]], from the tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]], 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC. Right, fresco from the [[Tomb of Judgement, Lefkadia|Tomb of Judgement]] in ancient [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] (modern-day Lefkadia), [[Imathia]], [[Central Macedonia]], Greece, depicting religious imagery of [[Greek underworld|the afterlife]], 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.| footer_align = left | image1 = Fresco of a Macedonian soldier, from the Tomb of Agios Athanasios, 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.jpg | width1 = 145 | caption1  = | image2 = Ancient Mieza, Macedonian tombs of Lefkadia, The Tomb of Jugdement 545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg | width2 = 150| caption2  = }}
 
By the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus{{nbsp}}I]] in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps [[Homer]]ic, funerary rites connected with the [[symposium]] that were typified by items such as the decorative metal [[krater]]s that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs.<ref name="hardiman 2010 515">{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|p=515}}.</ref> Among these is the large bronze [[Derveni Krater]] from a 4th-century{{nbsp}}BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god [[Dionysus]] and [[Cult of Dionysus|his entourage]] and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career.<ref>{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|pp=515–517}}.</ref> Macedonian [[metalwork]] usually followed [[Pottery of ancient Greece|Athenian styles of vase shapes]] from the 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, [[diadem]]s, and [[Ancient Greek coinage|coins]] among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs.<ref name="hardiman 2010 517">{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|p=517}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Lion hunt mosaic from Pella.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] (left), wearing a ''[[kausia]]'' and fighting an [[Asiatic lion]] with his friend [[Craterus]] (detail); late 4th-century{{nbsp}}BC [[mosaic]],<ref>{{harvnb|Palagia|2000|pp=182, 185–186}}.</ref> [[Pella]] Museum.]]
Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes [[fresco]]es and [[mural]]s, but also decoration on [[Ancient Greek sculpture|sculpted artwork]] such as [[statue]]s and [[relief]]s. For instance, trace colors still exist on the [[bas-relief]]s of the late 4th-century BC [[Alexander Sarcophagus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Head|2016|pp=12–13}}; {{harvnb|Piening|2013|p=1182}}.</ref> Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the [[ancient Macedonians]].<ref>{{harvnb|Head|2016|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Aldrete|Bartell|Aldrete|2013|p=49}}.</ref> Aside from metalwork and painting, [[mosaic]]s are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork.<ref name="hardiman 2010 517"/> The [[Stag Hunt Mosaic]] of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes.<ref name="hardiman 2010 518">{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|p=518}}.</ref> The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion [[Craterus]], or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting.<ref name="hardiman 2010 518"/> Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and [[Helen of Troy]] being abducted by [[Theseus]], the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.<ref name="hardiman 2010 518"/> Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.<ref group="note">This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later [[Byzantine literature]], particularly in the [[Acritic songs]] about [[Digenes Akritas]]. See {{harvnb|Cohen|2010|pp=13–34}} for details.</ref>
 
===Theatre, music and performing arts===
{{Further|Theatre of ancient Greece|Music of ancient Greece}}
 
Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of [[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aigai]], amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]].<ref name="muller 2010 182">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=182}}.</ref> Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music.<ref name="errington 1990 224"/> He was especially fond of the [[Play (theatre)|plays]] by [[Classical Athenian]] [[tragedian]]s [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]], whose works formed part of a proper [[Education in ancient Greece|Greek education]] for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the [[Epic Cycle|epics]] of [[Homer]].<ref name="worthington 2014 186">{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|p=186}}.</ref> While he and his army were stationed at [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies.<ref>{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|p=185}}.</ref> The contemporaneous famous actors [[Thessalus (actor)|Thessalus]] and Athenodorus performed at the event.<ref group="note">The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous [[Dionysia]] festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his [[patron]] Alexander agreed to pay). See{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|pp=185–186}} for details.</ref>
 
[[History of music|Music]] was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the [[agora]], the [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]], the [[theatre]], and [[Religious sanctuary|religious sanctuaries]] and [[Ancient Greek temple|temples]] dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the [[empire of Alexander the Great]] was the presence of an [[odeon (building)|odeon]] for [[Concert|musical performances]].<ref name="worthington 2014 183 186"/> This was the case not only for [[Alexandria]] in [[History of Egypt|Egypt]], but also for cities as distant as [[Ai-Khanoum]] in what is now modern-day [[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]].<ref name="worthington 2014 183 186">{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|pp=183, 186}}.</ref>
 
===Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage===
{{further|Literature in ancient Greece|Education in ancient Greece|Philosophy in ancient Greece|Hellenistic philosophy|Ancient Greek medicine|Ancient Macedonian calendar}}
[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bust (sculpture)|Portrait bust]] of [[Aristotle]], an [[Roman Empire|Imperial Roman]] (1st or 2nd century{{nbsp}}AD) copy of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]]
[[Perdiccas II of Macedon]] was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet [[Melanippides]] and the renowned medical doctor [[Hippocrates]], and [[Pindar]]'s ''[[encomium|enkomion]]'' written for [[Alexander I of Macedon]] may have been composed at his court.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=223–224}}.</ref> Archelaus{{nbsp}}I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|pp=58–59}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=224}} for further details.</ref> His honored guests included the [[History of painting#Egypt, Greece and Rome|painter]] [[Zeuxis (painter)|Zeuxis]], the [[Ancient Greek architecture|architect]] [[Callimachus (sculptor)|Callimachus]], the poets [[Choerilus of Samos]], [[Timotheus of Miletus]], and [[Agathon]], as well as the famous Athenian [[playwright]] [[Euripides]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=59}}; {{harvnb|Sansone|2017|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=157}}. <br>Although [[Archelaus I of Macedon]] was criticized by the philosopher [[Plato]], supposedly hated by [[Socrates]], and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of [[barbarian]], the historian [[Thucydides]] held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in [[Panhellenic]] sports and fostering of literary culture. See {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=59}}.</ref> The philosopher [[Aristotle]], who studied at the [[Platonic Academy]] of Athens and established the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian school of thought]], moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref>{{harvnb|Chroust|2016|p=137}}.</ref> Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was [[Pyrrho of Elis]], founder of [[Pyrrhonism]], the school of [[philosophical skepticism]].<ref name="worthington 2014 186"/> During the Antigonid period, [[Antigonos Gonatas]] fostered cordial relationships with [[Menedemos of Eretria]], founder of the [[Eretrian school]] of philosophy, and [[Zeno of Citium|Zenon]], the founder of [[Stoicism]].<ref name="errington 1990 224">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=224}}.</ref>
 
In terms of early [[Greek historiography]] and later [[Roman historiography]], [[Felix Jacoby]] identified thirteen possible ancient [[List of Greek historiographers|historians]] who wrote about Macedonia in his ''[[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]]''.<ref name="Rhodes 2010 23">{{harvnb|Rhodes|2010|p=23}}.</ref> Aside from accounts in [[Herodotus]] and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an [[Illyria]]n war fought by [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]] written by Antipater.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhodes|2010|pp=23–25}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=224}} for further details.</ref> The Macedonian historians [[Marsyas of Pella]] and [[Marsyas of Philippi]] wrote histories of Macedonia, the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] king [[Ptolemy I Soter]] authored a history about Alexander, and [[Hieronymus of Cardia]] wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=224–225}}. <br>For [[Marsyas of Pella]], see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=27}} for further details.</ref> Following the [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great]], the Macedonian military officer [[Nearchus]] wrote a work of his [[travel literature|voyage]] from the mouth of the [[Indus river]] to the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref name="Errington 1990 225">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=225}}.</ref> The Macedonian [[Craterus (historian)|historian Craterus]] published a compilation of decrees made by [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|the popular assembly]] of the [[Athenian democracy]], ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle.<ref name="Errington 1990 225"/> [[Philip V of Macedon]] had manuscripts of the history of Philip{{nbsp}}II written by [[Theopompus]] gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies.<ref name="errington 1990 224"/>
 
===Sports and leisure===
{{further|History of sport#Ancient Greece|Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|Ancient Olympic Games|Music in ancient Greece}}
[[File:Hades and Persephone, Vergina.jpg|thumb|400px|A fresco showing [[Hades]] and [[Persephone]] riding in a [[chariot]], from the tomb of Queen [[Eurydice I of Macedon]] at [[Vergina]], Greece, 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC]]
When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the [[foot race]] of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander{{nbsp}}I produced proof of an Argead royal [[genealogy]] showing ancient [[Argive]] [[Temenid]] lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic ''[[Hellanodikai]]'' authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.<ref>{{harvnb|Badian|1982|p=34}}, {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Sansone|2017|pp=222–223}}.</ref> By the end of the 5th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus{{nbsp}}I was crowned with the [[olive wreath]] at both [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]] and [[Delphi]] (in the [[Pythian Games]]) for winning [[chariot racing]] contests.<ref name="hatzopoulos 2011b 59">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=59}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual [[horse race]] or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20{{nbsp}}July 356{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Nawotka|2010|p=2}}.</ref> Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=19}}</ref> In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged [[Music competition|competitions for music]] and athletics across his empire.<ref name="worthington 2014 186"/>
 
===Dining and cuisine===
{{further|Ancient Greek cuisine|Wine in ancient Greece}}
[[File:Banquet, tombe d'Agios Athanasios.jpg|thumb|450px|A [[banquet]] scene from a Macedonian tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]], 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC; shown are six men [[Symposium|reclining on couches]], with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|2010|p=28}}.</ref>]]
 
Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including [[eel]]s from the [[Strymonian Gulf]] and special [[History of wine|wine]] produced in [[Chalcidice]].<ref name="dalby 1997 157">{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|p=157}}.</ref> The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC, which perhaps influenced the later [[Trencher (tableware)|trencher bread]] of [[medieval Europe]].<ref name="dalby 1997 157"/> [[Cattle]] and [[goat]]s were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain [[History of cheese|cheeses]] in literature until the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name="dalby 1997 157"/> The comedic playwright [[Menander]] wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated [[History of Athens|Athenian]] high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the [[dessert]] course of a meal.<ref>{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|pp=155–156}}.</ref> The Macedonians also most likely introduced ''mattye'' to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served [[Full course dinner|during the wine course]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|p=156}}.</ref> This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet [[Alexis (poet)|Alexis]] about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of [[Demetrius I of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|pp=156–157}}.</ref>
 
The ''[[symposium]]'' in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes [[Symposium (Plato)|philosophical discussion]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=10}}; {{harvnb|Cohen|2010|p=28}}.</ref> The ''[[hetairoi]]'', leading members of the Macedonian [[aristocracy]], were expected to attend such feasts with their king.<ref name="anson 2010 10">{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=10}}.</ref> They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of [[game meat]] as well as for sport.<ref name="anson 2010 10"/>
 
===Ethnic identity===
{{main|Ancient Macedonians#Identity}}
{{see also|Macedonia (terminology)|Makedon (mythology)|Ethnography|Cultural anthropology}}
{{Multiple image
| total_width      = 200
| image1            = Macedonian boy BM 1906.10-19.1.jpg
| caption1          = Athenian terracotta figurine, c.&nbsp;300&nbsp;BC.
<!--image 2-->
| image2            = Terrakota Statue eines Makedoniers 3 Jhdt v Chr.jpg
| caption2          = Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century&nbsp;BC
| footer            = [[Terracotta]] statues depicting [[ancient Macedonians]] wearing the ''[[kausia]]'', a headgear that led the [[Persians]] to refer to the Macedonians as "Yaunã Takabara" ("Greeks with hats that look like shields").<ref>{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=87}}; {{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=343–344}}.</ref>
}}
 
Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. [[Ernst Badian]] notes that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of [[Arrian]], who lived at the time of the [[Roman Empire]], when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible.<ref>{{harvnb|Badian|1982|p=51, n. 72}}; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: {{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=82}}.</ref> Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the [[League of Corinth]] in 337{{nbsp}}BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected ''[[hegemon]]'' Philip{{nbsp}}II, when he was not a member of the league itself),<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|pp=69–71}}. <br>Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirotes]] and [[History of Cyprus|Cypriots]], despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of "[[Greece|Hellas]]" and were even considered barbarians by some. See: {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|pp=52, 71–72}}; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and [[Epirotes]], saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as [[Philip II of Macedon]] had done. See: {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=83–84}}.</ref> [[N. G. L. Hammond]] asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hammond|first1=N.G.L.|title=The Genius of Alexander the Great|date=1997|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|isbn=0807823503|page=[https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11 11]|quote=The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves.|url=https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11}}</ref> Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou,<ref>{{harvnb|Sakellariou|1983|p=52}}.</ref> Malcolm Errington,<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=3–4}}. <br>{{harvnb|Errington|1994|p=4}}: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip{{nbsp}}II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator [[Aeschines]] once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. [[Demosthenes]]' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all."</ref> and Craige B. Champion.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Champion|2004|p=41}}: "[[Demosthenes]] could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of [[Aeschines]], Philip{{nbsp}}II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence."</ref>
 
Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some such as [[Aristotle]] in his ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=14–17}}; this was manifested in the different [[Family tree of the Greek gods|mythological genealogies]] concocted for the Macedonian people, with [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Catalogue of Women]]'' claiming that the Macedonians descended from [[Makedon (mythology)|Macedon]], son of [[Zeus]] and [[Thyia]], and was therefore a nephew of [[Hellen]], progenitor of the Greeks. See: {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Rhodes|2010|p=24}}. <br>By the end of the 5th century BC, [[Hellanicus of Lesbos]] asserted Macedon was the son of [[Aeolus]], the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the [[Aeolians]], one of the major [[tribe]]s of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, [[Dorians]], [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaeans]], and [[Ionians]], Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the ''[[polis]]'' (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=15}}.</ref> Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.<ref group="note">For instance, [[Demosthenes]] when labeling Philip{{nbsp}}II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas [[Polybius]] called Greeks and Macedonians as ''homophylos'' (i.e. part of the same race or [[Kinship|kin]]). See: {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|pp=9–10}}; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=83–89}}.</ref> [[Simon Hornblower]] argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Simon Hornblower|editor1-last=Zacharia|editor1-first=Katerina|title=Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0754665250|page=58|chapter=2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods|quote=The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes."}}</ref> Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148{{nbsp}}BC soon after the [[Macedonian Wars|Roman conquest of Macedonia]] and then [[Macedonia (Roman province)|the rest of Greece]] with the defeat of the [[Achaean League]] by the [[Roman Republic]] at the [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=74}}.</ref>
 
==Technology and engineering==
{{further|Ancient Greek technology|History of science in classical antiquity|Ancient Greek astronomy|Greek mathematics|Medicine in ancient Greece}}
 
===Architecture===
{{further|Architecture of ancient Greece}}
{{multiple image|right||perrow=2|total_width=350|
|image1=The facade of the the Tomb of the Palmettes, first half of the 3rd century BC, Ancient Mieza (7263674714).jpg|width1=100
|image2=The Tomb of the Palmettes (photography of the pediment), first half of the 3rd century BC, Ancient Mieza (7263729086).jpg|width2=100|
|image3=The facade of the the Tomb of the Palmettes, first half of the 3rd century BC, Ancient Mieza (7263705128).jpg|width3=100|
|image4=The pediment of the the Tomb of the Palmettes, first half of the 3rd century BC, Ancient Mieza (7263694348).jpg|width4=100|
|footer=The [[facade]] of the Macedonian [[Tomb of the Palmettes]] in [[Mieza, Macedonia]], [[Greece]], 3rd century BC; decorated by colored [[Doric order|Doric]] and [[Ionic order|Ionic]] moldings, the [[pediment]] is also painted with a scene of a man and woman reclining together.<ref>{{harvnb|Bolman|2016|pp=120–121}}.</ref>}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left, fragments of ancient Macedonian painted [[roof tile]]s (raking, simas, pan-tiles), [[Archaeological Museum of Pella]], Greece. Right, the [[Ionic capital]] of a [[pilaster]] from the [[palace]] at [[Pella]], [[Archaeological Museum of Pella]]. | footer_align = left | image1 = Fragment of painted roof tiles (raking, simas, pan-tiles), Archaeological Museum, Pella (6919206262).jpg | width1 = 245 | caption1  = | image2 = Ionic pilaster capital from the palace, Archaeological Museum, Pella (6930003102).jpg | width2 = 175| caption2  = }}
Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other [[Architecture of ancient Greece|ancient Greek architecture]].<ref name="hardiman 2010 518"/> Among the [[classical order]]s, Macedonian architects favored the [[Ionic order]], especially in the [[peristyle]] courtyards of private homes.<ref name="Winter 2006 163">{{harvnb|Winter|2006|p=163}}.</ref> There are several surviving examples, albeit in ruins, of Macedonian palatial architecture, including a [[palace]] at the site of the capital Pella, the summer residence of [[Vergina]] near the old capital Aigai, and the royal residence at [[Demetrias]] near modern [[Volos]].<ref name="Winter 2006 163"/> At Vergina, the ruins of three large [[banquet hall]]s with marble-[[tile]]d floors (covered in the debris of [[roof tiles]]) with floor plan dimensions measuring roughly 16.7 x 17.6&nbsp;m (54.8 x 57.7&nbsp;ft) demonstrate perhaps the earliest examples of monumental [[timber roof trusses|triangular roof trusses]], if dated before the reign of [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] or even the onset of the Hellenistic period.<ref name="Winter 2006 164 165">{{harvnb|Winter|2006|pp=164–165}}.</ref> Later Macedonian architecture also featured [[arch]]es and [[vault (architecture)|vaults]].<ref name="Winter 2006 165">{{harvnb|Winter|2006|p=165}}.</ref> The palaces of both Vergina and Demetrias had walls made of sundried [[brick]]s, while the latter palace had four corner [[tower]]s around a central courtyard in the manner of a fortified residence fit for a king or at least a military governor.<ref name="Winter 2006 163"/>
 
Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)]], Philip{{nbsp}}II raised a round memorial building at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]] known as the [[Philippeion]], decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents [[Amyntas III of Macedon]] and [[Eurydice I of Macedon]], his wife [[Olympias]], and his son Alexander the Great.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=227}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3, 7–8}} for further details.</ref>
 
[[File:20100913 Ancient Theater Marwneia Rhodope Greece panoramic 3.jpg|thumb|300px|Ruins of the [[Ancient Greek theatre|ancient theatre]] in [[Maroneia]], [[Rhodope (regional unit)|Rhodope]], [[East Macedonia and Thrace]], Greece]]
The ruins of roughly twenty [[Greek theatre]]s survive in the present-day [[Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace|regions of Macedonia and Thrace in Greece]]: sixteen open-air theatres, three [[Odeon (building)|odea]], and a possible theatre in [[Veria]] undergoing excavation.<ref>{{harvnb|Koumpis|2012|p=34}}.</ref>
 
===Military technology and engineering===
{{further|Greek and Roman artillery|Ancient Greek warfare|Lithobolos|Siege ladder}}
 
By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful [[torsion siege engine]]s, [[Naval warfare|naval ships]], and standardized designs for [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|arms and armor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Treister|1996|pp=375–376}}.</ref> Under Philip{{nbsp}}II and Alexander the Great, improvements were made to [[siege artillery]] such as bolt-shooting [[ballista]]e and [[siege engine]]s such as huge rolling [[siege tower]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Humphrey|Oleson|Sherwood|1998|p=570}}.</ref> E.{{nbsp}}W.{{nbsp}}Marsden and M.{{nbsp}}Y.{{nbsp}}Treister contend that the Macedonian rulers [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]] and his successor [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] had the most powerful siege artillery of the Hellenistic world at the end of the 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Treister|1996|p=376, no. 531}}.</ref> [[Battle of Salamis (306 BC)|The siege]] of [[Salamis, Cyprus]], in 306{{nbsp}}BC necessitated the building of large siege engines and drafting of craftsmen from parts of [[West Asia]].<ref name="treister 1996 376">{{harvnb|Treister|1996|p=376}}.</ref> The siege tower commissioned by Demetrius{{nbsp}}I for the Macedonian [[Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC)]] and defended by over three thousand soldiers was built at a height of nine [[Storey|stories]].<ref name="humphrey 1998 pp570 571"/> It had a base of {{convert|4300|sqft|0|abbr=off}}, eight wheels that were steered in either direction by pivots, three sides covered in iron plates to protect them from fire, and mechanically opened windows (shielded with wool-stuffed leather curtains to soften the blow of ballistae rounds) of different sizes to accommodate the firing of missiles ranging from arrows to larger bolts.<ref name="humphrey 1998 pp570 571">{{harvnb|Humphrey|Oleson|Sherwood|1998|pp=570–571}}.</ref>
 
During the siege of [[Echinus (Phthiotis)|Echinus]] by [[Philip V of Macedon]] in 211{{nbsp}}BC, the besiegers built [[Mining (military)|tunnels]] to protect the soldiers and [[sapper]]s as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works. These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift [[wickerwork]] [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] mounted with stone-shooting ballistae, and sheds to protect the approach of the [[battering ram]].<ref>{{harvnb|Humphrey|Oleson|Sherwood|1998|pp=570–572}}.</ref> Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology, [[Alexandria]] in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] became the center for technological improvements to the [[catapult]] by the 3rd{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC, as evidenced by the writings of [[Philo of Alexandria]].<ref name="treister 1996 376"/>
 
===Other innovations===
{{further|Ancient Macedonian calendar}}
Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The [[Rotation around a fixed axis|rotary-operated]] [[olive press]] for producing [[olive oil]] may have been invented in ancient Macedonia or another part of Greece, or even as far east as the [[Levant]] or [[Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Curtis|2008|p=380}}.</ref> [[History of glass|Mold-pressed glass]] first appeared in Macedonia in the 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC (although it could have simultaneously existed in the Achaemenid Empire); the first known clear, translucent glass pieces of the Greek world have been discovered in Macedonia and [[Rhodes]] and date to the second half of the 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Stern|2008|pp=530–532}}.</ref> Greek technical and [[scientific literature]] began with [[Classical Athens]] in the 5th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were [[Library of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Rhodian school|Rhodes]], and [[Pergamon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cuomo|2008|pp=17–20}}.</ref>
 
==Currency, finances, and resources==
{{main|Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}
{{further|Ancient Greek coinage|Economy of ancient Greece}}
[[File:Mints of Alexander the Great 1.jpg|thumb|[[Tetradrachm]]s (above) and [[drachm]]s (below) issued during the reign of [[Alexander the Great]], now in the [[Numismatic Museum of Athens]]]]
The [[Mint (facility)|minting]] of silver coinage began during the reign of [[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander{{nbsp}}I]] as a means to pay for royal expenditures.<ref name="errington 1990 222"/> [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus{{nbsp}}I]] increased the silver content of his coins as well as minting copper coins to promote foreign and domestic commerce.<ref name="Roisman 2010 156 157"/> The minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip{{nbsp}}II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the [[Pangaion Hills]].<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=246}}.</ref> During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], and the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] exercised [[State monopoly|full monopolistic control]] over [[mining]] activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.<ref>{{harvnb|Treister|1996|p=379}}.</ref> By the end of the [[conquests of Alexander the Great]], nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to [[Babylon]] produced standard coins.<ref>{{harvnb|Meadows|2008|p=773}}.</ref> The right to mint coins was shared by [[Central government|central]] and some [[local government]]s, i.e. the [[autonomous]] [[municipal government]]s of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian [[commonwealth]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=432–433}}.</ref> The Macedonians were also the first to issue different coins for [[Circulation (currency)|internal and external circulation]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kremydi|2011|p=163}}.</ref>
 
State revenues were also raised by collecting [[produce]] from [[arable land]]s, timber from forests, and [[Tax#History|taxes]] on [[import]]s and [[export]]s at [[harbor]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=433}}.</ref> Some mines, [[Grove (nature)|groves]], [[History of agriculture|agricultural lands]], and [[Logging|forests]] belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often [[lease]]d as [[asset]]s or given as [[Grant (money)|grants]] to members of the [[nobility]] such as the ''[[hetairoi]]'' and ''[[philoi]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=434}}.</ref> [[Tariff]]s exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian [[seaport]]s existed from at least the reign of [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas{{nbsp}}III]], and [[Callistratus of Aphidnae]] (d.{{nbsp}}c.{{nbsp}}350{{nbsp}}BC) aided [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas{{nbsp}}III]] in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on [[customs duties]] from 20 to 40 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=433–434}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=163}}.</ref>
 
After the defeat of [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] at [[Battle of Pydna|Pydna]] in 168{{nbsp}}BC, the [[Roman Senate]] allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous [[client state]]s that replaced the monarchy in Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Treister|1996|pp=373–375}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=223}} for further details.</ref> The law may originally have been conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.<ref>{{harvnb|Treister|1996|pp=374–375}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=223}} for further details.</ref> The Romans were perhaps also concerned with stemming [[inflation]] caused by an increased [[money supply]] from Macedonian silver mining.<ref>{{harvnb|Treister|1996|p=374}}.</ref> The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148{{nbsp}}BC (i.e. just before the establishment of the [[Roman province of Macedonia]]), and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158{{nbsp}}BC it may simply have reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.<ref name="treister 1996 374 375">{{harvnb|Treister|1996|pp=374–375}}.</ref>
 
==Legacy==
{{further|Hellenic studies|Hellenistic religion|Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenism (neoclassicism)}}
The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the [[Hellenization|spread of Greek culture]] to the [[Near East]] during and after Alexander's conquests.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=3–4}}.</ref> Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive [[colonization]] of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=4–5}}.</ref> However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the [[Mithridatic Wars|later Roman expansion]] into these territories and [[Byzantine Greeks|entire basis]] for the [[Byzantine Empire]], according to Errington.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=249}}.</ref>
 
[[File:Battle of Issos MAN Napoli Inv10020 n01.jpg|thumb|400px|left|The ''[[Alexander Mosaic]]'', a [[Roman mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]], Italy, c. 100 BC]]
The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their ''hetairoi'' companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids.<ref>{{harvnb|Asirvatham|2010|p=104}}.</ref> Modern scholarship has focused on how these Hellenistic successor kingdoms were influenced more by their Macedonian origins than Eastern or southern Greek traditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=9}}.</ref> While [[Spartan Constitution|Spartan society]] remained mostly insular and Athens continued placing [[Solonian Constitution|strict limitations on acquiring citizenship]], the [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] Hellenistic cities of Asia and northeastern Africa bore a greater resemblance to Macedonian cities and contained a mixture of subjects including natives, Greek and Macedonian colonists, and Greek-speaking Hellenized Easterners, many of whom were the product of intermarriage between Greeks and native populations.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=11–12}}.</ref>
 
The [[deification]] of Macedonian monarchs perhaps began with the death of Philip{{nbsp}}II, but it was his son Alexander the Great who unambiguously claimed to be a [[Imperial cult|living god]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Worthington|2012|p=319}}. <br>As [[pharaoh]] of the Egyptians, he was already titled [[Ra|Son of Ra]] and considered the living incarnation of [[Horus]] by his Egyptian subjects (a belief that the [[Ptolemaic kingdom|Ptolemaic successors]] of Alexander would foster for [[Ptolemaic dynasty|their own dynasty in Egypt]]). See: {{harvnb|Worthington|2014|p=180}} and {{harvnb|Sansone|2017|p=228}} for details.</ref> Following his visit to the [[oracle]] of [[Didyma]] in 334{{nbsp}}BC that suggested his divinity, Alexander traveled to the [[Oracle of Ammon|Oracle]] of [[Zeus Ammon]]—the [[Interpretatio graeca|Greek equivalent]] of the Egyptian [[Amun-Ra]]—at the [[Siwa Oasis]] of the [[Libyan Desert]] in 332{{nbsp}}BC to confirm his [[Sacred king|divine status]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Worthington|2012|p=319}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2014|pp=180–183}}. <br>After the priest and [[Oracle of Ammon|Oracle]] of [[Zeus Ammon]] at the [[Siwa Oasis]] convinced him that Philip{{nbsp}}II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See {{harvnb|Worthington|2012|p=319}} and {{harvnb|Worthington|2014|pp=182–183}} for details.</ref> Although the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires [[Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great|maintained ancestral cults]] and deified their rulers, kings were not worshiped in the Kingdom of Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=219–220}}.</ref> While Zeus Ammon was known to the Greeks prior to Alexander's reign, particularly at the [[Colonies in antiquity|Greek colony]] of [[Cyrene, Libya]], Alexander was the first Macedonian monarch to patronize [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian]], [[Persian mythology|Persian]], and [[Babylonian religion|Babylonian priesthoods and deities]], strengthening the fusion of [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion|Near Eastern]] and Greek religious beliefs.<ref>{{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=435–436}}.</ref> After his reign, the [[Mysteries of Isis|cult of Isis]] gradually spread throughout the Hellenistic and [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman world]], while beliefs in the Egyptian god [[Sarapis]] were thoroughly Hellenized by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt before the spread of his cult to Macedonia and the Aegean region.<ref>{{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|p=436}}.</ref> The German historian [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] argued that the conquests of Alexander the Great and creation of the Hellenistic world allowed for the growth and [[History of Christianity|establishment of Christianity]] in the Roman era.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=3}}.</ref>
 
==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Historiography of Alexander the Great]]
* [[List of kings of Macedon]]
* [[Macedonia (region)|Geographic region of Macedonia]]
* [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia region of Greece]]
* [[Macedonia naming dispute]]
* [[Macedonian nationalism]]
* [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]]
* [[Tomb of Alexander the Great]]
*[[Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)]]
* [[United Macedonia]]}}
 
==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=note|30em}}
 
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}
 
===Sources===
'''Online'''
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia|title=Macedonia: Ancient Kingdom, Europe|date=23 October 2015|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=5 February 2017}}
* Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "[http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages]", ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017.
* Joseph, Brian D. (2001). "[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gancient.htm "GREEK, ancient]." [[Ohio State University]], Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures. Accessed 16 January 2017.
{{refend}}
 
'''Print'''
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book|last=Adams|first=Winthrop Lindsay|chapter=Alexander's Successors to 221 BC|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=208–224|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last1=Aldrete|first1=Gregory S.|last2=Bartell|first2=Scott|last3=Aldrete|first3=Alicia|title=Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor: Unraveling the Linothorax Mystery|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|location=Baltimore|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4214-0819-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NIrkd6EfuSwC}}
* {{cite book|last=Amemiya|first=Takeshi|title=Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece|year=2007|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-70154-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AGTAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Anson|first=Edward M.|chapter=Why Study Ancient Macedonia and What This Companion is About|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=3–20|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Asirvatham|first=Sulochana R.|chapter=Perspectives on the Macedonians from Greece, Rome, and Beyond|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=99–124|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Austin|first=M. M.|title=The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation|edition=2nd|year=2006|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-7414-2300-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xebyor4-4KwC}}
* {{cite journal|last=Badian|first=Ernst|title=Greeks and Macedonians|journal=Studies in the History of Art|volume=10, Symposium Series I|year=1982|pages=33–51|publisher=National Gallery of Art|jstor=42617918}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lw7KxwEACAAJ|title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek|last=Beekes|first=Robert S. P.|year=2009|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-32186-1|language=en|author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes}}
* {{cite book|last=Bolman|first=Elizabeth S.|chapter=A Staggering Spectacle: Early Byzantine Aesthetics in the Triconch|title=The Red Monastery Church: Beauty and Asceticism in Upper Egypt|pages=119–128|location=New Haven|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]; American Research Center in Egypt, Inc.|year=2016|isbn=978-0-300-21230-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwuQDAAAQBAJ| editor-given1 = Elizabeth S. | editor-surname1 = Bolman}}
* {{cite book|last=Borza|first=Eugene N.|author-link=Eugene N. Borza|title=In the Shadow of Olympus: the Emergence of Macedon|location=Princeton|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1992|orig-year=1990|isbn=0-691-05549-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC}}
* {{cite book|last=Borza|first=Eugene N.|author-link=Eugene N. Borza|title=Makedonika|publisher=Regina Books|year=1995|isbn=0-941690-65-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PGNoAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Bringmann|first=Klaus|author-link=Klaus Bringmann|title=A History of the Roman Republic|year=2007|orig-year=2002|location=Cambridge|publisher=Polity Press|isbn=978-0-7456-3371-8|translator=W. J. Smyth|language=en|url=http://www.polity.co.uk/book.asp?ref=9780745633701}}
* {{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Terry|title=Aspects of Greek History, 750–323 BC: A Source-based Approach|year=1996|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-09957-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MrJ101I4gdQC}}
* {{cite book|last=Buckler|first=John|title=Philip II and the Sacred War|year=1989|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-09095-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkNCAAAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Cawkwell|first=George|author-link=George Cawkwell|title=Philip of Macedon|location=London, UK|publisher=[[Faber & Faber|Faber and Faber]]|year=1978|isbn=0-571-10958-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-mUQgAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Champion|first1=Craige B.|title=Cultural Politics in Polybius's Histories|year=2004|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=0-520-23764-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Christesen|first1=Paul|last2=Murray|first2=Sarah C.|chapter=Macedonian Religion|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=428–445|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Chroust|first=Anton-Hermann|title=Aristotle: New Light on His Life and On Some of His Lost Works, Volume 1: Some Novel Interpretations of the Man and His Life|orig-year=1977|year=2016|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-138-93706-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMVgCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Ada|title=Art in the Era of Alexander the Great: Paradigms of Manhood and Their Cultural Traditions|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-76904-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nX8F_ZV83vUC}}
* {{cite book|last=Cuomo|first=Serafina|chapter=Ancient Written Sources for Engineering and Technology|title=The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World|pages=15–34|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-518731-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ| editor-given1 = John Peter | editor-surname1 = Oleson}}
* {{cite book|last=Curtis|first=Robert I.|chapter=Food Processing and Preparation|title=The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World|pages=369–392|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-518731-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ| editor-given1 = John Peter | editor-surname1 = Oleson}}
* {{cite book|last=Dalby|first=Andrew|title=Siren Feasts: a History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece|year=1997|orig-year=1996|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-15657-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I4UeyRkqgvQC}}
* {{cite book|last=de Francisci|first=Pietro|title=Arcana Imperii II|volume=1|year=1948|location=Milan|pages=IV–495|publisher=A. Giuffrè|language=it|url=http://www.sudoc.abes.fr/DB=2.1//SRCH?IKT=12&TRM=06072403X&COOKIE=U10178,Klecteurweb,I250,B341720009+,SY,NLECTEUR+WEBOPC,D2.1,E420a3868-3fa,A,H,R68.100.129.235,FY}}
* {{cite book|last=Eckstein|first=Arthur M.|chapter=Macedonia and Rome, 221–146 BC|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=225–250|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite journal|last=Eckstein|first=Arthur M.|title= Polybius, Phylarchus, and Historiographical Criticism |journal= Classical Philology |volume=108|number=4|year=2013|pages=314–338|publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]]|jstor=671786 |doi=10.1086/671786|s2cid=164052948}}
* {{cite book|last=Engels|first=Johannes|chapter=Macedonians and Greeks|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=81–98|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Errington|first=Robert Malcolm|author-link=Robert Malcolm Errington|title=A History of Macedonia|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|translator=Catherine Errington|isbn=0-520-06319-8|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Errington|first1=Malcolm|title=A History of Macedonia|year=1994|publisher=Barnes Noble|isbn=1-56619-519-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Fox|first=Robin Lane|title=The Search for Alexander|year=1980|publisher=Little Brown and Co.|location=Boston|isbn=0-316-29108-0|url=https://archive.org/details/searchforalexand00lane|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal|last=Georgiev|first=Vladimir|title=The Genesis of the Balkan Peoples|journal=The Slavonic and East European Review|volume=44|number=103|date=July 1966|pages=285–297|publisher=The Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies|jstor=4205776}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gilley|first1=Dawn L.|last2=Worthington|first2=Ian|chapter=Alexander the Great, Macedonia and Asia|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=186–207|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Granier|first=Friedrich|series=Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte 13. Heft|title=Die makedonische Heeresversammlung: ein Beitrag zum antiken Staatsrecht|language=de|location=Munich|publisher=CH Beck Verlag|year=1931|url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book|last=Gruen|first=Erich S.|author-link=Erich S. Gruen|title=The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome|volume=1|location=Berkeley|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=1986|orig-year=1984|isbn=0-520-05737-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EkdCokrrp4gC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hammond|first1=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|author-link1=N. G. L. Hammond|last2=Walbank|first2=Frank William|author-link2=F. W. Walbank|title=A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C.|volume=3|edition=reprint|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] of the [[Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qpb3JdwuDQIC|isbn=0-19-814815-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Hardiman|first=Craig I.|chapter=Classical Art to 221 BC|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=505–521|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Hatzopoulos|first=M. B.|title=Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: a Historical and Epigraphic Study|volume=1|year=1996|location=Athens|publisher=Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Research Foundation; Diffusion de Boccard|isbn=960-7094-90-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTRBAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Hatzopoulos|first=M. B.|chapter=Macedonia and Macedonians|title=Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD|pages=43–50|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|year=2011a|isbn=978-90-04-20650-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjLPBsB2dIkC| editor-given = Robin J. | editor-surname = Lane Fox}}
* {{cite book|last=Hatzopoulos|first=M. B.|chapter=Macedonians and Other Greeks|title=Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD|pages=51–78|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|year=2011b|isbn=978-90-04-20650-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjLPBsB2dIkC| editor-given = Robin J. | editor-surname = Lane Fox}}
* {{cite book|last=Head|first=Duncan|title=Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars: 359 BC to 146 BC|publisher=Wargames Research Group Ltd.|year=2016|orig-year=1982|edition=reprint|isbn=978-1-326-25656-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-7n8CwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Holt|first=Frank L.|year=1989|title=Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia|location=Leiden|publisher=[[E. J. Brill|Brill]]|isbn=90-04-08612-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSA4AAAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Holt|first=Frank L.|year=2012|orig-year=2005|title=Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-27432-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Im8Ujg_XAmIC}}
* {{cite book|last=Hornblower|first=Simon|author-link=Simon Hornblower|year=2002|orig-year=1983|title=The Greek World, 479–323 BC|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-16326-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wvtyijSRcKUC}}
* {{cite book|last=Hornblower|first=Simon|year=2008|chapter=Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods|title=Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity|url=https://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach|url-access=limited|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach/page/n53 37]–58|location=Aldershot|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|editor=Zacharia, Katerina|isbn=978-0-7546-6525-0|oclc=192048201}}
* {{cite book|last1=Humphrey|first1=John W.|last2=Oleson|first2=John P.|last3=Sherwood|first3=Andrew N.|title=Greek and Roman Technology: a Sourcebook: Annotated Translations of Greek and Latin Texts and Documents|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=1998|isbn=0-415-06136-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s92KAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Citation|last=Jones|first=Prudence J.|title=Cleopatra: a sourcebook|year=2006|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|isbn=9780806137414|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQZB28EegT4C|postscript=.}}
* {{cite book|last=King|first=Carol J.|chapter=Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=373–391|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Koumpis|first=Adamantios|title=Management Information Systems for Enterprise Applications: Business Issues, Research, and Solutions|location=Hershey, PA|publisher=Business Science Reference|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4666-0164-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFXm3en91wMC}}
* {{cite book|first=S.|last=Kremydi|editor1-last=Lane Fox|editor1-first=Robin James|chapter=Coinage and Finance|title=Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon|url=https://archive.org/details/brillscompaniont00foxr|url-access=limited|date=2011|pages=[https://archive.org/details/brillscompaniont00foxr/page/n173 159]–178|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-20650-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.M.|last2=Boardman|first2=John|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: The Fourth Century B.C. (Volume 6)|year=1994|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23348-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx251bK988gC}}
* {{cite book|last=Meadows|first=Andrew|chapter=Technologies of Calculation, Part 2: Coinage|title=The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World|pages=769–776|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-518731-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ| editor-given1 = John Peter | editor-surname1 = Oleson}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mollov|first1=Ivelin A.|last2=Georgiev|first2=Dilian G.|chapter=Plovdiv|title=Vertebrates and Invertebrates of European Cities:Selected Non-Avian Fauna|pages=75–94|location=New York|publisher=Springer|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4939-1697-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=It7HCgAAQBAJ| editor-given1 = John G. | editor-surname1 = Kelcey}}
* {{cite book|last=Müller |first=Sabine|chapter=Philip II|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=166–185|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Nawotka|first=Krzysztof|title=Alexander the Great|location=Newcastle Upon Tyne|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4438-1743-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRQaBwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Olbrycht|first=Marck Jan|chapter=Macedonia and Persia|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=342–370|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Palagia|first=Olga|chapter=Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander|title=Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|pages=167–198|editor-given1 = A. B. | editor-surname1 = Bosworth| editor-given2 = E. J. | editor-surname2 = Baynham|isbn=978-0-19-815287-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XcWD9idtjaMC}}
* {{cite book|last=Piening|first=H.|chapter=Mobile UV-VIS Absorption Spectrometry Investigations in the "Alexander-Sarcophagus" in Istanbul|title=Nondestructive Testing of Materials and Structures: Proceedings of NDTMS-2011, Istanbul Turkey, May 15–18 2011, Part 1|pages=1179–1186|location=Heidelberg|publisher=RILEM and Springer|year=2013|isbn=978-94-007-0722-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwYObrHGMj4C| editor-given1 = Oral | editor-surname1 = Büyüköztürk| editor-given2 = Mehmet | editor-surname2 = Ali Taşdemir}}
* {{cite book|last=Renault|first=Mary|title=The Nature of Alexander the Great|year=2001|orig-year=1975|location=New York|publisher=Penguin|isbn=0-14-139076-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=P. J.|chapter=The Literary and Epigraphic Evidence to the Roman Conquest|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=23–40|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Roisman|first=Joseph|chapter=Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=145–165|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Sakellariou|first=Michael B.|title=Macedonia: 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization|chapter=Inhabitants|pages=[https://archive.org/details/macedonia4000yea00sake/page/44 44–63]|editor=Michael B. Sakellariou|location=Athens|publisher=Ekdotike Athenon S.A.|year=1983|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/macedonia4000yea00sake|chapter-url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Sansone|first=David|edition=3rd|title=Ancient Greek Civilization|year=2017|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|isbn=978-1-119-09815-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVUWDQAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Sawada|first=Noriko|chapter=Social Customs and Institutions: Aspects of Macedonian Elite Society|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=392–408|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Sekunda|first=Nicholas Viktor|chapter=The Macedonian Army|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=446–471|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last = Schwahn | first = Walther |title = Sympoliteia | encyclopedia = [[Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft]] | volume = Band IV, Halbband 7, Stoa-Symposion  | year = 1931 | at=col. 1171–1266 |language=de }}
* {{cite book|last=Sprawski|first=Slawomir|chapter=The Early Temenid Kings to Alexander I|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=127–144|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Stern|first=E. Marianne|chapter=Glass Production|title=The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World|pages=520–550|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-518731-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ| editor-given1 = John Peter | editor-surname1 = Oleson}}
* {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Carol G.|chapter=The Physical Kingdom|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=65–80|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|last=Treister|first=Michail Yu|title=The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History|year=1996|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-10473-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dcTexDa4I0kC}}
* {{cite book|last=Worthington|first=Ian|title=Philip II of Macedonia|location=New Haven, CT|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-300-12079-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZsTAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Worthington|first=Ian|title=Alexander the Great: a Reader|year=2012|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn= 978-0-415-66742-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxqpAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Worthington|first=Ian|title=By the Spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire|year=2014|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-992986-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnGVAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Woodard|first=Roger D.|chapter=Introduction|title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages|pages=1–18|location=Oxford|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-56256-0| editor-given1 = Roger D. | editor-surname1 = Woodard }}
* {{cite book|last=Woodard|first=Roger D.|chapter=Language in Ancient Europe: an Introduction|title=The Ancient Languages of Europe|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/1 1–13]|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|orig-year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-68495-8|editor-given1=Roger D.|editor-surname1=Woodard|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/1}}
* {{cite book|last=Winter|first=Frederick E.|title=Studies in Hellenistic Architecture|year=2006|location=Toronto|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|isbn=978-0-8020-3914-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03UNLhtEP1oC}}
{{refend}}
 
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book|last=Autenrieth|first=Georg|title=A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges|url=https://archive.org/details/ahomericdiction00unkngoog|year=1891|location=New York|publisher=Harper and Brothers}}
* {{cite book|last=Bard|first=Kathryn A.|title=Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt|year=1999|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-66524-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MH7sAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Borza|first=Eugene N.|title=Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia|year=1999|location=Claremont, CA|publisher=Regina Books|isbn=0-941690-97-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JdEHAAAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Bryant|first=Joseph M.|title=Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics|location=Albany, NY|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|year=1996|isbn=0-7914-3042-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCM9D9fyCoQC}}
* {{cite book|last=Chamoux|first=François|title=Hellenistic Civilization|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|year=2002|isbn=0-631-22241-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kr4YGTA2AC}}
* {{cite journal|last=Errington|first=Robert M.|title=Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance|journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=94|year=1974|pages=20–37|jstor=630417|doi=10.2307/630417}}
* {{cite book|last=Fine|first=John Van Antwerp|title=The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=1983|isbn=0-674-03314-0|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hammond|first1=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|title=Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics|location=Amsterdam|publisher=Hakkert|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eW0iAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Hammond|first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|title=Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander|location=Amsterdam|publisher=Hakkert|year=1993|isbn=9789025610500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWwiAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Hammond|first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|title=The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1989|isbn=0-19-814883-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jRoAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Archer|title=The Art of War in the Western World|location=Champaign, IL|publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|year=2001|isbn=0-252-06966-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2FRzcz2W0oC}}
* {{cite book|last=Levinson|first=David|title=Encyclopedia of World Cultures|volume=1|year=1992|location=Boston, MA|publisher=G.K. Hall|isbn=978-0-8168-8840-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnMYAAAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Starr|first=Chester G.|title=A History of the Ancient World|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|isbn=0-19-506628-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bA3kgtZU1iMC}}
* {{cite book|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold Joseph|title=The Greeks and Their Heritages|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0-19-215256-5|url=https://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Wilcken|first=Ulrich|title=Alexander the Great|year=1967|location=New York|publisher=W.W. Norton and Company, Inc.|isbn=978-0-393-00381-9|url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000wilc|url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}
 
==External links==
{{Commons category|Macedon}}
{{EB1911 Poster|Macedonian Empire}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Ancient Macedonia
  |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* [https://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html Ancient Macedonia] at [https://www.livius.org/ Livius], by Jona Lendering
* [http://www.ashmolean.org/exhibitions/current/?timing=current&id=57&exhibitionYear=2011 Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon, A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy], [[Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology]], [[University of Oxford]]
* [https://www.britannica.com/place/Macedonia-ancient-kingdom-Europe "Macedonia, ancient kingdom"], entry from the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm "The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great"], from the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], Timeline of Art History
 
{{MacedonKings}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Greek Macedonia}}
{{Diadochi}}
{{Hellenistic colonies}}
{{Ancient Greek and Roman Wars}}
{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Authority control}}
{{coord missing|Greece}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Macedonia (Ancient Kingdom)}}
[[Category:Macedonia (ancient kingdom)| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Macedonia]]
[[Category:Hellenistic Macedonia]]
[[Category:Kingdoms in Greek Antiquity|Macedon, Kingdom]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Europe|Macedonia Kingdom, Greek]]
[[Category:146 BC]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 9th century BC]]
[[Category:9th-century BC establishments in Greece]]
[[Category:1st-millennium BC disestablishments in Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient history]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC]]
[[Category:Places in the deuterocanonical books|Macedonia]]
[[Category:Historical transcontinental empires]]

Latest revision as of 21:22, 23 September 2022

Map of Alexander the Great's empire

Macedonia (Greek: Μακεδονία) or Macedon was an Ancient Greek kingdom of the Archaic and Classical Greece,[1] and later the most powerful state of Hellenistic Greece.[2] The kingdom was established and was at first ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula,[3] and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.

Alexander the Great made it the most powerful kingdom in the Near East for a few years. When he died the empire fell apart and the Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia as a small empire. Centuries later the Roman Empire conquered Macedonia and much of Alexander's empire.

Kings[edit]

Argead dynasty[edit]

Antipatrid dynasty[edit]

Antigonid dynasty[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Hornblower 2008, pp. 55–58.
  2. ↑ Austin 2006, pp. 1–4.
  3. ↑ "Macedonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2017..

Books[edit]

External links[edit]

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