Islamophobia: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Fear, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general}}
{{wiktionary|Islamophobia}}
{{About|fear, hatred of, or prejudice towards Muslims or Islam|religious persecution of Muslims|Persecution of Muslims|the scholarly criticism of Islam|Criticism of Islam|the scholarly criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of Muhammad}}
[[File:Koeln-gegen-rechts-pro-nrw-2.jpg|thumb|A demonstration in [[Cologne]]<nowiki/> against Islamophobia and right-wing nationalism in Germany.


{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
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{{Islamophobia|expanded=all}}
[[File:Sharia-law-Billboard.jpg|thumb|An islamophobic billboard saying that Islamic Law (Sharia) threatens America.]]
{{Islam |related |width=22.0em}}
'''Islamophobia''' is the dislike, fear, pre-judgment, hostility or hate<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islamophobia|title=Dictionary — Islamophobia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/islamophobia|title=Oxford Dictionary — Islamophobia|access-date=2022-01-24|archive-date=2019-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519232650/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/islamophobia|url-status=dead}}</ref> against Muslims (people following the religion [[Islam]]) or the religion itself. <!-- Please do not edit. It is per definition not a slur used against people with critical thoughts about Islam. Regular English Wikipedia has this definition. Changing it back once more will keep spreading misinformation. Wikipedia is about spreading information, not misinformation.-->
{{Discrimination sidebar}}


'''Islamophobia''' is the fear of, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of [[Islam]] or [[Muslim]]s in general,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Islamophobia |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/islamophobia |dictionary=[[Oxford Dictionaries]] |access-date=10 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Dictionary.com|islamophobia|access-date=10 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Islamophobia |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/islamophobia |dictionary=[[Collins Dictionary]] |access-date=10 November 2016}}</ref> especially when seen as a geopolitical force or a source of [[terrorism]].{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=166}}<ref name=egorova /><ref name="Pew3">{{cite report |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2016/07/Pew-Research-Center-EU-Refugees-and-National-Identity-Report-FINAL-July-11-2016.pdf |title=Europeans Fear Wave of Refugees Will Mean More Terrorism, Fewer Jobs |last1=Wike |first1=Richard |last2=Stokes |first2=Bruce |last3=Simmons |first3=Katie |date=July 2016 |publisher=Pew Research Center |page=4 |access-date=27 November 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127220309/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2016/07/Pew-Research-Center-EU-Refugees-and-National-Identity-Report-FINAL-July-11-2016.pdf |archive-date=27 November 2016 }}</ref>
Sometimes people use it to attack the [[ideology|ideological]] positions taken by Muslims, but more often than not they state the religion itself as the actual [[problem]].


The meaning of the term continues to be debated, and some view it as problematic. Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of [[xenophobia]] or [[racism]], although the legitimacy of this definition is disputed. Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena, while others dispute the relationship, primarily on the grounds that religion is not a race. The causes and characteristics of Islamophobia are also subjects of debate. Some commentators have posited an increase in Islamophobia resulting from the [[September 11 attacks]], the rise of the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]], and other terror attacks in Europe and the United States by [[Islamic extremists]]. Some have associated it with the increased presence of [[Muslims in the United States]] and [[Muslims in the European Union|in the European Union]], while others view it as a response to the emergence of a global Muslim identity.
Muslim women are more likely to experience islamophobia in their lifetime compared to Muslim men, especially if they are wearing some kind of face veil.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/20/muslim-women-islamaphonic-attacks|title=Muslim Women more likely to suffer Islamophobic attacks than men - study|first=Haroon|last=Siddique|date=20 November 2013|publisher=|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref>


==Terms==
==Examples of islamophobia in the world==
There are a number of other possible terms which are also used in order to refer to negative feelings and attitudes towards Islam and Muslims, such as '''anti-Muslimism''', '''intolerance against Muslims''', '''anti-Muslim prejudice''', '''anti-Muslim bigotry''', '''hatred of Muslims''', '''anti-Islamism''', '''Muslimophobia''', '''demonisation of Islam''', or '''demonisation of Muslims'''. In German, ''Islamophobie'' (fear) and ''Islamfeindlichkeit'' (hostility) are used. The Scandinavian term ''Muslimhat'' literally means "hatred of Muslims".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kaya|first1=Ayhan|editor1-last=Cesari|editor1-first=Jocelyne|title=The Oxford Handbook of European Islam|date=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-960797-6|chapter=Islamophobia}}</ref>


When discrimination towards Muslims has placed an emphasis on their religious affiliation and adherence, it has been termed Muslimphobia, the alternative form of Muslimophobia,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Carpente|first1=Markus|title=Diversity, Intercultural Encounters, and Education|date=2013|page=65}}</ref> Islamophobism,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pande|first1=Rekha|title=Globalization, Technology Diffusion and Gender Disparity|date=2012|page=99}}</ref> antimuslimness and antimuslimism.<ref>Racism and Human Rights. p. 8, Raphael Walden – 2004</ref><ref>Muslims in Western Europe. p. 169, Jørgen S. Nielsen – 2004</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=CwuLAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=Islamophobia&f=false Children's Voices: Studies of Interethnic Conflict and Violence in European schools], Mateja Sedmak, p124</ref> Individuals who discriminate against Muslims in general have been termed ''Islamophobes'', ''Islamophobists'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kuwara|first1=Ibrahim|title=Islam Nigeria-UK Road Tour|date=2004|page=6}}</ref> ''anti-Muslimists'',<ref>2002, Fred halliday, Two hours that shook the world, p. 97</ref> ''antimuslimists'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kollontai|first1=Pauline|title=Community Identity: Dynamics of Religion in Context|date=2007|page=254|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ff_TAwAAQBAJ|isbn=9780567031570}}</ref> ''islamophobiacs'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Seid|first1=Amine|title=Islamic Terrorism and the Tangential Response of the West|date=2011|page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MHm89Dw8L0MC|isbn=9781467885676}}</ref> ''anti-Muhammadan'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goknar|first1=Erdag|title=Orhan Pamuk, Secularism and Blasphemy|date=2013|page=219}}</ref> ''Muslimphobes'' or its alternative spelling of ''Muslimophobes'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arasteh|first1=Kamyar|title=The American Reichstag|date=2004|page=94}}</ref> while individuals motivated by a specific anti-Muslim agenda or bigotry have been described as being ''anti-mosque'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dressler|first1=Markus|title=Secularism and Religion-Making|url=https://archive.org/details/secularismreligi00dres|url-access=limited|date=2011|page=[https://archive.org/details/secularismreligi00dres/page/n260 250]}}</ref> ''anti-Shiites''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kaim|first1=Markus|title=Great Powers and Regional Orders|date=2013|page=157}}</ref> (or ''Shiaphobes''<ref>2013, Glen Perry, The International Relations of the Contemporary Middle East, p. 161</ref>), ''anti-Sufism''<ref>Toyin Falola – 2001, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4X4oYdPpXGQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22Anti-Sufism%22&f=false Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies], p. 240, ''"'''Anti-Sufism''' itself is therefore a marker of identity, and the formation of the Izala proves this beyond any reasonable doubt''".</ref> (or ''Sufi-phobia'')<ref>Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East, p. 197, Juan Ricardo Cole – 1999, ''"Ironically, the '''Sufi-phobia''' of the British consuls in the aftermath of 1857 led them to look in the wrong places for urban disturbances in the 1860s.''"</ref> and ''anti-Sunni'' (or ''Sunniphobes'').<ref>'''2005''', Ahmed Hashim, ''Insurgency and Counter-insurgency in Iraq'', Cornell University Press (2006), {{ISBN|9780801444524}}</ref>
During the [[Bosnian War]] in the 1990s, Serbian Orthodox Christians committed a genocide against [[Bosniaks|Bosniak Muslims]], with a strong motive of islamophobia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/popovic/acjug/en/150130_summary.pdf|title=ICTY — Summary}}</ref>


== Etymology and definitions ==
In [[France]], since 2013, it is [[illegal]] for Muslim women to wear veils ([[burka|burqa]]s and [[Niqāb|niqabs]]) that cover their faces publicly.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-21997089|title=Islamic headscarf debate rekindled in France|first=Georg|last=Lentze|work=BBC News |date=2 April 2013|publisher=}}</ref>
The word ''Islamophobia'' is a [[neologism]]<ref>{{cite document |access-date=19 September 2013 |url=https://uni-bonn.academia.edu/RolandImhoff/Papers/544018/Differentiating_Islamophobia_Introducing_a_new_scale_to_measure_Islamoprejudice_and_Secular_Islam_Critique |title=Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique |author=Roland Imhoff & Julia Recker (University of Bonn) }}</ref> formed from ''Islam'' and ''-phobia'', a Greek [[suffix]] used in English to form "nouns with the sense 'fear of – – ', 'aversion to – – '."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/142572?rskey=Glm8gY&result=2#eid|publisher=Oxford University Press|title=Oxford English Dictionary: -phobia, ''comb. form''}}{{paywall}}</ref>


According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', the word means "Intense dislike or fear of Islam, esp. as a political force; hostility or prejudice towards Muslims". It is [[Attested language|attested]] in English as early as 1923<ref name=OED>{{cite web|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/248449?|publisher=Oxford University Press|title=Oxford English Dictionary: Islamophobia}}{{paywall}}</ref> to quote the French word ''islamophobie'', found in a thesis published by Alain Quellien in 1910 to describe a "a prejudice against Islam that is widespread among the peoples of Western and [[Christian civilization]]".<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://tempspresents.com/2019/06/19/histoire-et-mythe-conspirationniste-du-mot-islamophobie/|title=Histoire et mythe conspirationniste du mot " islamophobie "|last=Le Quellec|first=Jean-Loïc|date=2019-06-19|website=Fragments sur les Temps Présents|language=fr-FR|access-date=2019-08-31}}</ref> The expression did not immediately turned into the vocabulary of the English-speaking world though, which preferred the expression "feelings inimical to Islam", until its re-appearance in an article by Georges Chahati Anawati in 1976.<ref>"What makes the task difficult, perhaps impossible, for a non-Muslim is that he is compelled, under penalty of being accused of Islamophobia, to admire the Koran in its totality and to guard against implying the smallest criticism of the text’s literary value" (Anawati 1976).</ref> The term did not exist in the Muslim world,{{Efn|Persian had the expression ''islām harāsī'' (اسلام هراسی), "hostility to Islam", similar to ''‛adā’ al-islām'' (عداء الاسلام) in Arabic.|name=|group=lower-alpha}} and was later translated in the 1990s as ''ruhāb al-islām'' (رهاب الاسلام) in Arabic, literally "phobia of Islam".<ref name=":1" />
==Related pages==
 
* [[Racism]] - the idea that one [[Race (sociology)|race]] is better than most or all of the others
The [[University of California at Berkeley]]'s Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project suggested this working definition: "Islamophobia is a contrived fear or prejudice fomented by the existing Eurocentric and Orientalist global power structure.  It is directed at a perceived or real Muslim threat through the maintenance and extension of existing disparities in economic, political, social and cultural relations, while rationalizing the necessity to deploy violence as a tool to achieve 'civilizational rehab' of the target communities (Muslim or otherwise).  Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended."<ref>{{cite web |author=Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project |url=http://crg.berkeley.edu/content/islamophobia/defining-islamophobia |url-status=dead |title=Defining "Islamophobia" |publisher=Center for Race & Gender, University of California at Berkeley |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309201925/http://crg.berkeley.edu/content/islamophobia/defining-islamophobia |archive-date=9 March 2017 |access-date=15 May 2018}}</ref>
* [[Antisemitism]] - the hatred of Jews
 
===Debate on the term and its limitations===
In 1996, the [[Runnymede Trust]] established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia (CBMI), chaired by [[Gordon Conway]], the [[vice-chancellor (education)|vice-chancellor]] of the [[University of Sussex]]. The Commission's report, ''Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All'', was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, [[Jack Straw]]. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as "an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination."<ref name="EoRE215">Encyclopedia of Race and Ethics, p. 215</ref> The introduction of the term was justified by the report's assessment that "anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably and so rapidly in recent years that a new item in the vocabulary is needed".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Meer|first1=Nasar|last2=Modood|first2=Tariq|title=Refutations of racism in the 'Muslim question'|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|date=July 2009|volume=43|issue=3–4|pages=335–54|doi=10.1080/00313220903109250|s2cid=144359945}}</ref>
 
In 2008, a workshop on 'Thinking Thru Islamophobia' was held at the [[University of Leeds]], organized by the Centre for Ethnicity and Racism Studies, the participants included S. Sayyid, Abdoolkarim Vakil, Liz Fekete, and Gabrielle Maranci among others. The symposium proposed a definition of Islamophobia which rejected the idea of Islamophobia as being the product of closed and open views of Islam and focused on Islamophobia as performative which problematized Muslim agency and identity. The symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from [[critical race theory]], [[postcolonial]] and [[Decoloniality|decolonial]] thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia.<ref name=Sayyid&Vakil/>
 
At a 2009 symposium on "Islamophobia and Religious Discrimination", Robin Richardson, a former director of the Runnymede Trust<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.runnymedetrust.org/bgRanimed.html|title=Runnymede Trust – Ranimed, Runnymede and a Long Report|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> and the editor of ''Islamophobia: a challenge for us all'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mcb.org.uk/article_detail.php?article=announcement-862|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306001003/http://www.mcb.org.uk/article_detail.php?article=announcement-862|url-status=dead|title=Mcb.org.uk|archive-date=6 March 2012}}</ref> said that "the disadvantages of the term Islamophobia are significant" on seven different grounds, including that it implies it is merely a "severe mental illness" affecting "only a tiny minority of people"; that use of the term makes those to whom it is applied "defensive and defiant" and absolves the user of "the responsibility of trying to understand them" or trying to change their views; that it implies that hostility to Muslims is divorced from factors such as skin color, immigrant status, fear of fundamentalism, or political or economic conflicts; that it conflates prejudice against Muslims in one's own country with dislike of Muslims in countries with which the West is in conflict; that it fails to distinguish between people who are against all religion from people who dislike Islam specifically; and that the actual issue being described is hostility to Muslims, "an ethno-religious identity within European countries", rather than hostility to Islam. Nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely.<ref name=Richardson2009>Richardson, Robin (December 2009). {{cite web|url= http://www.insted.co.uk/anti-muslim-racism.pdf |title=Islamophobia or anti-muslim racism&nbsp;– or what? }}&nbsp;{{small|(119&nbsp;KB)}}, Insted website. Accessed 30 December 2011.</ref>
 
The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as [[Chris Allen (academic)|Chris Allen]] saying that it lacks a clear definition.<ref name=termlimits>{{cite book|author=Allen, Chris|title=Islamophobia|url=https://archive.org/details/islamophobia00alle|url-access=limited|publisher=Ashgate|year=2010|isbn=978-0754651390|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamophobia00alle/page/n29 21]|author-link=Chris Allen (academic)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Bleich, Erik|date=December 2011|title=What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept|journal=[[American Behavioral Scientist]]|volume=55|issue=12|pages=1581–1600|doi=10.1177/0002764211409387|s2cid=143679557}}</ref><ref>Cesari, Jocelyne (1 June 2006). {{cite web|url= http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/securitization_and_religious_divides_in_europe.pdf |title=Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation }}&nbsp;{{small|(118&nbsp;KB)}}|website= www.euro-islam.info|page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Imhoff, Roland & Recker, Julia|title=Differentiating Islamophobia:Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique|journal=Political Psychology|volume=33|issue=6|pages=811–24|date=December 2012|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00911.x|last2=Recker}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Andrew Shryock|title=Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend|year=2010|isbn=978-0-253-22199-5|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|page=6|title-link=Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book|title=Muslims in 21st Century Europe: Structural and Cultural Perspectives|editor=Anna Triandafyllidou|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415497091|page=28|author=Burak Erdenir}}</ref>
According to Erik Bleich, in his article "Defining and Researching Islamophobia", even when definitions are more specific, there is still significant variation in the precise formulations of Islamophobia. As with parallel concepts like homophobia or xenophobia, Islamophobia connotes a broader set of negative attitudes or emotions directed at individuals of groups because of perceived membership in a defined category.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bleich|first1=Erik|title=Defining and Researching Islamophobia|journal=Review of Middle East Studies|volume=46|issue=2|page=181}}</ref>  [[Mattias Gardell]] defines Islamophobia as "socially reproduced prejudices and aversion to Islam and Muslims, as well as actions and practices that attack, exclude or discriminate against persons on the basis that they are or perceived to be Muslim and be associated with Islam".<ref name=levandedefinitioner/>
 
[[File:IVČRN 14-03-2015 2.JPG|thumb|Speaker at demonstration of initiative ''We don't want Islam in the Czech Republic'' on 14 March 2015 in [[České Budějovice]], Czech Republic]]
 
===Fear===
As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, "Islamophobia" connotes a [[social anxiety]] about Islam and Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wesleyan.edu/newsletter/campus/2007/1107islambook.html |title=Faculty, Alumnus Discuss Concept of "Islamophobia" in Co-Authored Book |access-date=29 December 2007 |date=20 November 2007 |author=Corrina Balash Kerr |website=[[Wesleyan University]] Newsletter |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820031422/http://www.wesleyan.edu/newsletter/campus/2007/1107islambook.html |archive-date=20 August 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/articleview/6181/1/296/ |title=Images of Muslims: Discussing Islamophobia with Peter Gottschalk |access-date=29 December 2007 |date=19 November 2007 |website=Political Affairs. |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071206034654/http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/articleview/6181/1/296/ <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 December 2007}}</ref> Some social scientists have adopted this definition and developed instruments to measure Islamophobia in form of fearful attitudes towards, and avoidance of, Muslims and Islam,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = S. A. | last2 = Gibbons | first2 = J. A. | last3 = Thompson | first3 = J. M. | last4 = Timani | first4 = H. S. | year = 2009 | title = The islamophobia scale: Instrument development and initial validation | journal = International Journal for the Psychology of Religion | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 92–105 | doi = 10.1080/10508610802711137| s2cid = 146757435 }}</ref><ref name=kunst2012b>{{cite journal |last1 = Kunst |first1 = J. R. |last2 = Sam |first2 = D. L. |last3 = Ulleberg |first3 = P. |year = 2012 |title = Perceived islamophobia: Scale development and validation |journal = International Journal of Intercultural Relations |volume = 37 |issue = 2 |pages = 225–37|doi = 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.11.001|url = https://zenodo.org/record/812038 }}</ref> arguing that Islamophobia should "essentially be understood as an affective part of social stigma towards Islam and Muslims, namely fear".<ref name=kunst2012b/>{{rp|page=2}}
 
===Racism===
{{See also|Cultural racism}}
Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of [[xenophobia]] or [[racism]]. A 2007 article in ''Journal of Sociology'' defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti-[[Asian people|Asian]], [[Anti-Turkism|anti-Turkic]] and [[Anti-Arabism|anti-Arab]] racism.<ref>[http://www.tariqmodood.com/uploads/1/2/3/9/12392325/multicultural_state_we_are_in.pdf "The Multicultural State We're In: Muslims,'Multiculture' and the 'Civic Re‐balancing' of British Multiculturalism"], ''Political Studies'': 2009 Vol 57, 473–97</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.surrey.ac.uk/cronem/files/Tariq-Modood-article.pdf |title=Remaking multiculturalism after 7/7 |first=Tariq |last=Modood |date=29 September 2005 |quote=The most important such form of cultural racism today is anti-Muslim racism, sometimes called Islamophobia.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims|author=Nathan Lean|isbn=978-0745332543|year=2012|publisher=Pluto Press |quote=Biological racist discourses have now been replaced by what is called the 'new racism' or 'cultural racist' discourses}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Poynting | first1 = S. | last2 = Mason | first2 = V. | doi = 10.1177/1440783307073935 | title = The resistible rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001 | journal = Journal of Sociology | volume = 43 | pages = 61–86 | year = 2007 | s2cid = 145065236 }}</ref> In their books [[Deepa Kumar]] and Junaid Rana have argued that formation of Islamophobic discourses has paralleled the development of other forms of racial bigotry.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Review: beyond "post 9/11" (''Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire'' by Deepa Kumar; ''Terrifying Muslims: Race and Labor in the South Asian Diaspora'' by Junaid Rana)|author=Erik Love|journal=Contexts| volume=12|number=1|year=2013|pages=70–72|jstor=41960426|quote=Taking these two works together, Kumar and Rana put forth a strong argument that while Islam is certainly a religion, and not a race, and Muslims (like all religious communities) are a highly diverse group in terms of ethnicity, nationality, and even racial backgrounds, Islamophobia is in fact a form of racism. Both books effectively provide historical accounts showing the parallel development of Islamophobic discourses alongside other forms of racial bigotry and discrimination.}}</ref>
Similarly, [[John Denham (politician)|John Denham]] has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the [[antisemitism]] of the 1930s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6832035.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510093750/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6832035.ece|archive-date=10 May 2011|title=Fascism fears: John Denham speaks out over clashes|date=12 September 2009|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> so have [[Maud Olofsson]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.svd.se/nyheter/inrikes/artikel_3674445.svd|title=Reinfeldt: Kärnan i partiets idé|author=Dan [email protected]|newspaper=Svenska Dagbladet|date=19 October 2009|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> and [[Jan Hjärpe]], among others.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nasarmeer.com/uploads/7/7/4/6/7746984/meer_and_noorani_-_the_sociological_review.pdf |title=A sociological comparison of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in Britain |first1=Nasar |last1=Meer |first2=Tehseen |last2=Noorani |journal=[[The Sociological Review]] |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=195–219 |date=May 2008 |quote=Across Europe activists and certain academics are struggling to get across an understanding in their governments and their countries at large that anti-Muslim racism/Islamophobia is now one of the most pernicious forms of contemporary racism and that steps should be taken to combat it.|doi=10.1111/j.1467-954X.2008.00784.x |s2cid=142754091 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396810389927|title=Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia - new enemies, old patterns|first1=Sabine|last1=Schiffer|first2=Constantin|last2=Wagner|date=1 January 2011|journal=Race & Class|volume=52|issue=3|pages=77–84|via=SAGE Journals|doi=10.1177/0306396810389927|s2cid=146753309}}</ref>
 
Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that "academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness, and anti-Semitism."<ref>Jocelyne Cesari [http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/securitization_and_religious_divides_in_europe.pdf "Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation"] Submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security: 6th PCRD of European Commission. 1 June 2006: p. 6</ref><ref name=cesariA>{{cite book|title=Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century|editor=[[John L. Esposito]]|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0199753642|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/21 21]|url=https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/21}}</ref> Erdenir finds that "there is no consensus on the scope and content of the term and its relationship with concepts such as racism ..."<ref name=Triandafyllidou>{{cite book|title=Muslims in 21st Century Europe: Structural and Cultural Perspectives|editor=Anna Triandafyllidou|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415497091|page=28}}</ref> and Shryock, reviewing the use of the term across national boundaries, comes to the same conclusion.<ref name=ShryockA>{{cite book|title=Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend|editor=Andrew Shryock|year=2010|pages=6–25|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253221995}}</ref>
 
Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena. Diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on "race" or religion.<ref name=DianeFrost>{{Cite journal | last1 = Frost | first1 = D. | title = Islamophobia: Examining causal links between the media and "race hate" from "below" | doi = 10.1108/01443330810915251 | journal = International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy | volume = 28 | issue = 11/12 | pages = 564–78 | year = 2008 }}</ref> Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims.<ref name="levandehistoria"/> According to [[Alan Johnson]], Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism "wrapped in religious terms."<ref name=Johnson20110306>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/alan-johnson/idea-%27islamophobia%27|title=The Idea of 'Islamophobia'|author=Alan Johnson|date=6 March 2011|publisher=World Affairs}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sociologists Yasmin Hussain and Paul Bagguley stated that racism and Islamophobia are "analytically distinct," but "empirically inter-related".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hussain|first1=Yasmin|last2=Bagguley|first2=Paul|name-list-style=amp|title=Securitized Citizens: Islamophobia, Racism and the 7/7 London Bombings|journal=The Sociological Review|date=November 2012|volume=60|issue=4|pages=715–734|doi=10.1111/j.1467-954X.2012.02130.x|s2cid=143355490|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/80516/2/securitsedcitizens4socrevrevfinal280512%5B1%5D.pdf}}</ref>
 
The [[European Commission against Racism and Intolerance]] (ECRI) defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them", adding that whether "it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion".<ref name=levandedefinitioner>{{cite web|url=http://www.levandehistoria.se/fakta-fordjupning/islamofobi/definitioner-och-uttryck|title=Islamofobi – definitioner och uttryck|website=Forum för levande historia|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
 
===Proposed alternatives===
The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor [[Fred Halliday]] on several levels. He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims, suggesting that a more accurate term would be "Anti-Muslimism". He also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures, which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis, which was specifically about Muslims in Britain.<ref name="Aldridge1">{{Cite book |last=Aldridge |first=Alan |title=Religion in the Contemporary World: A Sociological Introduction |date=1 February 2000 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0-7456-2083-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/religionincontem0000aldr/page/138 138] |url=https://archive.org/details/religionincontem0000aldr/page/138 }}</ref> Poole responds that many Islamophobic discourses attack what they perceive to be Islam's tenets, while Miles and Brown write that Islamophobia is usually based upon negative stereotypes about Islam which are then translated into attacks on Muslims. They also argue that "the existence of different 'Islamophobias' does not invalidate the concept of Islamophobia any more than the existence of different racisms invalidates the concept of racism."{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=166}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=165}}{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=219}}
 
In a 2011 paper in ''American Behavioral Scientist'', Erik Bleich stated "there is no widely accepted definition of Islamophobia that permits systematic comparative and causal analysis", and advances "indiscriminate negative attitudes or emotions directed at Islam or Muslims" as a possible solution to this issue.<ref name="Bleich">{{cite journal | last1 = Bleich | first1 = Erik | year = 2011 | title = What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept | journal = [[American Behavioral Scientist]] | volume = 55 | issue = 12| pages = 1581–1600 | doi=10.1177/0002764211409387| s2cid = 143679557 }}</ref>
 
In order to differentiate between prejudiced views of Islam and secularly motivated criticism of Islam, Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker formulated the concept "Islamoprejudice", which they subsequently operationalised in an experiment. The experiment showed that their definition provided a tool for accurate differentiation.<ref name=Imhoff>Imhoff, Roland & Recker, Julia [https://uni-bonn.academia.edu/RolandImhoff/Papers/544018/Differentiating_Islamophobia_Introducing_a_new_scale_to_measure_Islamoprejudice_and_Secular_Islam_Critique "Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique"] Journal of Political Psychology</ref> Nevertheless, other researchers' experimental work indicates that, even when Westerners seem to make an effort to distinguish between criticizing (Muslim) ideas and values and respecting Muslims as persons, they still show prejudice and discrimination of Muslims—compared to non-Muslims—when these targets defend supposedly antiliberal causes.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/pops.12416|title = Western Anti-Muslim Prejudice: Value Conflict or Discrimination of Persons Too?| journal=Political Psychology| volume=39| issue=2| pages=281–301|year = 2018|last1 = Van Der Noll|first1 = Jolanda| last2=Saroglou| first2=Vassilis| last3=Latour| first3=David| last4=Dolezal| first4=Nathalie}}</ref>
 
==Origins and causes==
 
===History of the term===
 
One early use cited as the term's first use is by the painter [[Étienne Dinet|Alphonse Étienne Dinet]] and [[Algeria]]n intellectual Sliman ben Ibrahim in their 1918 biography of Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]].<ref>{{cite book |title=La Vie de Mohammed, Prophète d'Allah |last1=Dinet |first1=Alphonse Étienne |last2=ben Ibrahim |first2=Sliman |year=1918 |location=Paris}} cited from {{Cite book|last1=Otterbeck |first1=Jonas |last2=Bevelander |first2=Pieter |year=2006 |title=Islamofobi&nbsp; – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet |publisher=Forum för levande historia |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=978-91-976073-6-0 |url=http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |access-date=23 November 2011 |quote=modern orientalists [are partially] influenced by an islamofobia, which is poorly reconciled with science and hardly worthy of our time |others=Anders Lange  |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025153/http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2012 }}</ref><ref name=Allen2010pp5-6>Allen, Christopher (2010). ''Islamophobia''. [[Ashgate Publishing]]. pp.&nbsp;5–6.</ref> Writing in French, they used the term ''{{wiktfr|islamophobie}}''. Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as "Islamophobia" but rather as "feelings inimical to Islam". Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early as 1910, and from 1912 to 1918.<ref>Ezzerhouni, Dahou. [http://www.algerie-focus.com/2010/02/03/lislamophobie-un-racisme-apparu-avec-les-colonisations/ "L'islamophobie, un racisme apparu avec les colonisations"], ''Algerie-Focus'', 3 February 2010. "Le mot serai ainsi apparu pour la première fois dans quelques ouvrages du début du XXème siècle. On peut citer entre autre « La politique musulmane dans l’Afrique Occidentale Française » d’Alain Quellien publié en 1910, suivi de quelques citations dans la Revue du Monde Musulman en 1912 et 1918, la Revue du Mercure de France en 1912, « Haut-Sénégal-Niger » de Maurice Delafosse en 1912 et dans le Journal of Theological Studies en 1924. L’année suivante, Etienne Dinet et Slimane Ben Brahim, employaient ce terme qui «conduit à l’aberration » dans leur ouvrage « L’Orient vu par l’Occident »."</ref> These early uses of the term did not, according to [[Chris Allen (academic)|Christopher Allen]], have the same meaning as in contemporary usage, as they described a fear of Islam by [[Liberalism and progressivism within Islam|liberal Muslims]] and [[Islamic feminism|Muslim feminists]], rather than a fear or dislike/hatred of Muslims by non-Muslims.<ref name=Allen2010pp5-6/><ref name=Allen2007>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3-1e9c-be1e-2c24-a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=45668|title=Islamophobia and its Consequences|author=Chris Allen|journal=European Islam|year=2007|pages=144–67|author-link=Chris Allen (academic)}}</ref> On the other hand, Fernando Bravo López argues that Dinet and ibn Sliman's use of the term was as a criticism of overly hostile attitudes to Islam by a Belgian orientalist, Henri Lammens, whose project they saw as a "'pseudo-scientific crusade in the hope of bringing Islam down once and for all.'" He also notes that an early definition of Islamophobia appears in the 1910 Ph.D. thesis of Alain Quellien, a French colonial bureaucrat:
<blockquote>For some, the Muslim is the natural and irreconcilable enemy of the Christian and the European; Islam is the negation of civilization, and barbarism, bad faith and cruelty are the best one can expect from the Mohammedans.</blockquote>
Furthermore, he notes that Quellien's work draws heavily on the work of the French colonial department's 1902–06 administrator, who published a work in 1906, which to a great extent mirrors [[John Esposito]]'s ''The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?''.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Bravo López | first1 = F. | title = Towards a definition of Islamophobia: Approximations of the early twentieth century | doi = 10.1080/01419870.2010.528440 | journal = Ethnic and Racial Studies | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 556–73 | year = 2011 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00645104/file/PEER_stage2_10.1080%252F01419870.2010.528440.pdf }}</ref>
 
The first recorded use of the term in English, according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', was in 1923 in an article in ''[[The Journal of Theological Studies]]''.<ref name=OED/> The term entered into common usage with the publication of the Runnymede Trust's report in 1997.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Otterbeck |first1=Jonas |last2=Bevelander |first2=Pieter |year=2006 |title=Islamofobi&nbsp; – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet |publisher=Forum för levande historia |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=978-91-976073-6-0 |url=http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |access-date=23 November 2011 |others=Anders Lange  |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025153/http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2012 }}</ref> "Kofi Annan asserted at a 2004 conference entitled "Confronting Islamophobia" that the word Islamophobia had to be coined in order to "take account of increasingly widespread bigotry".<ref Name=Annan>[[Kofi Annan|Annan, Kofi]]. [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sgsm9637.doc.htm "Secretary-General, addressing headquarters seminar Wed Confronting Islamophobia"], [[United Nations]], press release, 7 December 2004.</ref>
 
===Contrasting views on Islam===
The Runnymede report contrasted "open" and "closed" views of Islam, and stated that the following "closed" views are equated with Islamophobia:<ref name="Runnymede1997">{{cite web|url= http://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/publications/pdfs/islamophobia.pdf |title=Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All }}&nbsp;{{small|(69.7&nbsp;KB)}}, ''Runnymede Trust'', 1997.</ref>
 
:#Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change.
:#It is seen as separate and "other". It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them.
:#It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and [[sexist]].
:#It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of [[terrorism]], and engaged in a [[clash of civilizations]].
:#It is seen as a political [[ideology]], used for political or military advantage.
:#Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand.
:#Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.
:#Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal.
 
These "closed" views are contrasted, in the report, with "open" views on Islam which, while founded on respect for Islam, permit legitimate disagreement, dialogue and critique.{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=162}} According to Benn and Jawad, The Runnymede Trust notes that anti-Muslim discourse is increasingly seen as respectable, providing examples on how hostility towards Islam and Muslims is accepted as normal, even among those who may actively challenge other prevalent forms of discrimination.{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=165}}
 
[[File:ARUNPATHAK5.JPG|thumb|[[Hindutva|Hindu nationalist]] politician [[Arun Pathak]] organised a celebration in Varanasi to commemorate the [[Demolition of Babri Masjid|1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid mosque]].]]
 
===Identity politics===
It has been suggested that Islamophobia is closely related to [[identity politics]], and gives its adherents the perceived benefit of constructing their identity in opposition to a negative, essentialized image of Muslims. This occurs in the form of self-righteousness, assignment of blame and key identity markers.<ref name="doving1">{{cite journal |last1=Døving |first1=Cora Alexa |year=2010 |title=Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: A Comparison of Imposed Group Identities |journal=Tidsskrift for Islamforskning |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=52–76 |url=http://islamforskning.dk/files/journal/2010/FIFO-2010-2-del4.pdf |access-date=23 November 2011|doi=10.7146/tifo.v4i2.24596 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Davina Bhandar writes that:<ref name="Bhandar">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bhandar | first1 = D. | title = Cultural politics: Disciplining citizenship | doi = 10.1080/13621021003731963 | journal = Citizenship Studies | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–43 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 146490574 }}</ref>
 
{{Quote|text=[...] the term 'cultural' has become synonymous with the category of the ethnic or minority (...). It views culture as an entity that is highly abstracted from the practices of daily life and therefore represents the illusion that there exists a spirit of the people. This formulation leads to the homogenisation of cultural identity and the ascription of particular values and proclivities onto minority cultural groups.}}
 
She views this as an [[ontology|ontological]] trap that hinders the perception of culture as something "materially situated in the living practices of the everyday, situated in time-space and not based in abstract projections of what constitutes either a particular tradition or culture."
 
In some societies, Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national "[[Other (philosophy)|Other]]", where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity. Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively.{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=216}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} This sentiment, according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles, significantly interacts with [[racism]], although Islamophobia itself is not racism.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=164}} Author [[Doug Saunders]] has drawn parallels between [[Islamophobia in the United States]] and its older [[Anti-Catholicism in the United States|discrimination and hate against Roman Catholics]], saying that Catholicism was seen as backwards and imperial, while Catholic immigrants had poorer education and some were responsible for crime and terrorism.<ref>Saunders, Doug (18 September 2012). [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/18/opinion/catholics-then-muslims-now.html "Catholics Then, Muslims Now"]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved 18 February 2014.</ref>{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=19}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fredman |first=Sandra |title=Discrimination and human rights: the case of racism |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924603-8 |page=121}}</ref><ref>''Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All'', Runnymede Trust, 1997, p. 1, cited in {{cite book |last=Quraishi |first=Muzammil |title=Muslims and crime: a comparative study |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |location=Aldershot, Hants, England |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7546-4233-6 |page=60}}</ref><ref name=HoldenHicks>{{cite book
|last1=Holden |first1=Cathie |last2=Hicks |first2=David V. |title=Teaching the global dimension: key principles and effective practice |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-40448-8 |page=140}}</ref><ref name=levandehistoria>[http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf Islamofobi – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimers utsatthet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025153/http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |date=19 January 2012}}, published by {{ill|Forum för levande historia|sv}}
<br />[http://hdl.handle.net/1885/45034 The rise of anti-Muslim racism in Australia: who benefits?]
<br />{{cite journal | last1 = Poynting | last2 = Mason | year = 2006 | title = Tolerance, Freedom, Justice and Peace?: Britain, Australia and Anti-Muslim Racism since 11 September 2001 | journal = Journal of Intercultural Studies | volume = 27 | issue = 4| pages = 365–91 | doi = 10.1080/07256860600934973 | s2cid = 145787451 }}</ref>
 
Brown and Miles write that another feature of Islamophobic discourse is to amalgamate nationality (e.g. Saudi), religion (Islam), and politics (terrorism, fundamentalism)&nbsp; – while most other religions are not associated with terrorism, or even "ethnic or national distinctiveness."{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} They feel that "many of the stereotypes and misinformation that contribute to the articulation of Islamophobia are rooted in a particular perception of Islam", such as the notion that Islam promotes terrorism&nbsp; – especially prevalent after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=166}}
 
The two-way stereotyping resulting from Islamophobia has in some instances resulted in mainstreaming of earlier controversial discourses, such as liberal attitudes towards gender equality<ref name="doving1"/><ref name="Bhandar"/> and homosexuals.<ref name=Mepschen2010>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mepschen | first1 = P. | last2 = Duyvendak | first2 = J. W. | last3 = Tonkens | first3 = E. H. | doi = 10.1177/0038038510375740 | title = Sexual Politics, Orientalism and Multicultural Citizenship in the Netherlands | journal = Sociology | volume = 44 | issue = 5 | pages = 962–79 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 85645153 }}</ref> Christina Ho has warned against framing of such mainstreaming of gender equality in a [[colonialism|colonial]], [[paternalism|paternal]] discourse, arguing that this may undermine minority women's ability to speak out about their concerns.<ref name=Ho2007>{{Cite journal | last = Ho | first = Christina | title = Muslim women's new defenders: Women's rights, nationalism and Islamophobia in contemporary Australia | journal = [[Women's Studies International Forum]] | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 290–98 | doi = 10.1016/j.wsif.2007.05.002 | date = July–August 2007 | hdl = 10453/3255 | url = https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/3255/3/2006009025.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
 
[[Steven Salaita]] contends that, since 9/11, [[Arab Americans]] have evolved from what Nadine Naber described as an invisible group in the United States into a highly visible community that directly or indirectly has an effect on the United States' culture wars, foreign policy, presidential elections and legislative tradition.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209750/summary|title = Beyond Orientalism and Islamophobia: 9/11, Anti-Arab Racism, and the Mythos of National Pride|last = Salaita|first = Steven|date = Fall 2006|journal = CR: The New Centennial Review|doi = 10.1353/ncr.2007.0011|access-date = 20 November 2015|issue = 2|volume = 6|pages = 245–266|s2cid = 143847106}}</ref>
 
The academics S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally, the presence of Muslims in itself not being an indicator of the degree of Islamophobia in a society. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institutionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them.<ref name=Sayyid&Vakil>{{cite book |last1=Sayyid |first1=Salman |author-link=Salman Sayyid |last2=Vakil |first2=Abdoolkarim |year=2010 |title=Thinking Through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glHhHIaCm9AC |location=New York |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |pages=319 |isbn=9780231702065}}</ref>
 
===Links to ideologies===
[[File:CPA DSC05617 (14603953826).jpg|thumb|The [[2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka]] followed rallies by [[Bodu Bala Sena]] (BBS), a hard-line Buddhist group.]]
[[File:Pastor Terry Jones Marching in DC (5497386725).jpg|thumb|An anti-Islam protest in the United States]]
 
Cora Alexa Døving, a senior scientist at the Norwegian [[Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities (Norway)|Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities]], argues that there are significant similarities between Islamophobic discourse and European pre-Nazi antisemitism.<ref name="doving1"/> Among the concerns are imagined threats of minority growth and domination, threats to traditional institutions and customs, skepticism of integration, threats to [[secularism]], fears of sexual crimes, fears of [[misogyny]], fears based on historical cultural inferiority, hostility to modern Western [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] values, etc.
 
{{ill|Matti Bunzl|de}} has argued that there are important differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism. While antisemitism was a phenomenon closely connected to European [[nation-building]] processes, he sees Islamophobia as having the concern of European civilization as its focal point.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Anti-semitism and Islamophobia: hatreds old and new in Europe |last=Bunzl |first=Matti |year=2007 |publisher=Prickly Paradigm Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-9761475-8-9 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37UsAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Islamophobic+claims%22 |access-date=23 November 2011}}</ref> Døving, on the other hand, maintains that, at least in Norway, the Islamophobic discourse has a clear national element.<ref name="doving1"/> In a reply to Bunzl, French scholar of Jewish history, [[Esther Benbassa]], agrees with him in that he draws a clear connection between modern hostile and essentializing sentiments towards Muslims and historical antisemitism. However, she argues against the use of the term ''Islamophobia'', since, in her opinion, it attracts unwarranted attention to an underlying racist current.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Hatred Old and New in Europe |chapter=Xenophobia, Anti-Semitism, and Racism |last=Benbassa |first=Esther |year=2007 |publisher=Prickly Paradigm Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-9761475-8-9 |pages=86ff |chapter-url=http://www.estherbenbassa.net/SCANS/XENOPHOBIA.PDF |access-date=23 November 2011 |editor-last=Bunzl |editor-first=Matti}}</ref>
 
The head of the Media Responsibility Institute in [[Erlangen]], Sabine Schiffer, and researcher Constantin Wagner, who also define Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, outline additional similarities and differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism.<ref name =schiffer>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schiffer | first1 = S. | last2 = Wagner | first2 = C. | doi = 10.1177/0306396810389927 | title = Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia – new enemies, old patterns | journal = Race & Class | volume = 52 | issue = 3 | pages = 77–84 | year = 2011 | s2cid = 146753309 }}</ref> They point out the existence of equivalent notions such as "Judaisation/Islamisation", and metaphors such as "a state within a state" are used in relation to both Jews and Muslims. In addition, both discourses make use of, among other rhetorical instruments, "religious imperatives" supposedly "proven" by religious sources, and conspiracy theories.
 
The differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism consist of the nature of the perceived threats to the "[[Christian West]]". Muslims are perceived as "inferior" and as a visible "external threat", while on the other hand, Jews are perceived as "omnipotent" and as an invisible "internal threat". However, Schiffer and Wagner also note that there is a growing tendency to view Muslims as a privileged group that constitute an "internal threat" and that this convergence between the two discources makes "it more and more necessary to use findings from the study of anti-Semitism to analyse Islamophobia". Schiffer and Wagner conclude,
 
{{Quote|The achievement in the study of anti-Semitism of examining Jewry and anti-Semitism separately must also be transferred to other racisms, such as Islamophobia. We do not need more information about Islam, but more information about the making of racist stereotypes in general.}}
 
The publication ''Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives'' describes Islamophobia as the new form of racism in Europe,{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=182}} arguing that "Islamophobia is as much a form of racism as [[anti-semitism]], a term more commonly encountered in Europe as a sibling of racism, xenophobia and Intolerance."{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=22}} [[Edward Said]] considers Islamophobia as it is evinced in [[Orientalism]] to be a trend in a more general antisemitic Western tradition.<ref>Edward W. Said, 'Orientalism Reconsidered' in Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, Margaret Iversen, Diana Loxley (eds),'' Literature, Politics, and Theory,'' Methuen & Co, London 1986 pp. 210229, pp. 220ff.</ref><ref>[[Bryan S. Turner (sociologist)|Bryan Stanley Turner]], introd. to Bryan S. Turner (ed.) ''Orientalism: Early Sources'', (Vol 1, Readings in Orientalism), Routledge, London (2000) reprint 2002 p. 12</ref> Others note that there has been a transition from anti-Asian and anti-Arab racism to anti-Muslim racism,<ref>[http://jos.sagepub.com/content/43/1/61.abstract The resistible rise of Islamophobia – Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001], [[Journal of Sociology]] March 2007 vol. 43 no. 1 61–86</ref> while some note a racialization of religion.<ref>[https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/23061/ssoar-ethnicities-2007-4-dunn_et_al-contemporary_racism_and_islamaphobia_in.pdf?sequence=1 Contemporary racism and Islamaphobia in Australia – Racializing religion], Ethnicities December 2007 vol. 7 no. 4 564–589</ref>
 
According to a 2012 report by a UK anti-racism group, [[counterjihad|counter-jihadist]] outfits in Europe and North America are becoming more cohesive by forging alliances, with 190 groups now identified as promoting an Islamophobic agenda.<ref name = "MaTo 14Apr2012">{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/14/breivik-trial-norway-mass-murderer |title= Far-right anti-Muslim network on rise globally as Breivik trial opens |author= Mark Townsend |date= 14 April 2012 |work= guardian.co.uk |access-date= 15 April 2012 |location=London}}</ref> In ''Islamophobia and its consequences on young people'' (p.&nbsp;6) Ingrid Ramberg writes "Whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion.". Professor [[John Esposito]] of [[Georgetown University]] calls Islamophobia "the new anti-Semitism".<ref name="thestar.com">{{cite news| url=https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/article/1055298--islamophobia-the-new-anti-semitism |title=Islamophobia: The new anti-Semitism| location=Toronto | work=The Star}}</ref>
 
In their [https://www.ispu.org/american-muslim-poll-2018-full-report/ 2018 American Muslim Poll], the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that when it came to their Islamophobia index (see Public Opinion), they found that those who scored higher on the index, (i.e. more islamophobic) were, “associated with 1) greater acceptance of targeting civilians, whether it is a military or individual/small group that is doling out the violence, 2) greater acquiescence to limiting both press freedoms and institutional checks following a hypothetical terror attack, and 3) greater support for the so-called “Muslim ban” and the surveillance of American mosques (or their outright building prohibition).”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ispu.org/american-muslim-poll-2018-full-report/|title=American Muslim Poll 2018: Full Report {{!}} ISPU|date=2018-04-30|website=Institute for Social Policy and Understanding|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>
 
[[Mohamed Nimer]] compares Islamophobia with anti-Americanism. He argues that while both Islam and America can be subject to legitimate criticisms without detesting a people as a whole, bigotry against both are on the rise.<ref name="NimerA">{{cite book|title=Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century|editor=[[John L. Esposito]]|author=Mohamed Nimer|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0199753642|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/76 76]|url=https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/76}}</ref>
 
===Opposition to multiculturalism===
According to Gabrielle Maranci, the increasing Islamophobia in the West is related to a rising [[Criticism of multiculturalism|repudiation of multiculturalism]]. Maranci concludes that "Islamophobia is a 'phobia' of multiculturalism and the transruptive effect that Islam can have in Europe and the West through transcultural processes."<ref>Gabriele Marranci: "Multiculturalism, Islam and the clash of civilisations theory: rethinking Islamophobia", ''Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal'', Vol. 5, No. 1 (2004), pp. 105–17 (116f.)</ref>
 
==Manifestations==
{{main|Islamophobic incidents}}
 
===Media===
{{main|Islamophobia in the media}}
 
According to [[Elizabeth Poole]] in the ''Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies'', the media have been criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia. She cites a case study examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004, which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were underrepresented and that issues involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light. Such portrayals, according to Poole, include the depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values.{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=217}} Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are "closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist."{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=165}} Egorova and Tudor cite European researchers in suggesting that expressions used in the media such as "Islamic terrorism", "Islamic bombs" and "violent Islam" have resulted in a negative perception of Islam.<ref name=egorova>See Egorova; Tudor (2003) pp. 2–3, which cites the conclusions of Marquina and Rebolledo in: "A. Marquina, V. G. Rebolledo, 'The Dialogue between the European Union and the Islamic World' in Interreligious Dialogues: Christians, Jews, Muslims, Annals of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, v. 24, no. 10, Austria, 2000, pp. 166–68. "</ref> John E. Richardson's 2004 book ''(Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers'', criticized the [[Media of the United Kingdom|British media]] for propagating negative [[Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States|stereotypes of Muslims]] and fueling anti-Muslim prejudice.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richardson|first=John E.|title=(Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|year=2004|isbn=978-90-272-2699-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WanqiF2XULsC}}</ref> In another study conducted by John E. Richardson, he found that 85% of mainstream newspaper articles treated Muslims as a homogeneous mass who were imagined as a threat to British society.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Richardson | first1 = J. E. | year = 2009 | title = 'Get Shot of the Lot of Them': Election Reporting of Muslims in British Newspapers | journal = Patterns of Prejudice | volume = 43 | issue = 3–4| pages = 355–77 | doi=10.1080/00313220903109276| s2cid = 145772695 }}</ref>
 
The Universities of Georgia and Alabama in the [[United States]] conducted a study comparing media coverage of "terrorist attacks" committed by Islamist militants with those of non-Muslims in the United States.&nbsp; Researchers found that "terrorist attacks" by Islamist militants receive 357% more [[Mass media|media]] attention than attacks committed by non-Muslims or whites. Terrorist attacks committed by non-Muslims (or where the religion was unknown) received an average of 15 headlines, while those committed by Muslim extremists received 105 headlines. The study was based on an analysis of news reports covering [[List of terrorist incidents|terrorist attacks]] in the United States between 2005 and 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Chalabi, Mona|date=July 20, 2018|title=Terror attacks by Muslims receive 357% more press attention, study finds|language=en-GB|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/jul/20/muslim-terror-attacks-press-coverage-study|access-date=December 4, 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Staff|date=February 19, 2019|title=Terror Attacks By Muslims Get 357 percent More Media Coverage Than Other Terror Attacks, Study Shows|url=https://news.gsu.edu/2019/02/19/terror-attacks-by-muslims-get-disproportionate-news-coverage/|access-date=December 15, 2020|website=Georgia State News Hub|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kearns|first1=Erin M.|last2=Betus|first2=Allison E.|last3=Lemieux|first3=Anthony F.|date=2019-09-19|title=Why Do Some Terrorist Attacks Receive More Media Attention Than Others?|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1524507|journal=Justice Quarterly|volume=36|issue=6|pages=985–1022|doi=10.1080/07418825.2018.1524507|s2cid=220405703|issn=0741-8825}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=لماذا يركز الإعلام على الهجمات التي ينفذها إسلاميون ويتجاهل غيرها؟|language=ar|work=BBC News عربي|url=https://www.bbc.com/arabic/world-47369538|access-date=2020-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kearns|first1=Erin|last2=Betus|first2=Allison|last3=Lemieux|first3=Anthony|date=2018-04-02|title=Why Do Some Terrorist Attacks Receive More Media Attention Than Others?|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2928138|language=en|location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=2928138}}</ref>
 
In 2009, [[Mehdi Hasan]] in the ''[[New Statesman]]'' criticized Western media for over-reporting a few [[Islamist terrorist]] incidents but under-reporting the much larger number of planned non-Islamist terrorist attacks carried out by "non-Irish [[White people|white]] folks".<ref>{{cite web|title=Know your enemy|author=Mehdi Hasan|website=[[New Statesman]]|date=9 July 2009|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/2009/07/mehdi-hasan-muslim-terrorism-white-british|access-date=9 April 2010}}</ref>  A 2012 study indicates that Muslims across different European countries, such as France, Germany and the United Kingdom, experience the highest degree of Islamophobia in the media.<ref name=kunst2012b/> Media personalities have been accused of Islamophobia. The obituary in ''[[The Guardian]]'' for the Italian journalist [[Oriana Fallaci]] described her as "notorious for her Islamaphobia" [sic].<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/italy/story/0,1873911,00.html Obituary of Oriana Fallaci] – [[The Guardian]], 16 September 2006. "''Controversial Italian journalist famed for her interviews and war reports but notorious for her Islamaphobia''"</ref> The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding published a report in 2018 where they stated, “In terms of print media coverage, Muslim-perceived perpetrators received twice the absolute quantity of media coverage as their non-Muslim counterparts in the cases of violent completed acts. For “foiled” plots, they received seven and half times the media coverage as their counterparts.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imv-report.org/|title=Equal Treatment? Measuring the Legal and Media Responses to Ideologically Motivated Violence in the US|website=The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>
 
The term "Islamophobia industry" has been coined by Nathan Lean and [[John Esposito]] in the 2012 book ''The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims''. Unlike the relationship of a buyer and a seller, it is a relationship of mutual benefit, where ideologies and political proclivities converge to advance the same agenda.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims|last = Lean|first = Nathan|publisher = Pluto Press|year = 2012|page = 66}}</ref> The "Islamophobia industry" has since been discussed by other scholars including Joseph Kaminski,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaminski |first1=Joseph |title=The Islamophobia Industry, Hate, and Its Impact on Muslim Immigrants and OIC State Development |journal=Islamophobia Studies Journal |date=2014 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=157–176 |doi=10.13169/islastudj.2.2.0157 }}</ref> Hatem Bazian,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bazian |first1=Hatem |title=The Islamophobia Industry and the Demonization of Palestine: Implications for American Studies |journal=American Quarterly |date=21 December 2015 |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=1057–1066 |doi=10.1353/aq.2015.0073 |s2cid=146731799 |issn=1080-6490}}</ref> Arlene Stein, Zakia Salime, [[Reza Aslan]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stein |first1=Arlene |last2=Salime |first2=Zakia |title=Manufacturing Islamophobia: Rightwing Pseudo-Documentaries and the Paranoid Style |journal=Journal of Communication Inquiry |date=1 February 2015 |volume=281 |issue=4 |pages=2015–1 |doi=10.1177/0196859915569385 |s2cid=145266067 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271907367}}</ref> Erdoan A. Shipoli, and [[Deepa Kumar]], the latter drawing a comparison between the "Islamophobia industry" and [[Cold War]] era [[McCarthyism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Shipoli |first=Erdoan A. |title=Islam, Securitization, and US Foreign Policy |date=2018 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=9783319711119 |page=116 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rE5aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116}}</ref>
 
Some media outlets are working explicitly against Islamophobia. In 2008 [[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting]] ("FAIR") published a study "Smearcasting, How Islamophobes Spread Bigotry, Fear and Misinformation." The report cites several instances where mainstream or close to mainstream journalists, authors and academics have made analyses that essentialize negative traits as an inherent part of Muslims' moral makeup.<ref>Steve Rendall and Isabel Macdonald, [http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=3648 Making Islamophobia Mainstream; How Muslim-bashers broadcast their bigotry], summary of [[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting]] report, at its website, November/December 2008.</ref> FAIR also established the "[[Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism]]", designed to monitor coverage in the media and establish dialogue with media organizations. Following the [[September 11 attacks|attacks of 11 September 2001]], the [[Islamic Society of Britain]]'s "Islam Awareness Week" and the "Best of British Islam Festival" were introduced to improve community relations and raise awareness about Islam.<ref>Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic studies, p. 218</ref> In 2012 the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] stated that they will launch a TV channel to counter Islamophobia.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/411340 | title=OIC will launch channel to counter Islamophobia | date=19 April 2012 | agency=Arab News | access-date=9 January 2013 }}</ref>
 
There are growing instances of Islamophobia in Hindi cinema, or [[Bollywood]], in films such as ''[[Aamir (2008 film)|Aamir]]'' (2008), ''[[New York (2009 film)|New York]]'' (2009) and ''[[My Name is Khan]]'' (2010), which corresponds to a growing anti-minorities sentiment that followed the resurgence of the [[Hindu right]].<ref>Gabriel, Karen, "[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/5371904/SAJ_Paper__Sent_.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DThe_Country_in_the_City_The_Bye-lanes_of.pdf&Expires=1595688602&Signature=fsxwAJGfDzqhdLuX1LkehpIdphorrpgqurLHm0dI5J1efjT3e4fjwJNGfG9B1OucITPtwIzar9QQjOufCTI1~eimaFweW~4YSlrOzHFwreVN8-rCijwVgXhYd6E0LolmhvHMVMsJr8Ga0StJXyPq8EcpezZ7VFiZXmPZBDQiI9uXFXoNvTgWO4kBNic7JIroeRsA6zI0t8lRR2jgt5zzY2hUrEAXzeNqP1oVuTEXD3ET1ZdF~Gnzi1ev8joS4U4tce-aWIXfhHFIQk7ojm8v2F2fGklVcGrUbzXrOCT7814HJ5YIrqe55KyxyYRvQcNINuBjoq3ppN~Q4j-PBemsPA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA The Country in the City: The Bye-lanes of Identity]", ''South Asian Journal Special Issue Cinema in South Asia'', July – September 2010 pp. 53–64.</ref><ref>Gabriel, Karen and P. K. Vijayan, "Orientalism, Terrorism and Bombay Cinema", (2012) ''Journal of Postcolonial Writing Special Issue on Orientalism and Terrorism'', July 2012 volume 48, number 3, pp. 299–310. {{doi|10.1080/17449855.2012.678744}}.</ref>
 
[[File:English Defence League protest in Newcastle.jpg|thumb|left|An English Defence League demonstration. The placard reads ''Shut down the mosque command and control centre''.]]
 
===Organizations===
{{See also|List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups#Anti-Muslim}}
 
A report from the [[University of California Berkeley]] and the [[Council on American–Islamic Relations]] estimated that {{US$|206 million|long=no}} was funded to 33 groups whose primary purpose was "to promote prejudice against, or hatred of, Islam and Muslims" in the United States between 2008 and 2013, with a total of 74 groups contributing to [[Islamophobia in the United States]] during that period.<ref>{{cite news |title=Funding fear of Muslims: $206m went to promoting 'hatred', report finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jun/20/islamophobia-funding-cair-berkeley-report |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=June 20, 2016 |language=en}}</ref>
 
[[Stop Islamization of America]] (SIOA) and the ''Freedom Defense Initiative'' are designated as [[hate groups]] by the [[Anti-Defamation League]]<ref>[[Anti-Defamation League]], [http://www.adl.org/main_Extremism/sioa.htm "Backgrounder: Stop Islamization of America (SIOA)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502054200/http://www.adl.org/main_Extremism/sioa.htm |date=2 May 2012 }}, ''Extremism'', 25 March 2011 [26 August 2010]. Retrieved 16 February 2012.</ref> and the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].<ref>{{Cite news |work=The Intelligence Report |publisher=Southern Poverty Law Center |url=http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2011/summer/jihad-against-islam |date=Summer 2011 |issue=142 |first=Robert |last=Steinback |title=Jihad Against Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pamela Geller & Stop Islamization of America|url=http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-files/profiles/pamela-geller|publisher=Southern Poverty Law Center|access-date=27 June 2011}}</ref><ref name=nydaily>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.nydailynews.com/2011-02-25/local/28647400_1_islamic-center-anti-islamic-pamela-geller |work=New York Daily News |date=25 February 2011 |first=Corky |title=Southern Poverty Law Center lists anti-Islamic NYC blogger Pamela Geller, followers a hate group |last=Siemaszko}}</ref> In August 2012 SIOA generated media publicity by sponsoring billboards in [[New York City Subway]] stations claiming there had been 19,250 terrorist attacks by Muslims since 9/11 and stating "it's not Islamophobia, it's Islamorealism."<ref>*[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57495509/anti-islamic-ad-claiming-its-not-islamophobia-its-islamorealism-goes-up-in-ny-train-stations/ Anti-Islamic ad claiming "it's not Islamophobia, it's Islamorealism" goes up in NY train stations], [[Associated Press]], 17 August 2012. Note that [[Bryan Fischer]], Director of Issues Analysis for the [[American Family Association]] also used the phrase "Islamo-realism" in the column [http://www.renewamerica.com/columns/fischer/100504 Times Square another argument for restricting Muslim immigration], 4 May 2010.</ref> It later ran advertisements reading "In any war between the civilized man and the savage, support the civilized man. Support Israel. Defeat Jihad." Several groups condemned the advertisements as "hate speech" about all Muslims<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/editorials/free_speech_free_for_all_SJ7F1HEiw0fquIdzjaHkPO|title=Free-speech free-for-all|date=6 Oct 2012|newspaper=New York Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/04/pro-muslim-subway-ads-to-hang-near-anti-jihad-ads/|newspaper=The New York Times|title=Pro-Muslim Subway Ads to Hang Near Anti-Jihad Ads|date=4 Oct 2012|author=Ashwaq Masood}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jewish Council for Public Affairs|title=JCPA Condemns Bigoted, Divisive, and Unhelpful Anti-Muslim Ads|url=http://engage.jewishpublicaffairs.org/blog/comments.jsp?key=477&blog_entry_KEY=6561&t=|publisher=JCPA|access-date=21 September 2012}}</ref> while others defended the ad as a narrow criticism of violent [[Jihadism]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/editorials/shocking_assumption_gwMiupSSPR0d6waO4lVt6J|title=A shocking assumption|newspaper=The New York Post|date=29 September 2012}}</ref> In early January 2013 the Freedom Defense Initiative put up advertisements next to 228 clocks in 39 New York subway stations showing the 2001 [[September 11 attacks|attacks on the World Trade Center]] with a quote attributed to the 151st verse of chapter 3 of the Quran: "Soon shall we cast terror into the hearts of the unbelievers."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=3&verse=151|title=The Quranic Arabic Corpus - Translation|website=corpus.quran.com}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57562947/new-anti-muslim-ads-up-in-nyc-subway-stations/ New anti-Muslim ads up in NYC subway stations], [[CBS News]], 9 January 2013.</ref> The [[New York City Transit Authority]], which said it would have to carry the advertisements on [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] grounds, insisted that 25% of the ad contain a Transit Authority disclaimer.<ref>Emily Anne Epstein, [http://observer.com/2012/12/pamela-geller-mta-new-anti-islam-ads-to-debut-this-month-now-with-25-more-mta-disclaimer/ New Anti-Islam Ads to Debut This Month, Now With 25% More MTA Disclaimer], [[The New York Observer]], 7 December 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/14/nyregion/controversial-group-has-new-anti-jihad-subway-ads.html?ref=nyregion&_r=1&|title=Controversial Group Plans More Ads in Subway Stations|date=13 Dec 2012|newspaper=New York Times|author=Matt Flegenheimer}}</ref> These advertisements also were criticized.<ref>Murtaza Hussain, [http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/12/20121230135815198642.html Anti-Muslim violence spiraling out of control in America], [[Al-Jazeera]], 31 December 2012.</ref><ref>Wajahat Ali, [http://www.salon.com/2012/12/31/death_by_brown_skin/ Death by brown skin], [[Salon (website)|Salon]], 31 December 2012.</ref>
 
The [[English Defence League]] (EDL), an organization in the United Kingdom, has been described as anti-Muslim. It was formed in 2009 to oppose what it considers to be a spread of Islamism, Sharia law and [[Islamic extremism]] in the UK.<ref>{{cite document|url=https://www.academia.edu/545302|title=Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique|author=Roland Imhoff|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> The EDL's former leader, [[Tommy Robinson (activist)|Tommy Robinson]], left the group in 2013 saying it had become too extreme and that street protests were ineffective.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/oct/08/tommy-robinson-english-defence-league|title=Tommy Robinson quits EDL saying it has become 'too extreme'|author=Haroon Siddique|date=8 October 2013|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>
 
Furthermore, the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]] and the resulting efforts of the British civil and law enforcement authorities to help seek British Muslims'  help in identifying potential threats to create prevention is observed by Michael Lavalette as institutionalized Islamophobia. Lavalette alleges that there is a continuity between the former two British governments over prevention that aims to stop young Muslim people from being misled, misdirected and recruited by extremists who exploit grievances for their own "jihadist" endeavors. Asking and concentrating on Muslim communities and young muslims to prevent future instances, by the authorities, is in itself Islamophobia as such since involvement of Muslim communities will highlight and endorse their compassion for Britain and negate the perceived threats from within their communities.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Race, Racism and Social Work: Contemporary issues and debates|last = Lavalette|first = Michael|publisher = Policy Press at the University of Bristol|year = 2014|location = England|pages = 167–90|chapter = Institutionalised Islamophobia and the 'Prevent' agenda: 'winning hearts and minds' or welfare as surveillance and control?}}</ref>
 
===Public opinion===
[[File:02015-10-02 Der anti-islamische Protest in Polen.JPG|thumb|Anti-Islam rally in [[Poland]] in 2015]]
 
The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe.
{{bar box
|title=Unfavorable views of Muslims, 2019<ref>{{cite news |title=European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism — 6. Minority groups |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/14/minority-groups/ |work=Pew Research Center |date=14 October 2019}}</ref>
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1='''Country'''
|right1='''Percent'''
|width=400px
|bars=
 
{{bar percent|[[Poland]]|peru|66}}
{{bar percent|[[Czech Republic]]|peru|64}}
{{bar percent|[[Hungary]]|peru|58}}
{{bar percent|[[Greece]]|peru|57}}
{{bar percent|[[Lithuania]]|peru|56}}
{{bar percent|[[Italy]]|peru|55}}
{{bar percent|[[Spain]]|darkorange|42}}
{{bar percent|[[Sweden]]|orange|28}}
{{bar percent|[[France]]|gold|22}}
{{bar percent|[[Russia]]|gold|19}}
{{bar percent|[[United Kingdom]]|gold|18}}
 
}}
Within the United States specifically, despite the rise in Islamophobia, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) has also found that the most Americans, “remain steadfast in their commitment to the country’s fundamental freedoms”, one of which being the freedom of religion. 86% of all Americans polled by ISPU said they wanted to “live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity”, 83% of the general public told ISPU they support “protecting the civil rights of American Muslims”, and overall, 66% of Americans, “believe negative political rhetoric toward Muslims is harmful to U.S.”. Average Americans also seem to be aware of the fact that Islamophobia produces discriminatory consequences for Muslims in America, with 65% of the general public agreeing.<ref name=":0" />
 
The chart below displays collected data from the ISPU 2018 American Muslim Poll <ref name=":0" /> which surveyed six different faith populations in the United States. The statements featured in this chart were asked to participants who then responded on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The total percentage of those who answered agree and strongly agree are depicted as follows (Note: the phrase "W. Evang." stands for White Evangelical, which was the specific demographic surveyed):
 
'''Question 1:''' "I want to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity."
 
'''Question 2:''' "The negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country."
 
'''Question 3:''' "Most Muslims living in the United States are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else."
 
'''Question 4:''' "Most Muslims living in the United States are victims of discrimination because of their faith."
 
<br />{{ #invoke:Chart | bar chart
| group 1 = 91 : 95 : 85 : 88 : 78 : 88
| group 2 = 78 : 69 : 61 : 61 : 45 : 78
| group 3 = 74 : 68 : 70 : 64 : 66 : 76
| group 4 = 68 : 67 : 62 : 56 : 48 : 77
| colors = grey : pink : brown : teal
| group names = Question 1 (% Net agree) : Question 2 (% Net agree) : Question 3 (% Net Agree) : Question 4 (% Net agree)
| x legends = Muslim : Jewish : Catholic : Protestant : W. Evang. : Non-Affiliated
}}
 
The table below represents the Islamophobia Index, also from the 2018 ISPU poll.<ref name=":0" /> This data displays an index of Islamophobia among faith populations in the United States.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ISPU Islamophobia Index<ref name=":0" />
!Most Muslims living in the United States...(% Net agree shown)
!Muslim
!Jewish
!Catholic
!Protestant
!White Evangelical
!Non-Affiliated
!General Public
|-
|Are more prone to violence
|18%
|15%
|12%
|13%
|23%
|8%
|13%
|-
|Discriminate against women
|12%
|23%
|29%
|30%
|36%
|18%
|26%
|-
|Are hostile to the United States
|12%
|13%
|9%
|14%
|23%
|8%
|12%
|-
|Are less civilized than other people
|8%
|6%
|4%
|6%
|10%
|1%
|6%
|-
|Are partially responsible for acts of violence carried out by other Muslims
|10%
|16%
|11%
|12%
|14%
|8%
|12%
|-
|Index (0 min- 100 max)
|17
|22
|22
|31
|40
|14
|24
|}
 
=== Internalized Islamophobia ===
ISPU also highlighted a particular trend in relation to anti-Muslim sentiment in the U.S.- internalized Islamophobia among Muslim populations themselves. When asked if they felt most people want them to be ashamed of their faith identity, 30% of Muslims agreed (a higher percentage than any other faith group). When asked if they believed that their faith community was more prone to negative behavior than other faith communities, 30% of Muslims agreed, again, a higher percentage than other faith groups.<ref name=":0" />
 
==Trends==
Islamophobia has become a topic of increasing sociological and political importance.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} According to Benn and Jawad, Islamophobia has increased since [[Ayatollah Khomeini]]'s 1989 fatwa inciting Muslims to attempt to murder [[Salman Rushdie]], the author of ''[[The Satanic Verses]]'', and since the 11 September attacks (in 2001).{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=111}} [[Anthropologist]] [[Steven Vertovec]] writes that the purported growth in Islamophobia may be associated with increased Muslim presence in society and successes.<ref name="Vertovec">Steven Vertovec, "Islamophobia and Muslim Recognition in Britain"</ref>{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=32}}{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=33}} He suggests a [[Vicious circle|circular model]], where increased hostility towards Islam and Muslims results in governmental countermeasures such as institutional guidelines and changes to legislation, which itself may fuel further Islamophobia due to increased accommodation for Muslims in public life. Vertovec concludes: "As the public sphere shifts to provide a more prominent place for Muslims, Islamophobic tendencies may amplify."<ref name="Vertovec" />{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=32}}{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=33}}
 
[[File:02015-10-02 Der anti-islamische Protest in Polen (2015) - KORWiN.JPG|thumb|left|An anti-Islamic protest in Poland]]
Patel, Humphries, and Naik (1998) claim that "Islamophobia has always been present in Western countries and cultures. In the last two decades, it has become accentuated, explicit and extreme."<ref>Naina Patel, Beth Humphries and Don Naik, "The 3 Rs in social work; Religion,'race' and racism in Europe"</ref>{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=197}}{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=198}} However, Vertovec (2002) states that some have observed that Islamophobia has not necessarily escalated in the past decades, but that there has been increased public scrutiny of it.<ref name="Vertovec" />{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=32}}{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=33}} According to Abduljalil Sajid, one of the members of the Runnymede Trust's Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, "Islamophobias" have existed in varying strains throughout history, with each version possessing its own distinct features as well as similarities or adaptations from others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islamophobia: A new word for an old fear |url=http://www.wcrp.be/articles/Sajid9-11-04.htm |author=Imam Abduljalil Sajid |access-date=17 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930121111/http://www.wcrp.be/articles/Sajid9-11-04.htm |archive-date=30 September 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
In 2005 [[Ziauddin Sardar]], an [[Islamic scholar]], wrote in the  ''New Statesman'' that Islamophobia is a widespread European phenomenon.<ref name=Sardar>[http://www.newstatesman.com/node/152128 "The next holocaust"], ''New Statesman'', 5 December 2005.</ref> He noted that each country has anti-Muslim political figures, citing [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] in France; [[Pim Fortuyn]] in the Netherlands; and Philippe van der Sande of [[Vlaams Blok]], a [[Flemish people|Flemish]] nationalist party in Belgium. Sardar argued that Europe is "post-colonial, but ambivalent." Minorities are regarded as acceptable as an underclass of menial workers, but if they want to be upwardly mobile anti-Muslim prejudice rises to the surface. Wolfram Richter, professor of economics at [[Dortmund University of Technology]], told Sardar: "I am afraid we have not learned from our history. My main fear is that [[Holocaust|what we did to Jews]] we may now do to Muslims. The next holocaust would be against Muslims."<ref name=Sardar/> Similar fears, as noted by [[Kenan Malik]] in his book ''From Fatwa to Jihad'', had been previously expressed in the UK by Muslim philosopher [[Shabbir Akhtar]] in 1989, and Massoud Shadjareh, chair of the [[Islamic Human Rights Commission]] in 2000. In 2006 [[Salma Yaqoob]], a [[Respect Party]] Councillor, claimed that Muslims in Britain were "subject to attacks reminiscent of the gathering storm of anti-Semitism in the first decades of the last century.".<ref name=malik131-2>Malik, Kenan. ''From Fatwa to Jihad''. Atlantic Books, London (2009): pp. 131–32.</ref> Malik, a senior visiting fellow in the Department of Political, International and Policy Studies at the [[University of Surrey]], has described these claims of a brewing holocaust as "hysterical to the point of delusion"; whereas Jews in Hitler's Germany were given the official designation of ''[[Untermenschen]]'', and were subject to escalating legislation which diminished and ultimately removed their rights as citizens, Malik noted that in cases where "Muslims are singled out in Britain, it is often for privileged treatment"  such as the 2005 legislation banning "incitement to religious hatred", the special funding Muslim organizations and bodies receive from local and national government, the special provisions made by workplaces, school and leisure centres for Muslims, and even suggestions by the Archbishop of Canterbury [[Rowan Williams]] and the former Lord Chief Justice, [[Nicholas Phillips, Baron Phillips of Worth Matravers|Lord Phillips]], that [[sharia]] law should be introduced into Britain.<ref name=malik132>Malik (2009): p. 132</ref> The fact is, wrote Malik, that such well-respected public figures as Akhtar, Shadjareh and Yaqoob need "a history lesson about the real Holocaust reveals how warped the Muslim grievance culture has become."<ref name=malik132/>
 
[[File:Ground Zero Mosque Protesters 11.jpg|thumb|A protester opposing the [[Park51]] project, carries an anti-sharia sign.]]
In 2006 [[ABC News]] reported that "public views of Islam are one casualty of the post-Sept. 11, 2001 conflict: Nearly six in 10 Americans think the religion is prone to [[violent extremism]], nearly half regard it unfavorably, and a remarkable one in four admits to prejudicial feelings against Muslims and Arabs alike." They also report that 27 percent of Americans admit feelings of prejudice against Muslims.<ref name=ABCMarch8>[https://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=1700599 "Poll: Americans Skeptical of Islam and Arabs"], "ABC News", 8 March 2006.</ref> Gallup polls in 2006 found that 40 percent of Americans admit to prejudice against Muslims, and 39 percent believe Muslims should carry special identification.<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Story?id=2413473&page=2 "Islamophobia Felt 5 Years after 9/11"], ''Good Morning America'', 9 September 2006.</ref> These trends have only worsened with the use of Islamophobia as a campaign tactic during the 2008 American presidential election (with several Republican politicians and pundits, including Donald Trump, asserting that Democratic candidate Barack Obama is secretly a Muslim), during the 2010 mid-term elections (during which a proposed Islamic community center was dubbed the "Ground Zero Mosque"<ref>{{cite book|last=Corbett|first=Rosemary R.|title=Making Moderate Islam: Sufism, Service, and the Ground Zero Mosque Controversy|year=2016|publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9781503600812}}</ref>), and the 2016 presidential election, during which Republican nominee Donald Trump proposed banning the entrance into the country of all Muslims. Associate Professor [[Deepa Kumar]] writes that "Islamophobia is about politics rather than religion per se"<ref name=Kumarbook>{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Kumar|title=Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire|year=2012|publisher=Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1608462117|page=6}}</ref>  and that modern-day demonization of Arabs and Muslims by US politicians and others is racist and Islamophobic, and employed in support of what she describes as an unjust war. About the public impact of this rhetoric, she says that "One of the consequences of the relentless attacks on Islam and Muslims by politicians and the media is that Islamophobic sentiment is on the rise." She also chides some "people on the left" for using the same "Islamophobic logic as the Bush regime".<ref name="Fighting Islamophobia">[http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/kumar030406.html Fighting Islamophobia: A Response to Critics]&nbsp;– Deepa Kumar, MRZine, February 2006</ref> In this regards, Kumar confirms the assertions of [[Stephen Sheehi]], who "conceptualises Islamophobia as an ideological formation within the context of the American empire. Doing so "allows us to remove it from the hands of 'culture' or from the myth of a single creator or progenitor, whether it be a person, organisation or community." An ideological formation, in this telling, is a constellation of networks that produce, proliferate, benefit from, and traffic in Islamophobic discourses."<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/news/732513/cover-story-islamophobia-an-ideological-formation Dawn.com] "Cover Story: Islamophobia as an Ideological Formation." 7 August 2012</ref>
 
The writer and scholar on religion [[Reza Aslan]] has said that "Islamophobia has become so mainstream in this country that Americans have been trained to expect violence against Muslims&nbsp;– not excuse it, but expect it".<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/11/us/if-the-sikh-temple-had-been-a-muslim-mosque-on-religion.html "If the Sikh Temple Had Been a Mosque" Samuel G Freedman] ''New York Times'', 10 August 2012</ref>
 
A January 2010 [[British Social Attitudes Survey]] found that the British public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group,"<ref name=Galloway>{{cite web|title=Sinister parallels of hatred|date=14 March 2010|author=George Galloway|website=[[Morning Star (UK newspaper)|Morning Star]]|url=http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/index.php/news/content/view/full/87933|access-date=4 April 2010|author-link=George Galloway|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417154854/http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/index.php/news/content/view/full/87933|archive-date=17 April 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam," and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Britain divided by Islam, survey finds|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=11 January 2010|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6965276/Britain-divided-by-Islam-survey-finds.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114211350/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6965276/Britain-divided-by-Islam-survey-finds.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 January 2010|access-date=4 April 2010 | location=London}}</ref>
 
A 2016 report by [[Council on American–Islamic Relations|CAIR]] and [[University of California, Berkeley]]'s Center for Race and Gender said that groups promoting islamophobia in the US had access to 206 million USD between 2008 and 2013. The author of the report said that "The hate that these groups are funding and inciting is having real consequences like attacks on mosques all over the country and new laws discriminating against Muslims in America."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jun/20/islamophobia-funding-cair-berkeley-report |title=The Guardian: Funding Islamophobia: $206m went to promoting 'hatred' of American Muslims |last1=Kazem |first1=Halima|date=20 June 2016 |website=The Guardian |access-date=24 June 2016 }}</ref>
 
Islamophobia has consequences. In the United States, religious discrimination against Muslims has become a significant issue of concern. In 2018, The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that out of the groups studied, Muslims are the most likely faith community to experience religious discrimination, the data having been that way since 2015. Despite 61% of Muslims reporting experiencing religious discrimination at some level and 62% reporting that most Americans held negative stereotypes about their community, &nbsp;23% reported that their faith made them feel “out of place in the world”.<ref name=":0" /> There are intersections with racial identity and gender identity, with 73% of Arabs surveyed being more likely to experience religious discrimination, and Muslim women (75%) and youth (75%) being the most likely to report experiencing racial discrimination. The study also found that, although, “most Muslims (86%) express pride in their faith identity, they are the most likely group studied to agree that others want them to feel shame for that identity (30% of Muslims vs. 12% of Jews, 16% of non-affiliated, and 4–6% of Christian groups).”<ref name=":0" />
 
===Anti-Islamic hate crimes data in the United States===
[[File:Ground Zero Marine Protest Muslim Bomb.jpg|thumb|A mannequin symbolizing a Muslim in a [[keffiyeh]], strapped to a "Made in the USA" bomb display at a protest of [[Park51]] in [[New York City]].]]
[[File:Anti-Muslim protestors (26713859273) crop.jpg|thumb|A protest in Cincinnati, Ohio]]
[[File:Iranian Revolution anniversary 2017 21.jpg|thumb|[[Protests against Executive Order 13769]] in Tehran, [[Iran]], 10 February 2017]]
 
Data on types of hate crimes have been collected by the U.S. [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] since 1992, to carry out the dictates of the 1990 [[Hate Crime Statistics Act]].  Hate crime offenses include crimes against persons (such as assaults) and against property (such as [[arson]]), and are classified by various race-based, religion-based, and other motivations.
 
The data show that recorded anti-Islamic hate crimes in the United States jumped dramatically in 2001.  Anti-Islamic hate crimes then subsided, but continued at a significantly higher pace than in pre-2001 years.  The step up is in contrast to decreases in total hate crimes and to the [[Crime in the United States#Crime over time|decline in overall crime in the U.S.]] since the 1990s.
 
Specifically, the FBI's annual hate crimes statistics reports from 1996 to 2013 document average numbers of anti-Islamic offenses at 31 per year before 2001, then a leap to 546 in 2001 (the year of [[9-11]] attacks), and averaging 159 per since.  Among those offenses are anti-Islamic arson incidents which have a similar pattern:  arson incidents averaged .4 per year pre-2001, jumped to 18 in 2001, and averaged 1.5 annually since.<ref name=fbiData>The FBI reports anti-Islamic [[hate crimes]] directed against persons or property its annual reports indexed [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/ucr-publications#Hate here].  Data reported here are from the FBI Hate Crime reports of [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2013/tables/4tabledatadecpdf/table_4_offenses_offense_type_by_bias_motivation_2013.xls 2013], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2012/tables-and-data-declarations/4tabledatadecpdf/table_4_offenses_offense_type_by_bias_motivation_2012.xls 2012], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2011/tables/table-4 2011], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2010/tables/table-4-offenses-offense-type-by-bias-motivation-2010.xls 2010], [https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2009/data/table_04.html 2009], [https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2008/data/table_04.html 2008], [https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2007/table_04.htm 2007], [https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2006/table4.html 2006], [https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2005/table4.htm 2005], [https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2004/hctable4.htm 2004], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2003/hatecrime03.pdf 2003], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2002/hatecrime02.pdf 2002], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2001/hatecrime01.pdf 2001], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2000/hatecrime00.pdf 2000], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/1999/hatecrime99.pdf 1999], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/1998/hatecrime98.pdf 1998], [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/1997/hatecrime97.pdf 1997], and [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/1996/hatecrime96.pdf 1996].  Totals and averages reported here are derived as calculations from the FBI data.</ref>
 
Year-by-year anti-Islamic hate crimes, all hate crimes, and arson subtotals are as follows:
{|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;" colspan="2"|'''Anti-Islamic hate crimes'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;" colspan="2"|'''All hate crimes'''
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;"
| Year||Arson offenses||Total offenses||Arson offenses||Total offenses
|-
| 1996||0||33||75||10,706
|-
| 1997||1||31||60||9,861
|-
| 1998||0||22||50||9,235
|-
| 1999||1||34||48||9,301
|-
| 2000||0||33||52||9,430
|- style="background:Gainsboro;"
| 2001||18||546||90||11,451
|-
| 2002||0||170||38||8,832
|-
| 2003||2||155||34||8,715
|-
| 2004||2||193||44||9,035
|-
| 2005||0||146||39||8,380
|-
| 2006||0||191||41||9,080
|-
| 2007||0||133||40||9,006
|-
| 2008||5||123||53||9,168
|-
| 2009||1||128||41||7,789
|-
| 2010||1||186||42||7,699
|-
| 2011||2||175||42||7,254
|-
| 2012||4||149||38||6,718
|-
| 2013||1||165||36||6,933
|-
| ||||||||
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;"
| Total||38||2,613||863||158,593
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;"
|- style="background:Gainsboro;"
| Average||2.1||145.2||47.9||8810.7
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;"
| ||||||||
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;"
| 1996–2000 avg||.40||30.6||57.0||9,707
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;"
| 2001||18||546||90||11,451
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;"
| 2002–2013 avg||1.50||159.5||40.7||8,217
|-
|}
In contrast, the overall numbers of arson and total offenses declined from pre-2001 to post-2001.
 
===Anti-Islamic hate crimes in the European countries===
 
There have also been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslims across Europe. These incidents have increased after terrorist attacks by extremist groups such as ISIL.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-34995431|title=Anti-Islam hate crimes triple in London after Paris attacks|work=BBC News|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>  [[Far-right politics|Far-right]] and [[Right-wing populism|right-wing populist]] political parties and organizations have also been accused of fueling fear and hatred towards Muslims.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-protests-germany-idUSKCN0VF0P4|title=Anti-Islam movement PEGIDA stages protests across Europe|date=6 February 2017|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/18/world/europe/marine-le-pens-anti-islam-message-gains-influence-in-france.html|title=Marine Le Pen's Anti-Islam Message Gains Influence in France|first=Adam|last=Nossiter|date=17 November 2015|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/germanys-afd-adopts-anti-islam-stance-at-party-conference-1462120609|title=Germany's AfD Adopts Anti-Islam Stance at Party Conference|first=Ruth|last=Bender|date=1 May 2016|via=www.wsj.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.vice.com/story/poland-populist-government-far-right-extremism|title=Poland's populist government let far-right extremism explode into mainstream|first=Tim|last=Hume|date=9 May 2017|via=news.vice.com}}</ref> Hate crimes such as arson and physical violence have been attempted or have occurred in Norway,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thelocal.no/20160520/woman-attempted-to-set-fire-to-oslo-mosque|title=Woman attempted to set fire to Oslo mosque|date=20 May 2016}}</ref> Poland,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/can-europe-make-it/kasia-narkowicz-konrad-pedziwiatr/why-are-polish-people-so-wrong-about-muslims-in|title=Why are Polish people so wrong about Muslims in their country?|date=13 January 2017|publisher=openDemocracy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/reports/2015/en/EIR_2015_POLAND.pdf|title=European Islamophobia Report|date=2015|publisher=SETA}}</ref> Sweden,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30658482|title=Sweden protest after three mosque fires in one week|date=2 January 2015|via=www.bbc.com}}</ref> France,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/27/fears-of-anti-muslim-backlash-as-police-investigate-possible-ars/|title=Fears of anti-Muslim backlash as police investigate possible arson attack on French mosque|first1=David|last1=Chazan|first2=Lexi|last2=Finnigan|date=27 July 2016|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref> Spain,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1282879|title=Spanish hooligans held for assault on hijab-wearing pregnant Muslim woman|date=8 September 2016}}</ref> Denmark,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://cphpost.dk/news/muslim-school-in-denmark-vandalised-with-anti-islam-graffiti.html|title=Muslim School in Denmark Vandalised with Anti-Islam Graffiti|newspaper=The Copenhagen Post|access-date=27 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904233005/http://cphpost.dk/news/muslim-school-in-denmark-vandalised-with-anti-islam-graffiti.html|archive-date=4 September 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Germany<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article194786317/Bremen-Nach-Messerangriff-in-Strassenbahn-nimmt-Polizei-Mann-fest.html|title=Bremen: Nach Messerangriff in Straßenbahn nimmt Polizei Mann fest|date=5 June 2019|via=www.welt.de}}</ref> and Great Britain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merkur.de/politik/london-anti-terror-ermittlungen-nach-toedlichem-zwischenfall-zr-8412371.html|title=Anschlag mit Lieferwagen auf Londoner Muslime|date=19 June 2017|website=www.merkur.de}}</ref> Politicians have also made anti-Muslim comments when discussing the [[European migrant crisis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/9/4/hungarian-pm-we-dont-want-more-muslims|title=Hungarian PM: We don't want more Muslims|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/21/the-next-e-u-president-says-islam-has-no-place-in-his-country/|title=Slovakia's leader said Islam has 'no place' in his country. Now he's taking a leadership role in the E.U.|first=Ishaan|last=Tharoor|via=www.washingtonpost.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/02/poles-dont-want-immigrants-they-dont-understand-them-dont-like-them|title='Poles don't want immigrants. They don't understand them, don't like them'|first=Adam Leszczyński of Gazeta|last=Wyborcza|date=2 July 2015|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref>
 
===Reports by governmental organizations===
{{See also|Hijabophobia}}
 
[[File:Prejudice against Roma, Trans and Muslim people (EU, 2015).svg|thumb|upright=2|According to a survey conducted by the [[European Commission]] in 2015 13% of the respondents would be completely uncomfortable about working with a Muslim person ({{legend-inline|#fdbf6f|orange}}), compared with 17% with a [[transgender]] or [[transsexual]] person ({{legend-inline|#b2df8a|green}}) and 20% with a [[Romani people|Roma]] person ({{legend-inline|#cab2d6|violet}}).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bona |first1=Marzia |title=How widespread is anti-Roma prejudice? |url=https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/How-widespread-is-anti-Roma-prejudice |access-date=29 August 2018 |work=OBC Transeuropa/EDJNet |date=2 August 2018}}</ref>]]
 
The largest project monitoring Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the EU watchdog, [[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]] (EUMC). Their May 2002 report "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001", written by [[Chris Allen (academic)|Chris Allen]] and Jorgen S. Nielsen of the [[University of Birmingham]], was based on 75 reports&nbsp; – 15 from each EU member nation.<ref name="EUMCNews">{{Cite news |title=EUMC presents reports on Discrimination and Islamophobia in the EU |publisher=European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia media release |url=http://www.eumc.europa.eu/eumc/index.php?fuseaction=content.dsp_cat_content&catid=43d8bc25bc89d&contentid=4582ddc822d41 |date=18 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131230905/http://www.eumc.europa.eu/eumc/index.php?fuseaction=content.dsp_cat_content&catid=43d8bc25bc89d&contentid=4582ddc822d41 |archive-date=31 January 2008 }}</ref><ref name=EUMC>Allen, Chris and Nielsen, Jorgen S. [http://www.raxen.eumc.eu.int/1/webmill.php?id=32813&ditem=3101&lin=detail "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112213546/http://www.raxen.eumc.eu.int/1/webmill.php?id=32813&ditem=3101&lin=detail |date=12 November 2007 }}, EUMC, May 2002.</ref> The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks after 9/11. Despite localized differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks on recognizable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. Incidents consisted of verbal abuse, blaming all Muslims for [[List of terrorist incidents|terrorism]], forcibly removing women's [[hijab]]s, spitting on Muslims, calling children "[[Osama bin Laden|Osama]]", and random assaults. A number of Muslims were hospitalized and in one instance paralyzed.<ref name=EUMC/> The report also discussed the portrayal of Muslims in the media. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations, and exaggerated caricatures were all identified. The report concluded that "a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated."<ref name=EUMC/>
 
The EUMC has since released a number of publications related to Islamophobia, including ''The Fight against Antisemitism and Islamophobia: Bringing Communities together (European Round Tables Meetings)'' (2003) and ''Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia'' (2006).<ref>[http://fra.europa.eu/fra/index.php?fuseaction=content.dsp_cat_content&catid=1 EUMC website&nbsp;– Publications] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223010504/http://fra.europa.eu/fra/index.php?fuseaction=content.dsp_cat_content&catid=1 |date=23 December 2007 }}. Retrieved 17 November 2007.</ref>
 
Professor in History of Religion, Anne Sophie Roald, states that Islamophobia was recognized as a form of intolerance alongside [[xenophobia]] and [[antisemitism]] at the "Stockholm International Forum on Combating Intolerance",<ref>{{Cite book|first=Anne Sophie |last=Roald|title=New Muslims in the European Context: The Experience of Scandinavian Converts |url=https://archive.org/details/newmuslimseurope00roal |url-access=limited |page=[https://archive.org/details/newmuslimseurope00roal/page/n67 53] |publisher=Brill|year=2004|isbn=978-90-04-13679-3}}</ref> held in January 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fasena.de/download/rechts/SIFCI.pdf|title=Fasena.de}}</ref> The conference, attended by UN Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]], High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Mary Robinson]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] Secretary General [[Ján Kubis]] and representatives of the [[European Union]] and [[Council of Europe]], adopted a declaration to combat "genocide, ethnic cleansing, racism, antisemitism, Islamophobia and xenophobia, and to combat all forms of racial discrimination and intolerance related to it."<ref name="humanrights.gov.se">{{Cite web|url=http://www.humanrights.gov.se/stockholmforum/2001/conference_2001.html |publisher=Chancellery of the Government of Sweden |title=Conference Two: Combating Intolerance |access-date=19 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923211418/http://www.humanrights.gov.se/stockholmforum/2001/conference_2001.html |archive-date=23 September 2010 }}</ref>
 
The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], in its 5th report to Islamophobia Observatory of 2012, found an "institutionalization and legitimization of the phenomenon of Islamophobia" in the West over the previous five years.<ref name=Arabnews121113>{{cite news|title=OIC warns of exploiting Islamophobia phenomenon|url=http://www.arabnews.com/oic-warns-exploiting-islamophobia-phenomenon|access-date=18 October 2013|newspaper=Arab News|date=13 November 2012}}</ref>
 
In 2014 Integrationsverket (the Swedish National Integration Board) defined Islamophobia as "racism and discrimination expressed towards Muslims."<ref>[http://motargument.se/2014/02/23/terminologi-islamofobi/ Terminologi – islamofobi] ''"rasistiska och diskriminerande uttryck gentemot muslimer."''</ref>
 
In 2016, the European Islamophobia Report (EIR) presented the "European Islamophobia Report 2015"<ref>{{cite journal|title=Reports – European Islamophobia|journal=European Islamophobia Reports EIR|date=3 May 2016|issue=2015|url=http://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/reports/2015-reports/|access-date=18 May 2016|language=en|format=.html/.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=EIR_2015.pdf|journal=European Islamophobia Reports EIR|date=3 May 2016|issue=2015|url=http://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/reports/2015/en/EIR_2015.pdf|access-date=18 May 2016|language=en|format=.pdf}}</ref> at [[European Parliament]] which analyzes the "trends in the spread of Islamophobia" in 25 European states in 2015.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Feroz|first1=Emran|title=Europe's First Report on Islamophobia Shows the Dangerous Climate Muslims Live In|url=http://www.alternet.org/grayzone-project/europes-first-report-islamophobia-shows-dangerous-climate-muslims-live|access-date=13 May 2016|work=AlterNet|date=4 May 2016}}</ref> The EIR defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism. While not every criticism of Muslims or Islam is necessarily Islamophobic, anti-Muslim sentiments expressed through the dominant group scapegoating and excluding Muslims for the sake of power is.<ref name=eirquote>{{cite web|title=Definition – About European Islamophobia Report (EIR)|url=http://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/about-us/|website=©2016 European Islamophobia|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=12 May 2016|language=en|format=.html|date=3 May 2016|quote=When talking about Islamophobia, we mean anti-Muslim racism. As Anti-Semitism Studies has shown, the etymological components of a word do not necessarily point to its complete meaning, nor how it is used. Such is also the case with Islamophobia Studies. Islamophobia has become a well known term used in academia as much as in the public sphere. Criticism of Muslims or of the Islamic religion is not necessarily Islamophobic. Islamophobia is about a dominant group of people aiming at seizing, stabilizing and widening their power by means of defining a scapegoat – real or invented – and excluding this scapegoat from the resources/rights/definition of a constructed 'we'. Islamophobia operates by constructing a static 'Muslim' identity, which is attributed in negative terms and generalized for all Muslims. At the same time, Islamophobic images are fluid and vary in different contexts, because Islamophobia tells us more about the Islamophobe than it tells us about the Muslims/Islam.}}</ref>
 
===Research on Islamophobia and its correlates===
[[File:Estimated Muslim population Vs Negative attitudes towards Muslims.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|According to data by the [[Pew Research Center]] elaborated by VoxEurop, in European Union countries the negative attitude towards Muslims is inversely proportional to actual presence<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ricci |first1=Alexander Damiano |title=Negative attitude towards Muslims inversely proportional to actual presence |url=https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/Negative-attitude-towards-Muslims-inversely-proportional-to-actual-presence |access-date=4 March 2019 |work=VoxEurop/EDJNet |date=11 February 2019}}</ref>]]
Various studies have been conducted to investigate Islamophobia and its correlates among majority populations and among [[Muslim]] minorities themselves. To start with, an experimental study showed that anti-Muslim attitudes may be stronger than more general [[xenophobic]] attitudes.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Spruyt | first1 = B. | last2 = Elchardus | first2 = M. | year = 2012 | title = Are anti-Muslim feelings more widespread than anti-foreigner feelings? Evidence from two split-sample experiments | doi = 10.1177/1468796812449707 | journal = Ethnicities | volume =  12| issue = 6| pages =  800–20| s2cid = 145497111 | url = https://biblio.vub.ac.be/vubirfiles/68137725/Spruyt_Elchardus_ETN_2012.pdf }}</ref> Moreover, studies indicate that anti-Muslim prejudice among majority populations is primarily explained by the perception of Muslims as a cultural threat, rather than as a threat towards the respective nation's economy.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = González | first1 = K. V. | last2 = Verkuyten | first2 = M. | last3 = Weesie | first3 = J. | last4 = Poppe | first4 = E. | year = 2008 | title = Prejudice Towards Muslims in The Netherlands: Testing Integrated Threat Theory | doi =  10.1348/014466608x284443| journal = The British Journal of Social Psychology | volume = 47 | issue = 4| pages = 667–85 | pmid = 18284782 | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2706988/VelascoGonzalezK-Prejudice-2008.pdf | hdl = 11370/1faf663e-15b0-4391-aac2-b3a56b417887 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Savelkoul | first1 = M. | last2 = Scheepers | first2 = P. | last3 = Tolsma | first3 = J. | last4 = Hagendoorn | first4 = L. | year = 2010 | title = Anti-Muslim attitudes in the Netherlands: Tests of contradictory hypotheses derived from ethnic competition theory and intergroup contact theory | doi = 10.1093/esr/jcq035 | journal = European Sociological Review | volume = 27 | issue = 6| pages = 741–58 | hdl = 2066/99505 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schlueter | first1 = E. | last2 = Scheepers | first2 = P. | year = 2010 | title = The relationship between outgroup size and anti-outgroup attitudes: A theoretical synthesis and empirical test of group threat- and intergroup contact theory | doi = 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.07.006 | journal = Social Science Research | volume = 39 | issue = 2| pages = 285–95 | url = https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/the-relationship-between-outgroup-size-and-antioutgroup-attitudes(a16d7bfe-0b28-4542-b8b1-2db75a3714e9).html | hdl = 11370/a16d7bfe-0b28-4542-b8b1-2db75a3714e9 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
 
Studies focusing on the experience of Islamophobia among Muslims have shown that the experience of [[religious discrimination]] is associated with lower national identification and higher religious identification.<ref name=kunst2012a>{{cite journal | last1 = Kunst | first1 = J. R. | last2 = Tajamal | first2 = H. | last3 = Sam | first3 = D. L. | last4 = Ulleberg | first4 = P. | year = 2012 | title = Coping with Islamophobia: The effects of religious stigma on Muslim minorities' identity formation | doi = 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.12.014 | journal = International Journal of Intercultural Relations | volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 518–32 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/812012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Verkuyten | first1 = M. | last2 = Yildiz | first2 = A. A. | year = 2007 | title = National (dis)identification and ethnic and religious identity: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims | doi = 10.1177/0146167207304276 | pmid = 17933739 | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 33 | issue = 10| pages = 1448–62 | s2cid = 24997994 | url = https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/national-disidentification-and-ethnic-and-religious-identity(7a25d4ce-7574-47ac-aac9-ebed396dc934).html | hdl = 11370/7a25d4ce-7574-47ac-aac9-ebed396dc934 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> In other words, religious discrimination seems to lead Muslims to increase their identification with their religion and to decrease their identification with their nation of residence. Some studies further indicate that societal Islamophobia negatively influences Muslim minorities' health.<ref name=kunst2012b/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Johnston | first1 = D. | last2 = Lordan | first2 = G. | year = 2011 | title = Discrimination makes me sick! An examination of the discrimination–health relationship | doi = 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.12.002 | pmid = 22366167 | journal = Journal of Health Economics | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 99–111 }}</ref> One of the studies showed that the perception of an Islamophobic society is associated with more [[psychological problem]]s, such as [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Neuroticism|nervousness]], regardless whether the respective individual had personally experienced religious [[discrimination]].<ref name=kunst2012b/> As the authors of the study suggest, [[anti-discrimination law]]s may therefore be insufficient to fully protect Muslim minorities from an environment which is hostile towards their religious group.
 
[[Farid Hafez]] and Enes Bayrakli publish an annual [[European Islamophobia Report]] since 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/|title=European Islamophobia}}</ref> The European Islamophobie Report aims to enable policymakers as well as the public to discuss the issue of Islamophobia with the help of qualitative data. It is the first report to cover a wide range of Eastern European countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English [[Islamophobia Studies Yearbook]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jahrbuch-islamophobie.de|title=Jahrbuch für Islamophobieforschung |first=Farid|last=Hafez|publisher=Islamophobieforschung}}</ref>
 
===Geographic trends===
An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of [[Wahhabism]], according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee.<ref name=rbth130625>{{cite news|url=http://rbth.ru/news/2013/06/25/wahhabism_expansion_in_russia_leads_to_growth_of_islamophobia_-_national_27468.html|title=Wahhabism expansion in Russia leads to growth of Islamophobia – National Anti-Terrorist Committee|date=25 June 2013|newspaper=Rossiyskaya Gazeta}}</ref>
 
Various translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy.<ref name=guardian131008>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2013/oct/08/russian-court-bans-quran-translation|title=Russian court bans Qur'an translation|author=Daniel Kalder|date=8 October 2013|newspaper=Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/Books/chapter-and-verse/2013/1009/Russia-blacklists-translation-of-the-Quran|title=Russia blacklists translation of the Quran|date=9 Oct 2013|newspaper=Christian Science Monitor|author=Husna Haq}}</ref> Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21587829-georgia-appears-have-moved-backwards-under-bidzina-ivanishvili-no-change-better|title=No change for the better: Georgia appears to have moved backwards under Bidzina Ivanishvili|date=12 Oct 2013|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece.<ref name=gm110103>{{cite news|title=Rising tide of Islamophobia engulfs Athens|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/rising-tide-of-islamophobia-engulfs-athens/article560119/|date=3 Jan 2011|newspaper=Globe and Mail|location=Toronto}}</ref> In France Islamophobia is tied, in part, to the nation's long-standing tradition of secularism.<ref name=local130215>{{cite news|url=http://www.thelocal.fr/20130215/islamophobia-has-become-trivialised-in-france|title=Islamophobia has been trivialized in France|date=15 February 2013|newspaper=The Local|author=Ben McPartland}}</ref> In Myanmar (Burma) the [[969 Movement]] has been accused of events such as the [[2012 Rakhine State riots]].
 
[[File:Rohingya displaced Muslims 010.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Rohingya people|Rohingya Muslim]] refugees fleeing violence in Buddhist-majority [[Myanmar]] in October 2017]]
 
Jocelyne Cesari, in her study of discrimination against Muslims in Europe,<ref name=CesariStudy>{{cite web|url= http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/securitization_and_religious_divides_in_europe.pdf |title=Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation }}</ref> finds that anti-Islamic sentiment may be difficult to separate from other drivers of discrimination. Because Muslims are mainly from immigrant backgrounds and the largest group of immigrants in many Western European countries, [[xenophobia]] overlaps with Islamophobia, and a person may have one, the other, or both. So, for example, some people who have a negative perception of and attitude toward Muslims may also show this toward non-Muslim immigrants, either as a whole or certain group (such as, for example, Eastern Europeans, sub-Saharan Africans, or Roma), whereas others would not. [[Nigel Farage]], for example, is anti-EU and in favor of crackdowns on immigration from Eastern Europe, but is favourable to immigration from Islamic Commonwealth countries such as Nigeria and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mason |first1=Rowena |title=Nigel Farage: Indian and Australian immigrants better than eastern Europeans |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/apr/22/nigel-farage-immigrants-india-australia-better-than-eastern-Europeans |website=Theguardian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424083806/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/apr/22/nigel-farage-immigrants-india-australia-better-than-eastern-Europeans |archive-date=2015-04-24}}</ref> In the United States, where immigrants from Latin America and Asia dominate and Muslims are a comparatively small fraction, xenophobia and Islamophobia may be more easily separable. [[Classism]] is another overlapping factor in some nations. Muslims have lower income and poorer education in France, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands while Muslims in the US have higher income and education than the general population. In the UK, Islam is seen as a threat to [[secularism]] in response to the calls by some Muslims for [[blasphemy laws]]. In the Netherlands, Islam is seen as a socially conservative force that threatens [[gender equality]] and the acceptance of homosexuality.
 
The [[European Network Against Racism]] (ENAR) reports that Islamophobic crimes are on the increase in France, England and Wales. In Sweden crimes with an Islamophobic motive increased by 69% from 2009 to 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/new-report-exposes-huge-rise-racist-crime-europe-326929|title=New report exposes huge rise in racist crime in Europe|first=Lucy Draper On 5/6/15 at 1:29 PM|last=EDT|date=6 May 2015|website=Newsweek}}</ref>
 
A report from Australia has found that the levels of Islamophobia among [[Buddhists]] and [[Hindus]] are significantly higher than among followers of other religions.<ref>[http://www.unisa.edu.au/Global/EASS/MnM/Publications/Islamophobia_report.pdf Islamophobia, social distance and fear of terrorism in Australia: a preliminary report]</ref>
 
In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, Germany and France, signed a joint letter to the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UNHRC]] condemning China's mistreatment of the [[Uyghurs]] as well as its mistreatment of other [[Islam in China|Muslim]] minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the [[Xinjiang re-education camps]],<ref>{{cite web |title=More than 20 ambassadors condemn China's treatment of Uighurs in Xinjiang |url=https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/11/more-than-20-ambassadors-condemn-chinas-treatment-of-uighurs-in-xinjiang |work=The Guardian|date=11 July 2019}}</ref> though ambassadors from 53 others, not including China, rejected said allegations.<ref>{{Cite web|date=29 October 2019|title=Joint Statement on Xinjiang at Third Committee|url=http://statements.unmeetings.org/media2/23328878/belarus-joint-statement-cerd-chair-oct-29.pdf|access-date=13 August 2020|website=unmeetings.org}}</ref> According to a 2020 report by the [[Australian Strategic Policy Institute]], since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang – 65% of the region's total.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Davidson|first=Helen|date=2020-09-25|title=Thousands of Xinjiang mosques destroyed or damaged, report finds|language=en-GB|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/25/thousands-of-xinjiang-mosques-destroyed-damaged-china-report-finds|access-date=2020-09-26|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Skopeliti|first=Clea|date=25 September 2020|title=China: Nearly two-thirds of Xinjiang mosques damaged or demolished, new report shows|work=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/xinjiang-mosques-destroyed-damaged-china-uighurs-b597919.html|access-date=26 September 2020}}</ref>
 
The [[2020 Delhi riots]], which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,<ref>{{cite news |title=Delhi riots: Violence that killed 53 in Indian capital 'was anti-Muslim pogrom', says top expert |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/independentpremium/world/delhi-riots-pogrom-violence-deaths-modi-bjp-india-police-a9384891.html |work=The Independent |date=7 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=For Jews, the New Delhi riots have a painfully familiar ring |url=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/for-jews-the-new-delhi-riots-have-a-painfully-familiar-ring/ |work=The Times of Israel |date=11 March 2020}}</ref> were triggered by protests against a [[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019|citizenship law]] seen by many critics as anti-Muslim and part of Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]]'s [[Hindu nationalist]] agenda.<ref>{{cite news |title=Anti-Muslim violence in Delhi serves Modi well |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/feb/26/violence-delhi-modi-project-bjp-citizenship-law |work=The Guardian |date=26 February 2020}}</ref>
 
==Criticism of term and use==
Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term "Islamophobia" had become widely recognized and used,{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=218|loc=''The Runnymede Trust has been successful in that the term Islamophobia is now widely recognized and used, though many right-wing commentators reject its existence or argue that it is justified. However, now becoming a catch-all label for any harassment involving Muslims, it should not be considered unproblematic''}} its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker, in an article that puts forward the term "Islamoprejudice" as a better alternative, write that "... few concepts have been debated as heatedly over the last ten years as the term Islamophobia."<ref name=Imhoff />
 
===Academic debate===
 
Jocelyne Cesari reported widespread challenges in the use and meaning of the term in 2006.<ref name=Allen2007/><ref name=Cesari2006>{{Cite web|url=http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/securitization_and_religious_divides_in_europe.pdf|title=Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11:Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation|author=Jocelyne Cesari|date= 15–16 December 2006}}</ref> According to ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', "Much debate has surrounded the use of the term, questioning its adequacy as an appropriate and meaningful descriptor. However, since Islamophobia has broadly entered the social and political lexicon, arguments about the appropriateness of the term now seem outdated".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Moten |first=Abdul Rashid |author-link=Abdul Rashid Moten |editor-last=Shahin |editor-first=Emad El-Din |editor-link=Emad Shahin |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |title=Islamophobia |volume=Volume 1 |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973935-6 |pages=618–620}}</ref> At the same time, according to a 2014 edition of ''A Dictionary of Sociology'' by Oxford University Press, "the exact meaning of Islamophobia continues to be debated amongst academics and policymakers alike." The term has proven problematic and is viewed by some as an obstacle to constructive criticism of Islam. Its detractors fear that it can be applied to any critique of Islamic practices and beliefs, suggesting terms such as "anti-Muslim" instead.<ref name="A Dictionary of Sociology">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=A Dictionary of Sociology|edition=4th|
editor=John Scott|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|title=Islamophobia|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199683581.001.0001/acref-9780199683581-e-2536|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 
The classification of "closed" and "open" views set out in the ''Runnymede report'' has been criticized as an oversimplification of a complex issue by scholars like [[Chris Allen (academic)|Chris Allen]], [[Fred Halliday]], and [[Kenan Malik]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Chris Allen|title= Islamophobia |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-1178|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Paul Jackson, in a critical study of the anti-Islamic [[English Defence League]], argues that the criteria put forward by the Runnymede report for Islamophobia "can allow for any criticism of Muslim societies to be dismissed...". He argues that both jihadi Islamists and far-right activists use the term "to deflect attention away from more nuanced discussions on the make-up of Muslim communities", feeding "a language of polarised polemics". On one hand, it can be used "to close down discussion on genuine areas of criticism" regarding jihadi ideologies, which in turn has resulted in all accusations of Islamophobia to be dismissed as "spurious" by far-right activists. Consequently, the term is "losing much [of its] analytical value".<ref name=JacksonStudy>{{Cite book|url=http://nectar.northampton.ac.uk/6015/7/Jackson20116015.pdf|title=The EDL: Britain's 'New Far Right' Social Movement|last=Jackson|first=Paul|publisher=RMN Publications, University of Northampton|pages=10–11|year=2001|access-date=28 June 2012}}</ref>
 
Professor Eli Göndör wrote that the term Islamophobia should be replaced with "Muslimophobia".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corren.se/asikter/kolumner/eli-gondor-begreppet-islamofobi-bor-bytas-ut-6394258-artikel.aspx|title=Eli Göndör: Begreppet islamofobi bör bytas ut|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> As Islamophobia is "a rejection of a population on the grounds of Muslimness", other researches suggest "Muslimism".<ref>Bunzl 2007, Bravo Lopéz 2009</ref>
 
Professor Mohammad H. Tamdgidi of the University of Massachusetts, Boston, has generally endorsed the definition of Islamophobia as defined by the Runnymede Trust's ''Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All''. However, he notes that the report's list of "open" views of Islam itself presents "an inadvertent definitional framework for Islamophilia": that is, it "falls in the trap of regarding Islam monolithically, in turn as being characterized by one or another trait, and does not adequately express the complex heterogeneity of a historical phenomenon whose contradictory interpretations, traditions, and sociopolitical trends have been shaped and has in turn been shaped, as in the case of any world tradition, by other world-historical forces."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tamdgidi | first1 = Mohammad H. | year = 2012 | title = Beyond Islamophobia and Islamophilia as Western Epistemic Racisms: Revisiting Runnymede Trust's Definition in a World-History Context | url = http://crg.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/Tamdgidi.pdf | journal = Islamophobia Studies Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | page = 76 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131029212606/http://crg.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/Tamdgidi.pdf | archive-date = 29 October 2013 }}</ref>
 
Atheist author and professor [[Richard Dawkins]] has criticised the term Islamophobia. He has argued that while hatred of Muslims is "unequivocally
reprehensible" the term Islamophobia itself is an "otiose word which doesn’t deserve
definition."<ref>http://www.civitas.org.uk/content/files/islamophobiaananthologyofconcerns.pdf</ref> In 2015, along with the [[National Secular Society]], he expressed opposition to a proposal by then [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]  leader [[Ed Miliband]] to make Islamophobia an "aggravated crime." Dawkins stated that the proposed law was based on a term that is too vague, puts religion above scrutiny and questioned if such a law under the term ''Islamophobia'' hypothetically could be used to prosecute ''[[Charlie Hebdo]]'' or if he could be jailed for quoting violent passages from Islamic scripture on Twitter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.secularism.org.uk/news/2015/04/free-speech-campaigners-concerned-by-ed-milibands-vow-to-ban-islamophobia--without-defining-what-he-means/|title=Free speech campaigners concerned by Ed Miliband's vow to ban 'Islamophobia'- without defining what it means|work=[[National Secular Society]]|date= 29 April 2015|access-date= 5 September 2019}}</ref>
 
Philosopher [[Michael Walzer]] says that fear of religious militancy, such as "of Hindutva zealots in India, of messianic Zionists in Israel, and of rampaging Buddhist monks in Myanmar", is not necessarily an irrational phobia, and compares fear of [[Islamic extremism]] with the fear Muslims and Jews could feel towards Christians during the [[crusades]].<ref name=walzer /> However, he also writes that:
 
<blockquote>Islamophobia is a form of religious intolerance, even religious hatred, and it would be wrong for any leftists to support bigots in Europe and the United States who deliberately misunderstand and misrepresent contemporary Muslims. They make no distinction between the historic religion and the zealots of this moment; they regard every Muslim immigrant in a Western country as a potential terrorist; and they fail to acknowledge the towering achievements of Muslim philosophers, poets, and artists over many centuries.<ref name=walzer>[[Michael Walzer|Walzer, Michael]] (Winter 2015) [http://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/islamism-and-the-left "Islamism and the Left"] ''[[Dissent (American magazine)|Dissent]]''</ref></blockquote>
 
===Commentary===
In the wake of the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|''Jyllands-Posten'' Muhammad cartoons controversy]], a group of 12 writers, including novelist [[Salman Rushdie]] and activist [[Ayaan Hirsi Ali]], signed a manifesto entitled ''Together facing the new totalitarianism'' in the French weekly satirical newspaper ''[[Charlie Hebdo]]'' in March 2006, warning against the use of the term Islamophobia to prevent criticism of "Islamic totalitarianism".<ref>{{cite news|title=Writers issue cartoon row warning|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4763520.stm|access-date=19 February 2014|work=BBC News|date=1 March 2006}}</ref><ref name="Rushdie">[[Salman Rushdie|Rushdie, Salman]] ''et al.'' (1 March 2006). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4764730.stm "Writers' statement on cartoons"], ''BBC News''. Retrieved 18 February 2014.  "We refuse to renounce our critical spirit out of fear of being accused of "Islamophobia", a wretched concept that confuses criticism of Islam as a religion and stigmatisation of those who believe in it."</ref> Rushdie added in 2012 that 'Islamophobia' "took the language of analysis, reason and dispute, and stood it on its head".<ref>Rushdie, Salman (2012). [http://www.carvaka4india.com/2012/10/joseph-anton-salman-rushdie-and.html ''Joseph Anton: A Memoir''], pp. 344–46, Jonathan Cape. Quoted at ''cārvāka4india.com''. Retrieved 18 February 2014.</ref> Hirsi Ali added in 2017 that Islamophobia was a "manufactured" term whose usage emboldens radical Muslims to push for censorship and that "we can't stop the injustices if we say everything is 'Islamophobic' and hide behind a politically correct screen."<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/04/ayaan-hirsi-ali-says-australian-opponents-carrying-water-for-radical-islamists| title= Ayaan Hirsi Ali says Australian opponents 'carrying water' for radical Islamists | work=The Guardian| date=4 April 2017| access-date=30 March 2020}}</ref>
 
Left-wing journalist and '[[New Atheist]]' writer [[Christopher Hitchens]] stated in February 2007 that "a stupid term – Islamophobia – has been put into circulation to try and suggest that a foul prejudice lurks behind any misgivings about Islam's infallible 'message.'"<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2007/02/the-war-within-islam.html |title=The War Within Islam. The growing danger of the Sunni-Shiite rivalry |author=Christopher Hitchens |work=Slate |date=19 February 2007 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Writing in the ''[[New Humanist]]'' in May 2007, philosopher [[Piers Benn]] suggests that people who fear the rise of Islamophobia foster an environment "not intellectually or morally healthy", to the point that what he calls "Islamophobia-phobia" can undermine "critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion's true nature."<ref name="Benn">Benn, Piers (31 May 2007). [http://rationalist.org.uk/524 "On Islamophobia-phobia"]. ''rationalist''.org.uk. (originally published in ''New Humanist'' in 2002). Retrieved 18 February 2014.</ref>
 
Alan Posener and Alan Johnson have written that, while the idea of Islamophobia is sometimes misused, those who claim that hatred of Muslims is justified as opposition to Islamism actually undermine the struggle against Islamism.<ref name=Johnson20110306 />  The author [[Sam Harris (author)#Islam and Muslims|Sam Harris]], while denouncing bigotry, racism, and prejudice against Muslims or Arabs, rejects the term Islamophobia<ref>Sam Harris, "[http://www.samharris.org/blog/item/lifting-the-veil-of-islamophobia#sthash.bM4Un8kE.H21DmKxR.dpuf Lifting the Veil of 'Islamophobia'] A Conversation with [[Ayaan Hirsi Ali]]", 8 May 2014.</ref> as an invented psychological disorder, and states criticizing those Islamic beliefs and practices he believes pose a threat to civil society is not a form of bigotry or racism.<ref>[[Sam Harris (author)|Harris, Sam]] (13 August 2010). [http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2010-08-13/ground-zero-mosque/3/ "What Obama Got Wrong About the Mosque"]. ''[[The Daily Beast]]''.</ref> Similarly, [[Pascal Bruckner]] calls the term "a clever invention because it amounts to making Islam a subject that one cannot touch without being accused of racism."<ref name=Bruckner>{{cite magazine|last1=Michael Walzer|title=Islamism and the Left|url=https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/islamism-and-the-left|access-date=2 November 2015|magazine=[[Dissent (American magazine)]]|date=Winter 2015|author1-link=Michael Walzer}}</ref>
 
Writing in 2008 Muslim reformist [[Ed Husain]], a former member of [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] and co-founder of [[Quilliam (think tank)|Quilliam]],<ref>Nawaz, Maajid. ''Radical''. W.H. Allen, London: 2012: p. 109</ref> said that under pressure from Islamist extremists, "'Islamophobia' has become accepted as a phenomenon on a par with racism", claiming that "Outside a few flashpoints where the [[British National Party|BNP]] is at work, most Muslims would be hard-pressed to identify Islamophobia in their lives".<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.standard.co.uk/news/stop-pandering-to-the-islamist-extremists-6912982.html| title= Stop pandering to the Islamist extremists | work=London Evening Standard| date=7 July 2008| access-date=24 October 2013 | author=Ed Husain| location=London}}</ref>
 
Conservative political commentator [[Douglas Murray (author)|Douglas Murray]] has described Islamophobia in 2013 as a "nonsense term" and stated "a ''phobia'' is something of which one is irrationally afraid. Yet it is supremely rational to be scared of elements of Islam and of its fundamentalist strains in particular. Nevertheless, the term has been very successfully deployed, not least because it has the aura of a smear. ''Islamophobes'' are not only subject to an irrational and unnecessary fear; they are assumed to be motivated (because most Muslims in the West are from an ethnic minority) by "racism". Who would not recoil from such charges?"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://standpointmag.co.uk/issues/june-2013/features-june-13-forget-islamophobia-lets-tackle-islam-douglas-murray-sayeeda-warsi-islam/|title= Forget 'Islamophobia'. Let's Tackle Islamism|date= 28 May 2013 |website=Standpoint| access-date= 20 March 2020}}</ref>
 
In his paper 'A Measure of Islamophobia', British academic [[Salman Sayyid]] (2014) argues that these criticisms are a form of etymological fundamentalism and echo earlier comments on racism and anti-Semitism. Racism and anti-Semitism were also accused of blocking free speech, of being conceptually weak and too nebulous for practical purposes.<ref>Sayyid (2014) 'A measure of Islamophobia' Islamophobia Studies Journal, Vol 2. No. 1, pp. 10-25.</ref>
 
French Prime Minister [[Manuel Valls]] said in January 2015 following the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting|''Charlie Hebdo'' shooting]] "It is very important to make clear to people that Islam has nothing to do with [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]]. There is a prejudice in society about this, but on the other hand, I refuse to use this term 'Islamophobia,' because those who use this word are trying to invalidate any criticism at all of the Islamist ideology. The charge of 'Islamophobia' is used to silence people".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Goldberg|first1=Jeffrey|title=French Prime Minister: I Refuse to Use This Term Islamophobia|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/01/french-prime-minister-manuel-valls-on-islamophobia/384592/|access-date=17 February 2015|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=16 January 2015}}</ref>
 
Conservative journalist and commentator [[Brendan O'Neill (journalist)|Brendan O'Neill]] stated in 2018 "Anti-Muslim prejudice is out there, yes. But 'Islamophobia' is an elite invention, a top-down conceit, designed to chill open discussion about religion and values and to protect one particular religion from blasphemy. The war on Islamophobia is in essence a demand for censorship."<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Neill |first=Brendan|date=6 June 2018|title= No, Islamophobia is not the new anti-Semitism |url=https://www.spiked-online.com/2018/06/06/no-islamophobia-is-not-the-new-anti-semitism/ |work= Spiked |access-date= 30 March 2020}}</ref>
 
Muslim reformist [[Maajid Nawaz]], a former member of the Islamist [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] group and founder of the counter-extremism [[Quilliam (think tank)|Quilliam]] think-tank has criticized the term "Islamophobia" on several occasions, stating in 2020 it conflates racism with blasphemy and "there's a huge difference in being critical of an idea and critical of a person because of their political or religious identity." Nawaz argues that "anti-Muslim bigotry" is a more accurate phrase to use instead of Islamophobia when addressing prejudice faced by people of Muslim origin.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why you need to stop using the word Islamophobia: Maajid Nawaz |url=https://www.lbc.co.uk/radio/presenters/maajid-nawaz/why-you-need-to-stop-using-the-word-islamophobia/|date= 9 February 2020 |website=LBC| access-date= 20 March 2020}}</ref>
 
British-American physician, author and Muslim reformist writer [[Qanta A. Ahmed]] has argued against using the term Islamophobia and has cautioned against using it as part of anti-racism or hate speech legislation by claiming jihadis will exploit it. She has argued that "while we’re getting better at thwarting terrorist attacks, we’re still fighting their ideological underpinning. As a secular pluralistic democracy, we have weapons: intellectual scrutiny, critical thinking and above all the insight to command the language of this war of ideas. And to use the word ''Islamophobia'' when talking about anti-Muslim xenophobia is to use the vocabulary and adopt the rulebook of the Islamists who wish to obfuscate their intent."<ref name= "Shield">{{cite news |last=Ahmed|first=Qanta|date=23 December 2018|title=As a Muslim woman I'd like to thank Boris Johnson for calling out the burka |url=https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2018/12/as-a-muslim-woman-id-like-to-thank-boris-johnson-for-calling-out-the-niqab-2/ |work =[[The Spectator]]|access-date= 16 March 2021}}</ref>
 
===''The Associated Press Stylebook''===
In December 2012, media sources reported that the terms "homophobia" and "Islamophobia" would no longer be included in the ''[[AP Stylebook]]'', and Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn expressed concern about the usage of the terms, describing them as "just off the mark" and saying that they seem "inaccurate". Minthorn stated that AP decided that the terms should not be used in articles with political or social contexts because they imply an understanding of the mental state of another individual. The terms no longer appears on the online stylebook, and Minthorn believes journalists should employ more precise phrases to avoid "ascribing a mental disability to someone".<ref name=huffpogay>{{cite news|title= The Associated Press and Terms Like'Homophobia'|author=Warren J. Blumenfeld|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/warren-j-blumenfeld/the-associated-press-and-terms-like-homophobia_b_2235169.html|newspaper= Huffington Post|date= 5 December 2012|access-date=6 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=APNixes>{{cite news|title= AP Nixes 'homophobia', 'ethnic cleansing' |author=Dylan Byers|url=http://www.politico.com/blogs/media/2012/11/ap-nixes-homophobia-ethnic-cleansing-150315.html|newspaper=Politico|date=26 December 2012|access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref>
 
==Countering Islamophobia==
 
===Europe===
 
On 26 September 2018, the [[European Parliament]] in [[Brussels]] launched the "Counter-Islamophobia Toolkit" (CIK), with the goal of combatting the growing Islamophobia across the [[European Union|EU]] and to be distributed to national governments and other policy makers, civil society and the media. Based on the most comprehensive research in Europe, it examines patterns of Islamophobia and effective strategies against it in eight member states. It lists ten dominant narratives and ten effective counter-narratives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cik.leeds.ac.uk/events/cik-toolkit-launch-european-parliament-brussels/|website=University of Leeds|title=CIK Toolkit Launch – European Parliament, Brussels|date=26 September 2018|access-date=1 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=1 March 2019|url=http://www.equineteurope.org/Counter-Islamophobia-Kit|title=Counter-Islamophobia Kit|website=Equinet European Network of Equality Bodies|date=4 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite document|title=Counter-Islamophobia kit:briefing paper and toolkit of counter-narratives to Islamophobia|first1=Ian|last1=Law|first2=Easat-Daas |last2=Amina|first3=S.|last3=Sayyid|access-date=1 March 2019|publisher=CIK Consortium (University of Leeds)|date=September 2018|url=https://cik.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/36/2018/09/2018.09.17-Job-44240.01-CIK-Final-Booklet.pdf}}</ref>
 
One of the authors of the CIK, Amina Easat-Daas, says that Muslim women are disproportionately affected by Islamophobia, based on both the "threat to the west" and "victims of...Islamic sexism" narratives. The approach taken in the CIK is a four-step one: defining the misinformed narratives based on flawed logic; documenting them; deconstructing these ideas to expose the flaws; and finally, reconstruction of mainstream ideas about Islam and Muslims, one closer to reality. The dominant ideas circulating in popular culture should reflect the diverse everyday experiences of Muslims and their faith.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Conversation|title=How to tackle Islamophobia – the best strategies from around Europe|url=https://theconversation.com/how-to-tackle-islamophobia-the-best-strategies-from-around-europe-106092|date=21 February 2019|access-date=1 March 2019|first=Easat-Daas |last=Amina}}</ref>
 
==See also==
{{Portal|Islam}}
* [[Persecution of Muslims]]
** [[Islamophobia in Australia]]
** [[Islamophobia in Canada]]
** [[Islamophobia in China]]
** [[Islamophobia in Germany]]
** [[Islamophobia in Italy]]
** [[Islamophobia in Norway]]
** [[Islamophobia in Poland]]
** [[Islamophobia in Sweden]]
** [[Islamophobia in the United Kingdom]]
** [[Islamophobia in the United States]]
**[[Islamophobia in India]]
** [[Islamophobia in the media]]
** [[Islamophobia Watch]]
** [[Islamophobic incidents]]
* [[Religious intolerance]]
* [[Religious persecution]]
* [[Religious violence]]
* [[Religious war]]
* [[Minority stress]]


==References==
==References==
'''Informational notes'''
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
 
'''Citations'''
{{Reflist}}
 
'''Bibliography'''
* {{Cite book |last1=Benn |first1=Tansin |last2=Jawad |first2=H. A. |name-list-style=amp|title=Muslim Women in the United Kingdom and Beyond: Experiences and Images |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2sFAQAAIAAJ |year=2003 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |pages=178 |isbn=978-90-04-12581-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Egorova |first=Y. |author2=Parfitt, T. |name-list-style=amp|title=Jews, Muslims, and Mass Media: Mediating the 'Other' |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge Curzon |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-31839-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Haddad |first=Yvonne Yazbeck |author-link=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qdRx7qLF8KIC |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |pages=336 |isbn=978-0-19-514805-3}}
* {{Cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Miles |first2=Malcolm |last2=Brown |name-list-style=amp|title=Racism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5xNQr0uiXUC |year=2003 |location=London, New York |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |pages=197 |isbn=9780415296779}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Cashmore |editor-first=Ellis |last=Poole |first=E. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies |article=Islamophobia |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-415-44714-0 |pages=215–19 |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Charlotte |last2=Soydan |first2=Haluk |last3=Johnson |first3=Mark |name-list-style=amp|title=Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtpvwCFGN0QC |location=London, New York |year=1998 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=273 |isbn=978-0-415-16962-2}}
 
'''Further reading'''
*  Ali, Wajahat; Clifton, Eli; Duss, Matthew; Fang, Lee; Keyes, Scott; and Shakir, Faiz (August 26, 2011) "[https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/religion/report/2011/08/26/10165/fear-inc/ Fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America]". ''[[American Progress]]''. Accessed 24 February 2015.
* [[Chris Allen (academic)|Allen, Chris]] (2011). ''Islamophobia''. Ashgate Publishing Company.
* {{Cite book|last=Abbas|first= Tahir|title=Muslim Britain: Communities Under Pressure|year=2005|publisher=Zed|isbn=978-1-84277-449-6}}
* Duss, Matthew; Taeb; Yasmine; Gude, Ken; and Sofer, Ken (February 11, 2015) "[https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/religion/report/2015/02/11/106394/fear-inc-2-0/ Fear, Inc. 2.0: The Islamophobia Network's Efforts to Manufacture Hate in America]". ''[[American Progress]]''.  Accessed 24 February 2015.
* {{Cite book|last=Gottschalk|first=P.|author2=Greenberg, G. |title=Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy|url=https://archive.org/details/islamophobiamaki0000gott|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield publishers |location=Lanham |isbn=978-0-7425-5286-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Greaves|first=R.|title=Islam and the West Post 9/11|year=2004|publisher=Ashgate publishing Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-5005-8}}
* Itaoui, Rhonda (2016). "The Geography of Islamophobia in Sydney: mapping the spatial imaginaries of young Muslims", in ''[[Australian Geographer]]''. Vol 47:3, 261–79.
* Kaplan, Jeffrey (2006). "[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781317369882/chapters/10.4324%2F9781315671352-19 Islamophobia in America?: September 11 and Islamophobic Hate Crime]", ''Terrorism and Political Violence'' (Routledge), '''18''':1, 1–33.
* Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2004). ''The Miseducation of the West: How the Schools and Media Distort Our Understanding of Islam''. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. (Arabic Edition, 2005).
* Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2010). ''Teaching Against Islamophobia''. New York: Peter Lang.
* Konrad, Felix (2011). [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011020147 ''From the "Turkish Menace" to Exoticism and Orientalism: Islam as Antithesis of Europe (1453–1914)?''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]]. Retrieved: 22 June 2011.
* Kundnani, Arun. (2014) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JsNNBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Muslims Are Coming! Islamaphobia, Extremism, and the Domestic War on Terror]'' (Verso; 2014) 327 pages
* Lajevardi, N. (2020). Outsiders at Home: The Politics of American Islamophobia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* {{cite journal |last1=Pynting |first1=Scott|last2=Mason|first2=Victoria|name-list-style=amp|year=2007|title=''The Resistible Rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim Racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001". ''Journal of Sociology |url=http://www.islamiccouncilwa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/poynting2007a-2.pdf |journal=The Australian Sociological Association |volume=43 |issue=1|pages=61–86|doi=10.1177/1440783307073935|s2cid=145065236}}
* {{Cite book|last=Quraishi|first=M.|title=Muslims and Crime: A Comparative Study |year=2005 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=978-0-7546-4233-6}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ramadan |first=T.|title=Western Muslims and the Future of Islam |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-517111-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Richardson|first=John E.|title=(Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|year=2004|isbn=978-90-272-2699-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WanqiF2XULsC}}
* [[Stephen Sheehi|Sheehi, Stephen]] (2011). ''Islamophobia: The Ideological Campaign Against Muslims''. Clarity Press.
* Shryock, Andrew, ed. (2010). ''[[Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend]]''. [[Indiana University Press]]. p.&nbsp;250. Essays on Islamophobia past and present; topics include the "neo-Orientalism" of three Muslim commentators today: Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Reza Aslan, and Irshad Manji.
* Silva, Derek (2017). "[https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/xd3g9/download?format=pdf The Othering of Muslims: Discourses of Radicalization in the New York Times, 1969-2014]", ''Sociological Forum'', '''32''':1, 138–161.
* Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian; Kastrun, Tomaz; and Mueller, Karl (2007). ''Against Islamophobia: Muslim Communities, Social-Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe''. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-60021-535-3}}.
* Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian and Mueller, Karl (2008). ''Muslim Calvinism: Internal Security and the Lisbon Process in Europe.'' Purdue University Press. {{ISBN|978-905170995-7}}.
* Tausch, Arno (2007). ''Against Islamophobia: Quantitative Analyses of Global Terrorism, World Political Cycles and Center Periphery Structures''. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-60021-536-0}}.
* {{Cite book|last=van Driel|first=B.|title=Confronting Islamophobia In Educational Practice|year=2004|publisher=Trentham Books|isbn=978-1-85856-340-4}}
 
==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111105101311/http://crg.berkeley.edu/content/islamophobia/islamophobia-studies-journal ''Islamophobia Studies Journal''] – Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project, UC Berkeley
* [http://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/reports/2015-reports/ ''Reports – European Islamophobia''] – European Islamophobia Reports EIR
* [http://www.islamophobiatoday.com/ ''Islamophobia Today'' newspaper] – an Islamophobia news clearing house
* [https://www.academia.edu/24419416/UNDERSTANDING_and_COUNTERING_ISLAMOPHOBIA Sammy Aziz Rahmatti, ''Understanding and Countering Islamophobia'']
 
{{Islam topics |collapsed}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{Religious persecution}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Islamophobia| ]]
[[Category:Islamophobia| ]]
[[Category:Political neologisms]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Xenophobia]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Racism]]

Latest revision as of 20:28, 9 October 2022

A demonstration in Cologne against Islamophobia and right-wing nationalism in Germany.
An islamophobic billboard saying that Islamic Law (Sharia) threatens America.

Islamophobia is the dislike, fear, pre-judgment, hostility or hate[1][2] against Muslims (people following the religion Islam) or the religion itself.

Sometimes people use it to attack the ideological positions taken by Muslims, but more often than not they state the religion itself as the actual problem.

Muslim women are more likely to experience islamophobia in their lifetime compared to Muslim men, especially if they are wearing some kind of face veil.[3]

Examples of islamophobia in the world[edit]

During the Bosnian War in the 1990s, Serbian Orthodox Christians committed a genocide against Bosniak Muslims, with a strong motive of islamophobia.[4]

In France, since 2013, it is illegal for Muslim women to wear veils (burqas and niqabs) that cover their faces publicly.[5]

Related pages[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ "Dictionary — Islamophobia".
  2. ↑ "Oxford Dictionary — Islamophobia". Archived from the original on 2019-05-19. Retrieved 2022-01-24.
  3. ↑ Siddique, Haroon (20 November 2013). "Muslim Women more likely to suffer Islamophobic attacks than men - study" – via www.theguardian.com.
  4. ↑ "ICTY — Summary" (PDF).
  5. ↑ Lentze, Georg (2 April 2013). "Islamic headscarf debate rekindled in France". BBC News.
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