|
|
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{short description|Education in the country of India}}
| | Elementary education is provided by the [[Government of India|government]] for [[children]] ages 6-14. After 14, families are required to pay for their children’s private school. Because of India’s massive [[population]], high-paying jobs are very competitive and leave many unemployed. |
| {{Redirect|Indian education|other uses|Indian school (disambiguation){{!}}Indian school}}
| |
| {{Lead too long|date=April 2022}}
| |
| {{Use Indian English|date=March 2021}}
| |
| {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
| |
| {{Infobox education in country
| |
| |country name = Republic of India
| |
| |agency image =Jagseer S Sidhu teaching school students about Wikipedia.jpg
| |
| |agency = [[Ministry of Education (India)|Ministry of Education]]
| |
| |leader titles = [[Minister of Education (India)|Minister of Education]]
| |
| |leader names = [[Dharmendra Pradhan]]
| |
| |budget = 4.6% of GDP ($ 138 billion)<ref>{{cite web |title=India |publisher=OECD |url=http://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/EAGCountryNotes/IND.pdf |access-date=10 July 2020 |archive-date=20 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820190256/https://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/EAGCountryNotes/IND.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| |
| |system type = Federal, state and private
| |
| |primary languages = [[Languages of India|Indian languages]], [[English language|English]]
| |
| |established events = Established<br />Compulsory education
| |
| |established dates = 1 April 2010
| |
| |literacy year = 2011<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Vinay |title=Census 2011: population pegged at 1,210.2 million |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Census-2011-population-pegged-at-1210.2-million/article14665518.ece |access-date=9 April 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=31 March 2011 |language=en-IN}}</ref>
| |
| |literacy total = 77.7%<ref>{{cite web|title=India Literacy Rate|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/india_statistics.html|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=10 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| |literacy men = 84.6%
| |
| |literacy women = 70.3%
| |
| |enroll total = (N/A)
| |
| |enroll primary = 95%<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Educational Statistics At a Glance – Government of India |url=https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/ESG2016.pdf |website=education.gov.in |access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref>
| |
| |enroll secondary = 69%<ref name="auto"/>
| |
| |enroll post-secondary = 25%<ref name="auto"/>
| |
| |enrollment year = 2011<ref name=wdi_enroll/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2011/09/20/education-in-india|title=Education in India|website=World Bank|access-date=9 April 2021}}</ref>
| |
| |attain secondary =
| |
| |attain post-secondary =
| |
| |attainment year =
| |
| }}
| |
| '''Education in India''' is primarily managed by state-run [[public education]] system, which fall under the command of the government at three levels: [[Government of India|Central]], [[States and Territories of India|state]] and [[Local government in India|local]]. Under various articles of the [[Indian Constitution]] and the [[Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009]], free and compulsory education is provided as a [[Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Fundamental Rights|fundamental right]] to [[Children and adolescents in India|children]] aged 6 to 14. The approximate ratio of public schools to private schools in India is 7:5.
| |
|
| |
|
| == The Education System ==
| | [[Category:Education in India]] |
| Up until 1976, education policies and implementation were determined legally by each of India's constitutional states. The 42nd amendment to the constitution in 1976 made education a 'concurrent subject'. From this point on the central and state governments shared formal responsibility for funding and administration of education. In a country as large as India, now with 28 states and eight union territories, this means that the potential for variations between states in the policies, plans, programs and initiatives for elementary education is vast. Periodically, national policy frameworks are created to guide states in their creation of state-level programs and policies. State governments and local government bodies manage the majority of primary and upper primary schools and the number of government-managed elementary schools is growing. Simultaneously the number and proportion managed by private bodies is growing. In 2005-6 83.13% of schools offering elementary education (Grades 1-8) were managed by government and 16.86% of schools were under private management (excluding children in unrecognised schools, schools established under the Education Guarantee Scheme and in alternative learning centers). Of those schools managed privately, one third are 'aided' and two thirds are 'unaided'. Enrolment in Grades 1-8 is shared between government and privately managed schools in the ratio 73:27. However in rural areas this ratio is higher (80:20) and in urban areas much lower (36:66).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Little|first1=Angela W.|last2=Lewin|first2=Keith M.|date=11 July 2011|title=The policies, politics and progress of access to basic education|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2011.555004|journal=Journal of Education Policy |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=477–482 |doi=10.1080/02680939.2011.555004 |s2cid=145170025|issn=0268-0939}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In the 2011 Census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for males and 65% for females. [[National Statistical Commission]] surveyed literacy to be 77.7% in 2017–18, 84.7% for male and 70.3% for female.{{sfn|NSO|2018|pp=43}} This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%.<ref>Rajni Pathania, "Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality." ''Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology'' 17.1 (2020) [http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf online].</ref> India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its [[economic development in India|economic development]].<ref name=Sify>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141021130146/http://www.sify.com/finance/fullstory.php?id=14757040 India achieves 27% decline in poverty], ''Press Trust of India'' via ''Sify.com'', 12 September 2008</ref> Much of the progress, especially in [[#Higher education|higher education]] and scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions. While enrolment in [[tertiary education|higher education]] has increased steadily over the past decade, reaching a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 26.3% in 2019,<ref name="Government of India">{{cite web|url=http://aishe.nic.in/aishe/viewDocument.action?documentId=262|title=All India Survey on Higher Education 2018-19|publisher=[[Department of Higher Education (India)]]|access-date=17 January 2021|archive-date=11 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111144052/http://aishe.nic.in/aishe/viewDocument.action?documentId=262|url-status=dead}}</ref> there still remains a significant distance to catch up with [[tertiary education]] enrolment levels of developed nations,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.university-analytics.net/#!global-education/vphur|title=Global Education|publisher=University Analytics|access-date=10 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208142313/http://www.university-analytics.net/#!global-education/vphur|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> a challenge that will be necessary to overcome in order to continue to reap a [[demographic dividend]] from India's comparatively young population.
| |
| | |
| Poorly resourced public schools which suffer from high rates of teacher absenteeism may have encouraged the rapid growth of private (unaided) schooling in India, particularly in urban areas. Private schools divide into two types: recognised and unrecognised schools. Government 'recognition' is an official stamp of approval and for this a private school is required to fulfil a number of conditions, though hardly any private schools that get 'recognition' actually fulfil all the conditions of recognition. The emergence of large numbers of unrecognised primary schools suggests that schools and parents do not take government recognition as a stamp of quality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kingdon|first=G. G.|date=1 June 2007|title=The progress of school education in India|journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy|language=en|volume=23|issue=2|pages=168–195|doi=10.1093/oxrep/grm015|issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| At the primary and [[#Secondary education|secondary]] level, India has a large [[Public school (India)|private school system]] complementing the government run schools, with 29% of students receiving private education in the 6 to 14 age group.<ref name="pvt_enroll">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/education/school/over-a-quarter-of-enrolments-in-rural-india-are-in-private-schools/article5580441.ece|title=Over a quarter of enrollments in rural India are in private schools|work=The Hindu|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref> Certain post-secondary [[#Technical education|technical schools]] are also private. The private education market in India had a revenue of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected to be a US$40 billion market.<ref name=educationmarket>{{cite web |url=http://www.everonn.com/images/CLSA140308.pdf |title=Indian education: Sector outlook |access-date=23 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924004312/http://www.everonn.com/images/CLSA140308.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children between the ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to report enrolment above 96%. India has maintained an average enrolment ratio of 95% for students in this age group from year 2007 to 2014. As an outcome the number of students in the age group 6-14 who are not enrolled in school has come down to 2.8% in the academic year 2018 (ASER 2018).<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://img.asercentre.org/docs/ASER%202018/Release%20Material/aserreport2018.pdf|title=ASER-2018 RURAL, Annual Status of Education Report (Rural)|publisher=ASER Centre|year=2019|isbn=9789385203015|location=India|pages=47}}</ref> Another report from 2013 stated that there were 229 million students enrolled in different accredited urban and rural schools of India, from Class I to XII, representing an increase of 2.3 million students over 2002 total enrolment, and a 19% increase in girl's enrolment.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/Enrolment-in-schools-rises-14-to-23-crore/articleshow/18123554.cms Enrollment in schools rises 14% to 23 crore] The Times of India (22 January 2013)</ref> While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education, the quality of its education has been questioned particularly in its government run school system. While more than 95 per cent of children attend primary school, just 40 per cent of Indian adolescents attend secondary school (Grades 9-12).
| |
| Since 2000, the World Bank has committed over $2 billion to education in India. Some of the reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25% of teachers every day.<ref>Sharath Jeevan & James Townsend, [http://www.ssireview.org/blog/entry/teachers_are_a_solution_to_education_reform_in_india Teachers: A Solution to Education Reform in India] Stanford Social Innovation Review (17 July 2013)</ref> States of India have introduced tests and education assessment system to identify and improve such schools.<ref>{{cite web|author=B.P. Khandelwal |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001398/139804e.pdf |title=Examinations and test systems at school level in India |work=UNESCO |pages=100–114}}</ref> The Human Rights Measurement Initiative<ref>{{Cite web|title=Human Rights Measurement Initiative – The first global initiative to track the human rights performance of countries|url=https://humanrightsmeasurement.org/|access-date=24 February 2022|website=humanrightsmeasurement.org}}</ref> finds that India is achieving only 79.0% of what should be possible at its level of income for the right to education.<ref>{{Cite web|title=India - HRMI Rights Tracker|url=https://rightstracker.org/|access-date=24 February 2022|website=rightstracker.org|language=en}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Although there are private schools in India, they are highly regulated in terms of what they can teach, in what form they can operate (must be a non-profit to run any accredited educational institution) and all the other aspects of the operation. Hence, the differentiation between government schools and private schools can be misleading.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://laxmi.edu.in/|title=Indian Education System: What needs to change?|author=Ramanuj Mukherjee|work=Unlawyered}}</ref> However, in a report by Geeta Gandhi Kingdon entitled: The emptying of public Schools and growth of private schools in India, it is said that For sensible education policy making, it is vital to take account of the changing trends in the size of the private and public schooling sectors in India. Ignoring these trends involves the risk of poor policies/legislation, with attendant adverse consequences for children's life chances.
| |
| | |
| In January 2019, India had over 900 universities and 40,000 colleges.<ref name=highered1>{{cite news |title=HRD to increase nearly 25 pc seats in varsities to implement 10 pc quota for poor in gen category |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/hrd-to-increase-nearly-25-pc-seats-in-varsities-to-implement-10-pc-quota-for-poor-in-gen-category/articleshow/67545006.cms |access-date=9 April 2021 |work=The Economic Times |date=15 January 2019}}</ref> In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under [[Reservation in India|affirmative action]] policies for the historically disadvantaged [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] and [[Other Backward Classes]]. In universities, colleges, and similar institutions affiliated to the central government, there is a maximum 50% of reservations applicable to these disadvantaged groups, at the state level it can vary. [[Reservation in India#Reservations in Maharashtra|Maharashtra]] had 73% reservation in 2014, which is the highest percentage of reservations in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/maharashtra-scraps-muslim-quota/article6962326.ece |title=Maharashtra scraps Muslim quota|author=Omar Rashid|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=14 June 2015|date=5 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Why supreme court is right in denying unethical pleasure to Maharashtra govt -Governance Now | website=Governance Now | date=18 December 2014 | url=http://www.governancenow.com/news/regular-story/why-supreme-court-right-denying-unethical-pleasure-maharashtra-govt |access-date=3 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Jobs, education quota for Marathas, Muslims cleared">{{cite news|title=Jobs, education quota for Marathas, Muslims cleared|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/headline-maharashtra-cabinet-clears-16-quota-for-maratha-5-to-muslim-in-jobs-education-114062501069_1.html|access-date=26 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra govt clears reservation for Marathas, Muslims">{{cite news|title=Maharashtra govt clears reservation for Marathas, Muslims|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/1RomndWQy1wh8iH0dsBMiI/Maharashtra-govt-approves-proposal-to-give-reservation-to-Ma.html|access-date=26 June 2014}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==History==
| |
| {{main|History of education in India}}
| |
| [[File:A statue of Sushruta at RACS, Melbourne.jpg|thumb|A statue of [[Sushruta]] (800 BCE), author of [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the founding father of [[History of surgery#India|surgery]], at [[Royal Australasian College of Surgeons]] (RACS) in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].]]
| |
| [[File:Nalanda Univercity.JPG|220x220px|thumb|The remnants of the library of [[Nalanda]], built in the 5th century BCE by [[Gupta Empire|Gupta kings]]. It was rebuilt twice after invasion, first after an invasion from the [[Huns]] in the 5th century BCE and then after an invasion from the [[Gauda Kingdom|Gaudas]] in the 7th century CE but abandoned after the third invasion by [[Bakhtiyar Khilji#Conquests|Turkic invaders]] in the 12th century.]]
| |
| | |
| Early education in India commenced under the supervision of a ''[[guru]]'' or ''prabhu''.<ref>Prabhu, Joseph (2006), "Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'' edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 23–28, Thomson Gale, {{ISBN|0-684-31351-0}}</ref> The education was delivered through [[Gurukula]]. The relationship between Guru and Shishya was very important part of the education.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Joshi|first1=Ankur|last2=Gupta|first2=Rajen K.|date=2017|title=Elementary education in Bharat (that is India): insights from a postcolonial ethnographic study of a Gurukul|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijicbm.2017.10006295|journal=International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management|volume=15|issue=1|pages=100|doi=10.1504/ijicbm.2017.10006295|issn=1753-0806}}</ref> [[Takshasila]] (in modern-day Pakistan) was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from possibly 8th century BCE, and it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not in modern sense, since teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in a Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India. [[Nalanda]] was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university. There all subjects were taught in Ariano -[[Pali|Páli language]].<ref name="New York Times">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/opinion/09garten.html|title=Really Old School|last=Garten|first=Jeffrey E.|author-link=Jeffrey Garten|date=9 December 2006|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Secular institutions cropped up along Buddhist monasteries. These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE. The important urban centers of learning were [[Nalanda]] (in modern-day [[Bihar]]) and [[Manassa]] in Nagpur, among others. These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as [[Buddhist Páli literature]], logic, [[páli grammar]], etc. [[Chanakya]], a Brahmin teacher, was among the most famous teachers, associated with founding of [[Mauryan Empire]].
| |
| | |
| Sammanas and [[Brahmin|Brahmin gurus]] historically offered education by means of donations, rather than charging fees or the procurement of funds from students or their guardians. Later, stupas, temples also became centers of education; religious education was compulsory, but secular subjects were also taught. Students were required to be brahmacaris or celibates. The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform. The priest class, the ''[[Sammana]]s'', were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, the ''[[Kshatriya]]'', were trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business class, the ''[[Vaishya]]'', were taught their trade and the working class of the ''[[Shudra]]s'' was generally deprived of educational advantages.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sharma |first1=Amit |title=Department of School Education & Literacy in India - MHRD |url=https://www.wiki.meramaal.com/2018/08/17/department-of-school-education/ |website=Meramaal Wiki |access-date=2 August 2019 |date=17 August 2018}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| With the advent of [[Islam]] in India the traditional methods of education increasingly came under Islamic influence.<ref name="Sen 1988_22">Sen (1988), 22</ref> Pre-Mughal rulers such as [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]] and other Muslim rulers initiated institutions which imparted religious knowledge.<ref name="Sen 1988_22" /> Scholars such as [[Nizamuddin Auliya]] and [[Moinuddin Chishti]] became prominent educators and established Islamic monasteries.<ref name="Sen 1988_22" /> Students from [[Bukhara]] and [[Afghanistan]] visited India to study humanities and science.<ref name="Sen 1988_22" /> Islamic institution of education in India included traditional ''[[madrassas]]'' and ''[[Maktab (education)|maktabs]]'' which taught grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and law influenced by the [[Greeks|Greek]] traditions inherited by [[Persia]] and the [[Middle East]] before Islam spread from these regions into India.<ref name="Kumar03-678">Kumar (2003), 678</ref> A feature of this traditional Islamic education was its emphasis on the connection between science and humanities.<ref name="Kumar03-678" />
| |
| | |
| British rule and the subsequent establishment of educational institutions saw the introduction of [[English language|English]] as a medium of instruction. Some schools taught the curriculum through vernacular languages with English as a second language. The term "pre-modern" was used for three kinds of schools – the Arabic and Sanskrit schools which taught Muslim or Hindu sacred literature and the Persian schools which taught Persian literature. The vernacular schools across India taught reading and writing the vernacular language and arithmetic.<ref>Parimala V. Rao, "Modern education and the revolt of 1857 in India." ''Paedagogica Historica'' 52.1-2 (2016): 25-42. [https://www.academia.edu/download/57588770/Modern_education_and_the_revolt_of_1857_in_India.pdf online]</ref> British education became solidified into India as missionary schools were established during the 1820s.<ref name="Blackwell92">Blackwell, 92</ref><!-- [9] [10] [11] -where?-->
| |
| | |
| == Educational stages ==
| |
| The new [[National Education Policy 2020]] (NEP 2020) introduced by the central government is expected to bring profound changes to education in India.
| |
| The policy approved by the [[Second Modi ministry|Cabinet of India]] on 29 July 2020, outlines the vision of India's new education system.<ref name="HTHighlights29July" /> The new policy replaces the 1986 [[National Policy on Education#1986|National Policy on Education]]. The policy is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher education as well as vocational training in both rural and urban India. The policy aims to transform India's education system by 2021.<ref name=":0" />
| |
| | |
| The National Education Policy 2020 has 'emphasised' on the use of mother tongue or local language as the medium of instruction till Class 5 while, recommending its continuance till Class 8 and beyond.<ref>{{Cite web|date=29 July 2020|title=National Education Policy 2020: Cabinet approves new national education policy: Key points |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cabinet-approves-new-national-education-policy-key-points/articleshow/77241129.cms|access-date=15 August 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>It also states that no language will be imposed on the students.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Teaching In Mother Tongue Till Class 5: 10 Points On New National Education Policy|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/national-education-policy-nep-2020-mother-tongue-till-class-5-10-points-on-national-education-policy-2020-2270926|access-date=15 August 2021|website=NDTV.com}}</ref>The language policy in NEP is a broad ''guideline'' and ''advisory'' in nature; and it is up to the states, institutions, and schools to decide on the implementation.<ref name=":1" /> Education in India is a [[Concurrent List]] subject.<ref name=":2" />
| |
| | |
| NEP 2020 outlines the vision of India's [[#Levels of schooling|'''School education''']] system. The new policy replaces the previous [[National Policy on Education#1986|National Policy on Education, 1986]]. The policy is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher education as well as vocational training in both rural and urban India. The policy aims to transform India's education system by 2021. As per NEP2020, the "[[10+2|10 + 2]]" structure is replaced with "[[5+3+3+4]]" model.<ref name="NDTVHighlights">{{cite web|date=29 July 2020|editor-last=Srinivasan|editor-first=Chandrashekar|title=National Education Policy, NEP 2020: Teaching in Mother Tongue Till Class 5: 10 Points On New Education Policy|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/national-education-policy-nep-2020-mother-tongue-till-class-5-10-points-on-national-education-policy-2020-2270926|access-date=29 July 2020|publisher=NDTV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kumar|first=Shuchita|date=31 July 2020|title=New education policy: The shift from 10+2 to 5+3+3+4 system|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/economy/article/new-education-policy-the-shift-from-102-to-5334-system/629902|access-date=9 August 2020|website=Times Now}}</ref><ref name="TN_Jul2020">{{cite news|last1=Kumar|first1=Shuchita|date=31 July 2020|title=New education policy: The shift from 10+2 to 5+3+3+4 system|language=en|work=Times Now|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/economy/article/new-education-policy-the-shift-from-102-to-5334-system/629902|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref> [[5+3+3+4]] refers to 5 foundational years, whether in an ''[[anganwadi]]'', pre-school or ''balvatika''. This is followed by 3 years of preparatory learning from classes 3 to 5. This is followed by a middle stage that is of 3 years in length and finally a 4 year secondary stage till class 12 or 18 years of age.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Khurana|first=Kanika|date=30 July 2020|title=New National Education Policy 2020: Explained - the breakdown of 10+2 to 5+3+3+4 system of school education|work=Times Now|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/education/article/new-national-education-policy-2020-explained-the-breakdown-of-102-to-5334-system-of-school-education/629290|access-date=30 July 2020}}</ref> This model will be implemented as follows:<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kulkarni|first=Sagar|date=29 July 2020|title=New policy offers 5-3-3-4 model of school education|work=Deccan Herald|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/new-policy-offers-5-3-3-4-model-of-school-education-867234.html|access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="TN_Jul2020" />
| |
| | |
| Instead of [[exams]] being held every academic year, school students attend three exams, in classes 2, 5 and 8. Board exams are held for classes 10 and 12. Standards for Board exams is established by an assessment body, ''PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development).'' To make them easier, these exams would be conducted twice a year, with students being offered up to two attempts. The exam itself would have two parts, namely the objective and the descriptive.
| |
| | |
| '''NEP's [[Higher education in India|higher education]] policy''' proposes a 4-year multi-disciplinary bachelor's degree in an undergraduate programme with multiple exit options. These will include professional and vocational areas and will be implemented<ref>{{Cite web|title=Free Entry- Exit Options Introduced For Students in NEP 2020|url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/nep-2020-multiple-exit-options-in-undergraduate-programmes-re-entry-eased-academic-bank-of-credit|access-date=21 September 2020|website=NDTV.com|language=en}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| * A certificate after completing 1 year of study (vocational)
| |
| * A diploma after completing 2 years of study (vocational)
| |
| * A Bachelor's degree after completion of a 3-year program (professional)
| |
| * A 4-year multidisciplinary Bachelor's degree (the preferred option) (professional)
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:auto;text-align:center; align:right"
| |
| ! colspan="2" |Category
| |
| !Grade
| |
| !Ages
| |
| !Comments
| |
| |-
| |
| ! colspan="5" style="text-align:left;" |[[#Levels of schooling|Compulsory education (India)]]
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="4" |Foundational Stage
| |
| | rowspan="2" |[[Preschool education|Preschool]] (Urban) / [[Anganwadi]] (Rural)
| |
| |[[Pre-kindergarten]]
| |
| |3-4
| |
| | rowspan="4" |This will cover children of ages 3–8 years.
| |
| The focus of studies will be in activity-based learning.
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Kindergarten]]
| |
| |4-6
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="5" |[[Primary school|Primary School]]
| |
| |[[1st grade]]
| |
| |6-7<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-28 |title=KV admissions: Supreme Court upholds 6 years minimum age criteria for Class 1 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/education/supreme-court-upholds-6-year-minimum-age-criteria-for-kv-class-1-admissions-7889387/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[2nd grade]]
| |
| |7-8
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="3" |Preparatory Stage
| |
| |[[3rd grade]]
| |
| |8-9
| |
| | rowspan="3" |It will gradually introduce subjects like speaking, reading, writing, physical education, languages, art, science and mathematics.
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[4th grade]]
| |
| |9-10
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[5th grade]]
| |
| |10-11
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="3" style="border-top:0 solid gray;" |Middle Stage
| |
| | rowspan="3" |[[Middle school|Middle School]]
| |
| |[[6th grade]]
| |
| |11-12
| |
| | rowspan="3" |It will introduce students to the more abstract concepts in subjects of mathematics, sciences, social sciences, arts and humanities.
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[7th grade]]
| |
| |12-13
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[8th grade]]
| |
| |13-14
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="4" |Secondary Stage
| |
| | rowspan="2" |[[Secondary education|Junior High]]
| |
| [[Secondary education in the United States|school]]
| |
| |[[9th grade]]
| |
| |14-15
| |
| | rowspan="4" |These 4 years of study are intended to inculcate multidisciplinary study, coupled with depth and critical thinking. Multiple options of subjects will be provided.
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[10th grade]]
| |
| |15-16
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" |[[Secondary school|Senior High school]]
| |
| |[[11th grade]]
| |
| |16-17
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[12th grade]]
| |
| |17-18
| |
| |-
| |
| ! colspan="5" style="text-align:left;" |[[Higher education in India|Higher education(India)]]
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="9" |[[College]]([[University]])
| |
| | rowspan="5" |[[Undergraduate education|Undergraduate school]]
| |
| |First year
| |
| |18-19
| |
| |1-year [[Vocational education in India|Vocational Certificate]]
| |
| |-
| |
| |Second year
| |
| |19-20
| |
| |2-years [[Vocational education in India|Vocational Diploma]]
| |
| |-
| |
| |Third year
| |
| |20-21
| |
| |3-years Bachelor's degree (Optional and limited)
| |
| |-
| |
| |Fourth year
| |
| |21-22
| |
| |4-years multidisciplinary Bachelor's degree (Preferred)
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| |Fifth year
| |
| |22-23
| |
| |5-years [[MBBS]], a bachelor degree in medicine.
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="3" |[[Postgraduate school|Graduate school]]
| |
| |First year
| |
| |21+
| |
| | rowspan="3" |(with various degrees and curricular partitions thereof)
| |
| |-
| |
| |Second year
| |
| |22+
| |
| |-
| |
| |Third year
| |
| |23+
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Doctorate]]
| |
| |
| |
| |24+
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| ! colspan="5" |[[Research]]
| |
| |-
| |
| |
| |
| |[[Postdoctoral researcher|Postdoctoral]]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| ! colspan="5" style="text-align:left;" |[[Continuing education]]
| |
| |-
| |
| | colspan="3" |[[Vocational education in India|Vocational school]]
| |
| | rowspan="2" |18 and up
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | colspan="3" |[[Adult education]]
| |
| |
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| == School education ==
| |
| {{see also | List of schools in India |l1 = List of schools}}
| |
| The central board and most of the state boards uniformly follow the "[[10+2]]" pattern of education.<ref name="ncert policy">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncert.nic.in/oth_anoun/npe86.pdf|title=National Policy on Education (with modifications undertaken in 1992)|publisher=National Council of Educational Research and Training|access-date=10 December 2012}}</ref>{{rp|3}} In this pattern, study of 10 years is done in schools and 2 years in Junior colleges (Mumbai, Maharashtra),<ref name="ncert policy"/>{{rp|44}} and then 3 years of study for a bachelor's degree for college.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/10-2-3-scheme-seeks-to-divide-schooling-into-two-stages-of-education/1/203052.html|title=10+2+3: A Game of Numbers?|last=Vyas|first=Neena|work=India Today|access-date=10 December 2012|date=30 June 2012}}</ref> The first 10 years is further subdivided into 4 years of primary education, 6 years of High School followed by 2 years of Junior colleges.<ref name="ncert policy"/>{{rp|5}} This pattern originated from the recommendation of the Education Commission of 1964–66.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/1977-10+2+3+system+of+education:+The+new+class+structure/1/76361.html|title=1977-10+2+3 system of education: The new class structure
| |
| |last=Bamzai|first=Kaveree|work=India Today|access-date=10 December 2012|date=24 December 2009}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| There are two types of educational institutions in India, 1) Recognized institutions – primary school, secondary school, special schools, intermediate schools, colleges and universities who follow courses as prescribed by D.P.I. , universities or boards and they are also open for inspection by these authorities , 2) Unrecognized Institutions, which do not follow conditions as said in the recognised ones.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Estudo químico e avaliação do potencial biológico das folhas de Cassia bakeriana Craib|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.14393/ufu.di|publisher=EDUFU - Editora da Universidade Federal de Uberlandia|first=Tiara da Costa|last=Silva| year=2019 |doi=10.14393/ufu.di}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| === Adult and youth literacy rates ===
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Adult literacy rates<ref>{{Cite journal|date=7 July 2020|title=Annex|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/95f6f839-en|journal=Global Education Monitoring Report 2020|series=Global Education Monitoring Report|doi=10.18356/95f6f839-en|isbn=9789210051941|s2cid=241847053|issn=2618-0693}}</ref>
| |
| ! rowspan="2" |Country
| |
| ! colspan="2" |15+ years old
| |
| ! colspan="2" |15–24 years
| |
| |-
| |
| !Male
| |
| !Female
| |
| !Male
| |
| !Female
| |
| |-
| |
| |Bangladesh
| |
| |51.7
| |
| |33.1
| |
| |59.4
| |
| |43.1
| |
| |-
| |
| |Pakistan
| |
| |63.0
| |
| |36.0
| |
| |75.8
| |
| |54.7
| |
| |-
| |
| |Sri Lanka
| |
| |92.3
| |
| |89.1
| |
| |95.1
| |
| |96.1
| |
| |-
| |
| |India
| |
| |73.4
| |
| |47.8
| |
| |84.2
| |
| |67.7
| |
| |-
| |
| |China
| |
| |95.1
| |
| |86.5
| |
| |99.2
| |
| |98.5
| |
| |-
| |
| |Brazil
| |
| |88.4
| |
| |88.8
| |
| |95.8
| |
| |97.9
| |
| |-
| |
| |Russian Federation
| |
| |99.7
| |
| |99.2
| |
| |99.7
| |
| |99.8
| |
| |-
| |
| |World
| |
| |87.2
| |
| |77.3
| |
| |90.5
| |
| |84.1
| |
| |-
| |
| |Developing countries
| |
| |83.5
| |
| |70.1
| |
| |88.6
| |
| |80.9
| |
| |-
| |
| |Sub-Saharan Africa
| |
| |69.5
| |
| |53.5
| |
| |77.8
| |
| |68.3
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Administration===
| |
| ====Policy====
| |
| [[File:Mizo school girls of Hnahthial.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|School children of Nuchhungi English Medium School Hnahthial, [[Mizoram]]]]
| |
| Education policy is prepared by the Central Government and State Governments at national and state levels respectively. [[National Policy on Education|The National Policy on Education (NPE)]], 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as [[Yoga]] into the Indian secondary school system.<ref name="I09RA-231">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 231</ref> A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021|reason=Your explanation here}} Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.<ref name="Blackwell94-95">Blackwell, 94–95</ref> A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the [[Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan]].<ref>[http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/Framework_Final_RMSA.pdf Microsoft Word – Framework_Final_RMSA.doc]. (PDF). Retrieved on 21 March 2011. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007135544/http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/Framework_Final_RMSA.pdf |date=7 October 2009 }}</ref> Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) which is the most recent initiative of Government of India to achieve the goal of universalisation of secondary education (USE). It is aimed at expanding and improving the standards of secondary education up to class X.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Das|first1=Premendra|last2=Deb|first2=Prasenjit|date=15 May 2016|title=Differences in Perception among Teachers about Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan in West Bengal|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21744/irjmis.v3i3.97|journal=International Research Journal of Management, IT & Social Sciences|volume=3|issue=3|doi=10.21744/irjmis.v3i3.97|issn=2395-7492}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Curriculum and school education boards====
| |
| | |
| [[National Skill Development Agency]] (NSDA)'s [[National Skill Development Agency#NSQF|National Skills Qualification Framework]] (NSQF), is a quality assurance framework which grades and recognises levels of skill based on the [[Outcome-based education|learning outcomes]] acquired through both formal or informal means.<ref name=nsda1>[https://www.nsda.gov.in/nsqf.html National Skills Qualification Framework of NSDA], [[National Skill Development Agency|NSDA]], accessed 8 July 2021.</ref><ref name=nsda2>[https://www.nsda.gov.in/assets/documents/nsqf/NSQF%20Gazette%20Notification.pdf NSQF notification], [[The Gazette of India]], accessed 8 July 2021.</ref>
| |
| | |
| School boards set the curriculum, conduct board level exams mostly at 10th and 12th level to award the school diplomas. Exams at the remaining levels (also called standard, grade or class, denoting the years of schooling) are conducted by the schools.
| |
| * [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] (NCERT): The NCERT is the apex body located at New Delhi, Capital City of India. It makes the curriculum related matters for school education across India.<ref name="I09RA-233">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 233</ref> The NCERT provides support, guidance and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.<ref name="I09RA-230-234">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 230–234</ref> There are other curriculum bodies governing school education system specially at state level.
| |
| * State government boards of education: Most of the state governments have at least one "State board of secondary school education". However, some states like Andhra Pradesh have more than one. Also the union territories do not have a board. Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, and Lakshadweep and Puducherry Lakshadweep share the services with a larger state. The boards set curriculum from Grades 1 to 12 and the curriculum varies from state to state and has more local appeal with examinations conducted in regional languages in addition to English - often considered less rigorous than central curriculums such as CBSE or ICSE/ISC. Most of these conduct exams at 10th and 12th level, but some even at the 5th, 6th and 8th level.
| |
| * [[Central Board of Secondary Education]] (CBSE): The CBSE sets curriculum from Grades 1 to 12 and conducts examinations at the 10th and 12th standards that are called board exams. Students studying the CBSE Curriculum take the All India Secondary School Examination (AISSE) at the end of grade 10 and All India Senior School Certificate Examination (AISSCE) at the end of grade 12. Examinations are offered in Hindi and English.
| |
| * [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations]] (CISCE): CISCE sets curriculum from Grades 1 to 12 and conducts three examinations, namely, the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE - Class/Grade 10); The Indian School Certificate (ISC - Class/Grade 12) and the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE - Class/Grade 12). CISCE English level has been compared to UK's A-Levels; this board offers more choices of subjects. CBSE exams at grade 10 and 12 have often been compared with ICSE and ISC examinations. ICSE is generally considered to be more rigorous than the CBSE AISSE (grade 10) but the CBSE AISSCE and ISC examinations are almost on par with each other in most subjects with ISC including a slightly more rigorous English examination than the CBSE 12th grade examination. The CBSE and ISC are recognised internationally and most universities abroad accept the final results of CBSE and ISC exams for admissions purposes and as proof of completion of secondary school.
| |
| *[[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS): The NIOS conducts two examinations, namely, Secondary Examination and Senior Secondary Examination (All India) and also some courses in Vocational Education. National Board of education is run by Government of India's HRD Ministry to provide education in rural areas and challenged groups in open and distance education mode. A pilot project started by CBSE to provide high class affordable education, provides education up to 12th standard. Choice of subjects is highly customisable and equivalent to CBSE. Home-schooled students usually take NIOS or international curriculum examinations as they are ineligible to write CBSE or ISC exams.
| |
| * '''Islamic [[madrasah]]''': Their boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with [[Darul Uloom Deoband]] or Darul Uloom Nadwtul Ulama.
| |
| * '''Autonomous schools''': Such as [[Woodstock School]], [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram|Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education Puducherry]], [[Visva-Bharati University|Patha Bhavan]] and [[Ananda Marga|Ananda Marga Gurukula]].
| |
| * [[International Baccalaureate]] (IB) and [[Cambridge International Examinations]] (CIB): These are generally private schools that have dual affiliation with one of the school education board of India as well as affiliated to the [[International Baccalaureate]] (IB) Programme and/or the [[Cambridge International Examinations]] (CIB).
| |
| * '''International schools''', which offer 10th and 12th standard examinations under the International Baccalaureate, Cambridge Senior Secondary Examination systems or under their home nations school boards (such as run by foreign embassies or the expat communities).
| |
| * [[Special education]]: A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) on hurts the poor disproportionately – by diverting funds intended for development, undermining a government's ability to provide basic services, feeding inequality and injustice, and discouraging foreign investment and aid" (Kofi Annan, in his statement on the adoption of the United Nations Convention against Corruption by the General Assembly, NY, November 2003). was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education.<ref name="I09RA-233" /> but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage.<ref>[http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/sec_iedc.asp Secondary Education]. Education.nic.in. Retrieved on 21 March 2011. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722062856/http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/sec_iedc.asp |date=22 July 2009 }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Midday Meal Scheme====
| |
| {{See also|Malnutrition in India}}
| |
| [[File:47 Raika School - eating together (3384824242).jpg|thumb|School lunch at Raika Primary School in [[Gujarat]]]]
| |
| The [[Midday Meal Scheme]] is a [[school meal]] programme of the Government of India designed to improve the [[nutrition]]al status of school-age children nationwide,<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url = http://home.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/newsroom/wfp207424.pdf|title = India: A Desk Review of the Mid-Day Meals Programme|date = July 2007|last = Chettiparambil-Rajan|first = Angelique|access-date = 28 July 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131020230641/http://home.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/newsroom/wfp207424.pdf|archive-date = 20 October 2013|url-status = dead|df = dmy-all}}</ref> by supplying free lunches on working days for children in primary and upper primary classes in government, government aided, local body, Education Guarantee Scheme, and alternative innovative education centres, ''[[Madarsa]]'' and ''Maqtabs'' supported under [[Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan]], and National Child Labour Project schools run by the ministry of labour.<ref name=":12">{{cite web|url=http://mdm.nic.in/Files/Right%20to%20information/Frequently_Asked_Questions_on_MDM.pdf |title=Frequently Asked Questions on Mid Day Meal Scheme |access-date=24 June 2014}}</ref> Serving 120,000,000 children in over 1,265,000 schools and Education Guarantee Scheme centres, it is one of the largest in the world.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|title=About the Mid Day Meal Scheme|url=http://mdm.nic.in/aboutus.html|access-date=28 July 2013|publisher=Mdm.nic.in}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| With the twin objectives of improving health and education of the poor children, India has embarked upon an ambitious scheme of providing mid day meals (MDM) in the government and government-assisted primary schools. The administrative and logistical responsibilities of this scheme are enormous, and, therefore, offering food stamps or income transfer to targeted recipients is considered as an alternative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oak|first1=SN|last2=Satish Kumar|first2=KV|date=2007|title=Making of a pediatric urologist|journal=Indian Journal of Urology|volume=23|issue=4|pages=384–386|doi=10.4103/0970-1591.36711|pmid=19718294|pmc=2721570|issn=0970-1591|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In a welcome move, Government of India made special allocations for Midday Meal Scheme during nationwide lockdown and school closure period of COVID-19 to continue nutrition delivery to children. However, many experts have differing opinions on ground level implementation of MDM amid pandemic and its actual benefit delivered to school children.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 August 2020|title=How Are The Children In India Receiving Their Mid-Day Meals Amid The COVID-19 Pandemic? {{!}} Nutrition|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/how-are-the-children-in-india-receiving-their-mid-day-meals-amid-the-covid-19-pandemic-47940/|access-date=13 March 2021|website=NDTV|language=en-US}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Teacher Training====
| |
| {{see also | National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education | Centre for Teacher Accreditation}}
| |
| In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nuepa.org |title=National University of Educational Planning and Administration |publisher=Nuepa.org |access-date=16 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703072553/http://www.nuepa.org/ |archive-date=3 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher accreditation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncte-india.org |title=NCTE: National Council For Teacher Education |publisher=Ncte-india.org |access-date=16 August 2012 |archive-date=8 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508181503/http://www.ncte-india.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Levels of schooling===
| |
| ====Pre-primary education====
| |
| [[File:Indian Preschool.jpg|thumbnail|Indian Pre-Primary School children (Divine Orchids International Preschool, [[Jawhar]])]]
| |
| [[File:वाजेघर अंगणवाडी, वेल्हे, पुणे.jpg|thumbnail|Anganwadi centre at Velhe, Pune district, 2019]]
| |
| The pre-primary stage is the foundation of children's knowledge, skills and behaviour. On completion of pre-primary education, the children are sent to the primary stage but pre-primary education in India is not a fundamental right. In rural India, pre-primary schools are rarely available in small villages. But in cities and big towns, there are many established players in the pre-primary education sector. The demand for the preschools is growing considerably in the smaller towns and cities but still, only 1% of the population under age 6 is enrolled in preschool education.
| |
| * '''Play group (pre-nursery)''': At playschools, children are exposed to a lot of basic learning activities that help them to get independent faster and develop their self-help qualities like eating food themselves, dressing up, and maintaining cleanliness. The age limit for admission into pre-nursery is 2 to 3 years. [[Anganwadi]] is government-funded free rural childcare & Mothercare nutrition and learning program also incorporating the free [[Midday Meal Scheme]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Anganwadi Services Scheme |url=https://wcd.nic.in/schemes/anganwadi-services-scheme |website=Ministry of Women and Child Development|access-date=30 March 2020 }}</ref>
| |
| * '''Nursery''': Nursery level activities help children unfold their talents, thus enabling them to sharpen their mental and physical abilities. The age limit for admission in nursery is 3 to 4 years.
| |
| * '''LKG''': It is also called the junior kindergarten (Jr. kg) stage. The age limit for admission in LKG is 4 to 5 years.
| |
| * '''UKG''': It is also called the senior kindergarten (Sr. kg) stage. The age limit for admission in UKG is 5 to 6 years.
| |
| LKG and UKG stages prepare and help children emotionally, mentally, socially and physically to grasp knowledge easily in the later stages of school and college life.
| |
| <ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/New-minimum-age-rule-for-entry-level-admission-stumps-parents-schools-in-Mumbai/articleshow/45983976.cms] [[Times of India]]</ref>
| |
| A systematic process of preschool education is followed in India to impart knowledge in the best possible way for a better understanding of the young children. By following an easy and interesting curriculum, teachers strive hard to make the entire learning process enjoyable for the children.
| |
| | |
| ====Primary education====
| |
| | |
| [[File:Indian School-Girls at Jodhpur.jpg|thumb|Indian School-Children at a school in [[Jodhpur]], [[Rajasthan]]]]
| |
| The primary education in India is divided into two parts, namely Lower Primary (Class I-IV) and Upper Primary (Middle school, Class V-VIII). The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education (Class I-VIII) also referred to as elementary education, to children aged 6 to 14 years old.<ref name="Blackwell93-94">Blackwell, 93–94</ref> Because education laws are given by the states, duration of primary school visit alters between the Indian states. The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.<ref name="Blackwell93-94" /> However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.<ref name="Blackwell93-94" /> 80% of all recognised schools at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.<ref name="dise.in">{{cite web |url=http://www.dise.in/ar2005.html |title=District Information System for Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231235835/http://www.dise.in/ar2005.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 December 2008 |access-date=8 February 2016}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there were 5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publications/Publications%202009-10/Flash%20Statistics%202009-10.pdf|title=flashstatistics2009-10.pdf<!-- Bot generated title -->|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref> {{as of|2012|March|}} there were 2,127,000 secondary school teachers in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/RPE-2010-11.pdf |title=Report to the People on Education 2010-11 |author=Ministry of Human Resource Development |location=New Delhi |date=March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417135724/http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/RPE-2010-11.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2012 |access-date=6 December 2016}}</ref>
| |
| Education has also been made free<ref name="Blackwell93-94"/> for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the [[Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act]] 2009.<ref name="education.nic.in">{{cite web|url=http://education.nic.in/Elementary/free%20and%20compulsory.pdf |title=The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act |author=Ministry of Law and Justice (Legislative Department) |date=27 August 2009 |access-date=8 February 2016 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919172506/http://education.nic.in/Elementary/free%20and%20compulsory.pdf |archive-date=19 September 2009}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Education Revitalisation Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalise primary education in India by reforming and vitalising the existing primary education system.<ref name="I09RA-215">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 215</ref> 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15% was funded by the states.<ref name="I09RA-215"/> The DERP, which had opened 160,000 new schools including 84,000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programs. "Corruption hurts the poor disproportionately – by diverting funds intended for development, undermining a government's ability to provide basic services, feeding inequality and injustice, and discouraging foreign investment and aid" (Kofi Annan, in his statement on the adoption of the United Nations Convention against Corruption by the General Assembly, NY, November 2003).<ref name="I09RA-215"/> In January 2016, [[Kerala]] became the 1st Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its literacy programme Athulyam.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Kerala becomes 1st Indian state to achieve 100% primary education|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kerala-becomes-1st-indian-state-achieve-100-primary-education-662878|access-date=14 January 2016|agency=International Business Times|work=International Business Times|date=14 January 2016}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| This primary education scheme has also not shown a high gross enrolment ratio of 93–95% for the last three years in some states.<ref name="I09RA-215"/> Significant improvement in staffing and enrolment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme.<ref name="I09RA-215"/> The current scheme for universalisation of Education for All is the [[Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan]] which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrolment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.
| |
| | |
| ====Secondary education====
| |
| [[File:Oavsm3.jpg|right|thumb|Secondary school students in a chemistry lab at a school in [[Odisha]]]]
| |
| [[File:BRKM Independence day 2019 (2).jpg|right|thumb|[[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] celebration at a school in [[Baranagar]]]]
| |
| [[File:Jagseer S Sidhu teaching school students about Wikipedia.jpg|right|thumb|Jagseer S Sidhu teaching students about Wikipedia at a high school in [[Punjab]]]]
| |
| Secondary education covers children aged 14 to 18, a group comprising 88.5 million children according to the [[2001 Census of India]]. The final two years of secondary is often called Higher Secondary (HS), Senior Secondary, or simply the "+2" stage. The two-halves of secondary education are each an important stage for which a pass certificate is needed, and thus are affiliated by central boards of education under HRD ministry, before one can pursue higher education, including college or professional courses.
| |
| | |
| UGC, NCERT, CBSE and ICSE directives state qualifying ages for candidates who wish to take board exams. Those at least 15 years old by 30 May for a given academic year are eligible to appear for Secondary board exams, and those 17 by the same date are eligible to appear for Higher Secondary certificate board exams. It further states that upon successful completion of Higher Secondary, one can apply to higher education under UGC control such as [[Engineering]], [[Medicine|Medical]], and [[Business administration]].
| |
| | |
| Secondary education in India is examination-oriented and not course-based: students register for and take classes primarily to prepare for one of the centrally-administered examinations. Senior school or high school is split into 2 parts (grades 9-10 and grades 11–12) with a standardised nationwide examination at the end of grade 10 and grade 12 (usually informally referred to as "board exams"). Grade 10 examination results can be used for admission into grades 11–12 at a secondary school, pre-university program, or a vocational or technical school. Passing a grade 12 board examination leads to the granting of a secondary school completion diploma, which may be used for admission into vocational schools or universities in the country or the world. Most reputable universities in India require students to pass college-administered admissions tests in addition to passing a final secondary school examination for entry into a college or university. School grades are usually not sufficient for college admissions in India.
| |
| | |
| Most schools in India do not offer subject and scheduling flexibility due to budgeting constraints (for e.g.: most students in India are not allowed to take Chemistry and History in grades 11-12 because they are part of different "streams"). Private candidates (i.e. not studying in a school) are generally not allowed to register for and take board examinations but there are some exceptions such as NIOS.
| |
| | |
| ===== 10th (matriculation or secondary) exam =====
| |
| {{Unreferenced section|date=March 2022}}
| |
| Students taking the grade 10 examination usually take six subjects: English, mathematics, social studies, science, one language, and one optional subject depending on the availability of teachers. Elective or optional subjects often include computer applications, economics, physical education, commerce, and environmental science.
| |
| | |
| ===== 12th (senior secondary or Intermediate Course) exam =====
| |
| Students taking the grade 12 examination usually take four or five subjects with English or the local language being compulsory. Students re-enrolling in most secondary schools after grade 10 have to make the choice of choosing a "core stream" in addition to English or the local language: science (mathematics/biology, chemistry, and physics), commerce (accounts, business studies, and economics), or humanities (any three of history, political science, sociology, psychology, geography depending on school). Students study mathematics up to single-variable calculus in grade 12.
| |
| Students taking Biology have a option to give [[National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (Undergraduate)|NEET]] for some courses like ([[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery|MBBS]]).
| |
| Students opting for Mathematics have a option to give [[Joint Entrance Examination – Main|JEE]] for some courses like [[Engineering]].
| |
| | |
| ===Types of schools===
| |
| ====Government schools====
| |
| The majority of students study in government schools where poor and vulnerable students study for free until the age of 14. An Education Ministry data, 65.2% (113 million,) of all school students in 20 states go to government schools (c. 2017).<ref name=study1>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/education/in-5-years-private-schools-gain-17-million-students-government-schools-lose-13-million/story-6FV1ic7RLttmWc0ZkhBQBM.html In 5 years, private schools gain 17 million students, government schools lose 13 million], [[Hindustan Times]], 17 April 2017.</ref> These include schools runs by the state and local government as well as the center government. Example of large center government run school systems are [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]] in urban areas, [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya]], for the gifted students, [[Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya]] for girls belonging to vulnerable SC/ST/OBC classes, [[Indian Army Public Schools]] run by the [[Indian Army]] for the children of soldiers.
| |
| | |
| [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]] project, was started for the employees of the central government of India, who are deployed throughout the country. The government started the ''Kendriya Vidyalaya'' project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred.<ref name="I09RA-233"/>
| |
| | |
| ====Government aided private schools====
| |
| [[File:Nutan Marathi Vidyalaya Pune 20160103 064038.jpg|right|thumb|[[Nutan Marathi Vidyalaya]], One of the oldest schools in [[Pune]] run by a government aided charitable trust]]
| |
| These are usually charitable trust run schools that receive partial funding from the government. Largest system of aided schools is run by [[D.A.V. College Managing Committee]].
| |
| | |
| ====Private schools (unaided)====
| |
| [[File:DPS Azaad Nagar 01.JPG|[[Delhi Public School, Azaad Nagar]]|220x220px|thumb]] [[File:The Doon School.jpg|[[The Doon School]]|220x220px|thumb]]
| |
| According to current estimate, 29% of Indian children are privately educated.<ref name="pvt_enroll"/> With more than 50% children enrolling in private schools in urban areas, the balance has already tilted towards private schooling in cities; and, even in rural areas, nearly 20% of the children in 2004-5 were enrolled in private schools.<ref name="pvt_school">Desai, Sonalde, Amaresh Dubey, Reeve Vanneman and Rukmini Banerji. 2009. "Private Schooling in India: A New Landscape," India Policy Forum Vol. 5. Pp. 1-58, Bery, Suman, Barry Bosworth and Arvind Panagariya (Editors). New Delhi: Sage</ref>
| |
| [[File:La Martiniere, Calcutta by Francis Frith.jpg|[[La Martiniere Calcutta]], regarded as one of the best schools in the country|220x220px|thumb]]
| |
| Most middle-class families send their children to private schools,<ref name="pvt_school"/> which might be in their own city or at distant boarding schools. Private schools have been established since the British Rule in India and [[St. George's School, Chennai|St George's School, Chennai]] is the oldest private school in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/three-hundred-years-of-fortitude/article6213509.ece|title=St. George's School Chennai, The Hindu retrieved 2014|date=15 July 2014|newspaper=The Hindu|last1=Alexander|first1=Deepa}}</ref> At such schools, the medium of education is often English, but [[Hindi]] and/or the state's official language is also taught as a compulsory subject.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theprint.in/india/no-language-mandatory-states-can-choose-any-3-languages-hrd-ministry-says/295083/|title=No language mandatory, states can choose any 3 languages, HRD ministry says|first=Kritika|last=Sharma|date=21 September 2019}}</ref> Pre-school education is mostly limited to organised neighbourhood nursery schools with some organised chains.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Glavin |first=Chris |date=2017-02-06 |title=Education System in India {{!}} K12 Academics |url=https://www.k12academics.com/Education%20Worldwide/Education%20in%20India/education-system-india |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=www.k12academics.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Montessori education]] is also popular, due to [[Maria Montessori]]'s [[Montessori in India|stay in India during World War II]]. In 2014, four of the top ten pre-schools in [[Chennai]] were Montessori.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/4-Montessori-schools-make-it-to-top-10-list/articleshow/45399648.cms | title=4 Montessori schools make it to top 10 list |author=TNN | date=7 December 2014 | access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Many privately owned and managed schools carry the appellation "Public", such as the [[Delhi Public School Society|Delhi Public Schools]], or [[Frank Anthony|Frank Anthony Public Schools]]. These are modelled after [[Public school (United Kingdom)|British public schools]], which are a group of older, expensive and exclusive fee-paying private independent schools in England.
| |
| | |
| According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a multiple of the unit cost of government schools. The reason being high aims and better vision.<ref name="creaking">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12749787|title=A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India's biggest handicap|date=11 December 2008|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gprg.org/pubs/workingpapers/pdfs/gprg-wps-071.pdf|title=The progress of school education in India|author=Geeta Gandhi Kingdon}}</ref><ref name="varma">{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB116882502361976702|title=Why India Needs School Vouchers |author=Amit Varma|publisher=Wall Street Journal | date=15 January 2007}}</ref> However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} Research with children from the same family, in which one child attends private school and the other receives a government education, has found barely any difference in their attainment. This has led some analysts to argue that the better test scores achieved by private schools in general is primarily a result of 'background advantages' enjoyed by privately-educated children because they tend come from wealthier families than their government-educated peers. Such advantages may, for example, include having more educational resources at home.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gruijters |first1=Rob J. |last2=Alcott |first2=Benjamin |last3=Rose |first3=Pauline |date=1 November 2021 |title=Do Private Schools Improve Learning Outcomes? Evidence from Within-Household Comparisons in East Africa and South Asia |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/716448 |journal=Comparative Education Review |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=640–666 |doi=10.1086/716448 |s2cid=244299789 |issn=0010-4086}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.<ref name="envision">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mercycorps.org/global-envision|title=Thank you for reading Global Envision.|date=18 December 2018|website=Mercy Corps}}</ref> The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools) and more teachers in private schools are female.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} There is some disagreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (para-teachers) is 54.91% in private, compared to 44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive in-service training compared to 43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit.<ref name="envision"/>
| |
| However, the number of private schools in India is still low - the share of private institutions is 7% (with upper primary being 21% secondary 32% - ''source: fortress team research''). Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found that 65% school-children in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools.<ref name="varma"/>
| |
| | |
| ====National schools====
| |
| [[File:BRKM secondary section entrance.crop.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]]<ref name=BRKM>{{cite web|url=https://belurmath.org/ramakrishna-mission-ashrama-baranagar-kolkata/|title=Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Baranagar, Kolkata|access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref>]]
| |
| * [[Atomic Energy Central School]] (established in 1969)
| |
| * Bal Bharati Public School (established in 1944)
| |
| * [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]] (established in 1938)
| |
| * [[Chinmaya Vidyalayas|Chinmaya Vidyalaya]] (established in 1965)
| |
| * [[DAV Public School]] (established in 1886)
| |
| * [[Delhi Public School Society|Delhi Public School]] (established in 1949)
| |
| * [[Indian Army Public Schools]] (established in 1983)
| |
| * [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya]] (established in 1986)
| |
| * [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]] (established in 1963)
| |
| * [[Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan]] (established in 1958)
| |
| * [[Railway Schools in India]] (established in 1873)
| |
| * [[List of Ramakrishna Mission institutions|Ramakrishna Mission Schools]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rkmvm.com/branchesindia.htm|title=RKMVM,Porbandar &*124; Branches|website=www.rkmvm.com|access-date=26 December 2019|archive-date=17 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417225200/http://www.rkmvm.com/branchesindia.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rkmathharipad.org/our-order/other-branch-centres/|title=Other Branch Centres &*124; Ramakrishna math|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ramakrishna.org/cntrlist.htm|title=Ramakrishna Order Centers in the West|website=www.ramakrishna.org|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.belurmath.org/centres/display_centre.php|title=Branch Centres - Belur Math - Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission|access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref> (established in 1922)
| |
| * [[Ryan International Group of Institutions|Ryan International Schools]] (established in 1976)
| |
| * [[Sainik School]] (established in 1960)
| |
| * [[Saraswati Shishu Mandir]] (established in 1952)
| |
| * [[Seth M.R. Jaipuria Schools]] (established in 1992)
| |
| * [[Vivekananda Educational Society|Vivekananda Vidyalaya]] (established in 1972)
| |
| * [[Vivekananda Kendra Vidyalaya]] (established in 1977)
| |
| * [[:Category:Waldorf schools in India|Waldorf Schools (India)]] (established in 2002)
| |
| | |
| ====International schools====
| |
| {{as of|2015|January|}}, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iscresearch.com/|title=International School Consultancy Group > Home}}</ref> listed India as having 410 international schools.<ref name="iscresearch.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.iscresearch.com/information/isc-news.aspx|title=International School Consultancy Group > Information > ISC News|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000123/http://www.iscresearch.com/information/isc-news.aspx|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its orientation."<ref name="iscresearch.com"/> This definition is used by publications including [[The Economist]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21636757-english-language-schools-once-aimed-expatriates-now-cater-domestic-elites-new|title=The new local|date=17 December 2014|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Home-schooling====
| |
| [[Homeschooling and alternative education in India|Home-schooling in India]] is [[Legality of Homeschooling#Asia|legal]], though it is the less explored option, and often debated by educators. The Indian Government's stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have the means. The then HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the government would not interfere.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIPU%2F2010%2F09%2F08&ViewMode=GIF&GZ=T&PageLabel=1&EntityId=Ar00104&AppName=1|title=RTE: Homeschooling too is fine, says Sibal|work=[[The Times of India]]|year=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815131641/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIPU%2F2010%2F09%2F08&ViewMode=GIF&GZ=T&PageLabel=1&EntityId=Ar00104&AppName=1 |archive-date=15 August 2018 |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Higher education==
| |
| {{main|Higher education in India}}{{See also|Medical education in India}}[[File:University of Calcutta cropped.JPG|thumb|220x220px|[[University of Calcutta]], established on 1857, was the first multidisciplinary and secular Western-style institution in Asia.]]
| |
| [[File:Computerlabxaviers.jpg|thumb|right|Computer class at a college in [[Kolkata]]]]
| |
| Students may opt for vocational education or university education.
| |
| | |
| ===Vocational education===
| |
| India's All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) reported, in 2013, that there are more than 4,599 vocational institutions that offer degrees, diploma and post-diploma in architecture, engineering, hotel management, infrastructure, pharmacy, technology, town services and others. There were 1,740,000 students enrolled in these schools.<ref>[http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/Growth_Technical_Institutions_310514.pdf#toolbar=0 Growth of Technical Institutes in the Country] AICTE, Govt of India</ref> Total annual intake capacity for technical diplomas and degrees exceeded 3.4 million in 2012.{{citation needed|date=July 2014}}
| |
| | |
| According to the University Grants Commission (UGC) total enrolment in Science, Medicine, Agriculture and Engineering crossed 65 lakh in 2010. The number of women choosing engineering has more than doubled since 2001.{{citation needed|date=July 2014}}
| |
| | |
| ===Tertiary education===
| |
| {{main|List of Indian institutions of higher education | Institutes of National Importance | List of autonomous higher education institutes in India | label 3 = Autonomous institutes}}
| |
| [[File:IIM Calcutta Auditorium 1.jpg|thumb|middle|220x220px|alt=IIM Calcutta's Auditorium|[[Indian Institute of Management Calcutta]], [[Kolkata]].]]
| |
| [[File:IITCampusPano.JPG|alt=|thumb|[[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]]]]
| |
| [[File:Front View of F.R.I., Dehradun.jpg|[[Forest Research Institute (India)|Forest Research Institute]]|220x220px|thumb]]
| |
| After passing the [[Higher Secondary Examination]] (the Standard 12 examination), students may enroll in general degree programmes such as [[bachelor's degree]] ([[graduation]]) in arts, commerce or science, or professional degree programme such as engineering, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, and law [[graduate school|graduates]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Y.K.|last2=Nath|first2=R.|title=History of Indian education system|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OT5_MYv_rbkC&pg=PA83|access-date=11 January 2013|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-932-4|pages=172–175}}</ref> India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after [[China]] and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1121703274255/1439264-1193249163062/India_CountrySummary.pdf|title=India Country Summary of Higher Education|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> The main governing body at the tertiary level is the [[University Grants Commission (India)]] (UGC), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps co-ordinate between the centre and the state up to Post graduation and [[Doctorate]] (PhD).<ref name="I09RA-237">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 237</ref> Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.education.nic.in/higedu.asp |title=''Higher Education'', National Informatics Centre, Government of India |publisher=Education.nic.in |access-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091216122916/http://www.education.nic.in/higedu.asp |archive-date=16 December 2009 }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[File:AIIMS central lawn.jpg|[[All India Institute of Medical Sciences Delhi]]|220x220px|thumb]]
| |
| | |
| {{as of|2012||}}, India has 152<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eqty.blogspot.in/2014/02/no-of-universities-in-india.html |title=No of Universities in India |access-date=25 February 2014}}</ref> central universities, 316 state universities, and 191 private universities. Other institutions include 33,623<ref>{{cite web |url= http://eqty.blogspot.in/2014/02/no-of-colleges-in-india-india-education.html|title=No of Colleges in India - India Education Statistics |access-date=25 February 2014}}</ref> colleges, including 1,800 exclusive women's colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions,<ref name="I09RA-237"/> and 12,748 Institutions offering Diploma Courses. The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology.<ref name="Blackwell95-96">Blackwell, 95–96</ref> Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes.<ref name=Blackwell96/> Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system.<ref name=Blackwell96>Blackwell, 96</ref> The Government has launched [[Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan|Rashtriya Uchchattar Shiksha Abhiyan]] to provide strategic funding to State higher and technical institutions. A total of 316 state public universities and 13,024 colleges will be covered under it.<ref>{{cite news |title=Govt launches Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan for bouldering Higher Education |url=https://news.biharprabha.com/2013/10/govt-launches-rashtriya-uchchatar-shiksha-abhiyan-for-bouldering-higher-education/ |access-date=18 March 2021 |work=Biharprabha News |date=6 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Some institutions of India, such as the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] (IITs) and [[National Institutes of Technology]] (NITs) have been globally acclaimed for their standard of under-graduate education in engineering. Several other institutes of fundamental research such as the [[Indian Institute of Science]] (IISc) [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science]] (IACS), [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (TIFR), [[Harish-Chandra Research Institute]] (HRI), [[Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research]] (JNCASR), [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research]] (IISER) are also acclaimed for their standard of research in basic sciences and mathematics. However, India has failed to produce world class universities both in the private sector or the public sector.<ref name=times>{{cite news |last1=Ray |first1=Tirna |title=India doesn't figure in world top-100 universities |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-doesnt-figure-in-world-top-100-universities/articleshow/6569296.cms |access-date=18 March 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=17 September 2010 |language=en}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupils, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Indian Government has failed to check on these education shops, which are run by big businessmen & politicians. Many private colleges and universities do not fulfil the required criterion by the Government and central bodies (UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc.) and take students for a ride. For example, many institutions in India continue to run unaccredited courses as there is no legislation strong enough to ensure legal action against them. Quality assurance mechanisms have failed to stop misrepresentations and malpractices in higher education. At the same time regulatory bodies have been accused of corruption, specifically in the case of deemed-universities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2614/stories/20090717261400400.htm |title=University Business |publisher=Frontline |date=17 April 2009 |access-date=28 August 2011}}</ref> In this context of lack of solid quality assurance mechanism, institutions need to step-up and set higher standards of self-regulation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://issuu.com/eduindia/docs/edu_tech-_vol-2-issue-01-january-2011?mode=embed&layout=http://skin.issuu.com/v/light/layout.xml&showFlipBtn=true&pageNumber=12 |title=Shouldering the Quality Responsibility |publisher=EDU Magazine |date=January 2011 |access-date=28 August 2011}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| {{quotation|Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair...In almost half the districts in the country, higher education enrollments are abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities and 90% of our colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am concerned that in many states university appointments, including that of vice-chancellors, have been politicised and have become subject to caste and communal considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and corruption.|Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] in 2007<ref name="ipf">{{cite web|url=http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=555 |title=PM's address at the 150th Anniversary Function of University of Mumbai |author=Prime Minister Manmohan Singh |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112072640/http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=555 |archive-date=12 January 2012 }}</ref>}}
| |
| [[File:Administrative Block at GNLU.jpg|thumb|[[Gujarat National Law University]], [[Gandhinagar]]]]
| |
| The Government of India is aware of the plight of higher education sector and has been trying to bring reforms, however, 15 bills are still awaiting discussion and approval in the Parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/2011/08/04000501/Education-faces-lawmakers821.html?h=B |title=Education faces lawmakers' test |publisher=livemint |date=4 August 2011 |access-date=28 August 2011}}</ref> One of the most talked about bill is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to facilitate entry of foreign universities to establish campuses in India. The bill is still under discussion and even if it gets passed, its feasibility and effectiveness is questionable as it misses the context, diversity and segment of international foreign institutions interested in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20100320163146428 |title=Foreign universities - a reality check |publisher=UniversityWorldNews.com |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=28 August 2011}}</ref> One of the approaches to make internationalisation of Indian higher education effective is to develop a coherent and comprehensive policy which aims at infusing excellence, bringing institutional diversity and aids in capacity building.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://issuu.com/eduindia/docs/edu_tech-vol-2-issue-08-august-2011/10?mode=a_p&wmode=0 |title=Call for a national policy on internationalisation |publisher=EDU Magazine |date=August 2011 |access-date=28 August 2011}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Three Indian universities were listed in the [[Times Higher Education]] list of the world's top 200 universities – [[Indian Institutes of Technology]], [[Indian Institutes of Management]], and [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]] in 2005 and 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/hybrid.asp?typeCode=161 |title=Times Higher Education |publisher=Times Higher Education |date=6 October 2006 |access-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331032933/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/hybrid.asp?typeCode=161 |archive-date=31 March 2009}}</ref> Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the [[Birla Institute of Technology and Science]]—Pilani were listed among the top 20 science and technology schools in Asia by ''[[Asiaweek]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-cgi.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/features/universities2000/scitech/sci.overall.html |title=Asia's Best Science and Technology Schools |publisher=Cgi.cnn.com |date=22 June 2000 |access-date=1 September 2010 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/684WxRCIT?url=http://www-cgi.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/features/universities2000/scitech/sci.overall.html |archive-date=31 May 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Indian School of Business]] situated in [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]] was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the ''[[Financial Times]]'' of London in 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings |title=MBA global Top 100 rankings – FT |publisher=ft.com |access-date=4 March 2009}}</ref> while the [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences]] has been recognised as a global leader in medical research and treatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/45114 |title=Medical Meccas: An Oasis for India's Poorest | Newsweek Health for Life | Newsweek.com |publisher=Newsweek.com |access-date=3 November 2008|date=30 October 2006}}</ref> The [[University of Mumbai]] was ranked 41 among the Top 50 Engineering Schools of the world by America's news broadcasting firm [[Business Insider]] in 2012 and was the only university in the list from the five emerging BRICS nations viz [[Brazil]], [[Russia]], [[India]], [[China]] and [[South Africa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/the-worlds-best-engineering-schools-2012-6?IR=T|title=The World's Best Engineering Schools|author=Matt Lynley|date=9 July 2012|work=Business Insider}}</ref> It was ranked at 62 in the QS BRICS University rankings for 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/brics-rankings/2013#sorting=rank+country=+stars=false+search=|title=QS University Rankings: BRICS 2013|work=Top Universities|date=12 December 2013}}</ref> and was India's 3rd best [[Interdisciplinarity|Multi-Disciplinary]] University in the QS University ranking of Indian Universities after [[University of Calcutta]] and [[Delhi University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/brics-rankings/top-universities-india|title=Top Universities in India|work=Top Universities|date=16 December 2013}}</ref> In April 2015, [[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay|IIT Bombay]] launched the first U.S.-India joint EMBA program alongside [[Washington University in St. Louis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://global.wustl.edu/first-u-s-india-joint-emba-program-begins/|title=First U.S.-India joint EMBA program begins|date=23 April 2015|website=Global|access-date=25 January 2020}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Technical education===
| |
| [[File:IIT Kharagpur Main Building.JPG|[[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur|Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur]]|220x220px|thumb]]
| |
| [[File:National Institute of Technology, Trichy.jpg|thumb|[[National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli]]]]
| |
| From the first [[Five-Year Plans of India|Five-year Plan]] onwards, India's emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.<ref name="Suri&Rajaram30">"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 30</ref> India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being as the [[All India Council for Technical Education]] (AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the Indian parliament.<ref name="Suri&Rajaram31">"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 31</ref> At the central level, the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]], the [[Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology]], the [[National Institutes of Technology]] and the [[Indian Institutes of Information Technology]] are deemed of national importance.<ref name="Suri&Rajaram31"/>
| |
| | |
| The [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] ([[Indian Institutes of Technology|IITs]]) and [[National Institutes of Technology]] ([[National Institutes of Technology|NITs]]) are among the nation's premier education facilities.<ref name="Suri&Rajaram31"/>[[File:Main(Administrative)Building IIT-Roorkee.JPG|[[Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee|Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee]]|220x220px|thumb]]
| |
| | |
| <ref name="Suri&Rajaram31"/> The UGC has inter-university centers at a number of locations throughout India to promote common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]], [[New Delhi]].<ref name="Suri&Rajaram32">"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 32</ref> Besides there are some British established colleges such as Harcourt Butler Technological Institute situated in Kanpur and King George Medical University situated in Lucknow which are important centre of higher education.
| |
| | |
| In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical education are supplemented by a number of recognised Professional Engineering Societies such as:
| |
| | |
| # Institution of Engineers (India)
| |
| # Institution of Civil Engineers (India)
| |
| # Institution of Mechanical Engineers (India)
| |
| # Institution of Chemical Engineering (India)
| |
| # Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India)
| |
| # [[Indian Institute of Metals]]
| |
| # Institution of Industrial Engineers (India)
| |
| # Institute of Town Planners (India)
| |
| # [[Indian Institute of Architects]]
| |
| that conduct Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels (Degree and diploma) for working professionals desirous of improving their technical qualifications.
| |
| | |
| The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased to over 700,000 in 2011 from 550,000 in FY 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last=Nandakumar|first=Indu|title=Number of tech graduates swells; salaries at IT firms stay stagnant|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-11-24/news/30437637_1_engineering-colleges-engineering-and-technology-graduates|work=[[The Economic Times]]|access-date=19 March 2012|date=24 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Knowledge Professionals|url=http://www.nasscom.org/knowledge-professionals|work=Indian IT-BPO: Trends & Insights|publisher=[[NASSCOM]]|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> However, according to one study, 75% of technical graduates and more than 85% of general graduates lack the skills needed in India's most demanding and high-growth global industries such as Information Technology.<ref>{{cite web|last=Anand|first=Geeta|title=India Graduates Millions, but Too Few Are Fit to Hire|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703515504576142092863219826|publisher=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=19 March 2012|date=5 April 2011}}</ref> These high-tech global information technologies companies directly or indirectly employ about 2.3 million people, less than 1% of India's labour pool.<ref>[http://www.aicte-india.org/ictit.htm Information Technology] AICTE (2012) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707013756/http://www.aicte-india.org/ictit.htm |date=7 July 2014}}</ref> India offers one of the largest pool of technically skilled graduates in the world. Given the sheer numbers of students seeking education in engineering, science and mathematics, India faces daunting challenges in scaling up capacity while maintaining quality.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xc0f9YtiaoMC | last = Bharucha | first = Jamshed | date = 2013 | title=Education in South Asia: Time bomb or silver bullet? | work= In A. Najam & M. Yusuf (Eds.), South Asia 2060: Envisioning Regional Futures. NY: Anthem Press.| isbn = 9780857280749 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharucha.org/#!america-asia/cwcz | last = Bharucha | first = Jamshed | date = 25 January 2008 | title=America can teach Asia a lot about science, technology, and math. | work= Chronicle of Higher Education, 54(20)}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Open and distance learning==
| |
| At the school level, Board of Open Schooling and Skill Education, Sikkim ([[BOSSE]]), [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS) provides opportunities for continuing education to those who missed completing school education. 1.4 million students are enrolled at the secondary and higher secondary level through open and distance learning.<ref>{{cite journal |title=View of Understanding the Profile, Motivations and Current Status of Academic Graduates through Open and Distance Schooling in India |url=https://jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/view/202/225 |journal=Journal of Learning for Development |date=13 June 2017 |volume=4 |issue=2 |access-date=8 February 2020|last1=Jha |first1=Jyotsna }}</ref> In 2012 various state governments also introduced "State Open School" to provide distance education.<ref name="Bihar State open school">{{cite web | url=http://bbose.org | title=Bihar State open school | access-date=16 April 2013}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| At higher education level, [[Indira Gandhi National Open University]] (IGNOU) co-ordinates distance learning. It has a cumulative enrolment of about 1.5 million, serviced through 53 regional centres and 1,400 study centres with 25,000 counselors. The Distance Education Council (DEC), an authority of IGNOU is co-coordinating 13 State Open Universities and 119 institutions of correspondence courses in conventional universities. While distance education institutions have expanded at a very rapid rate, but most of these institutions need an up gradation in their standards and performance. There is a large proliferation of courses covered by distance mode without adequate infrastructure, both human and physical. There is a strong need to correct these imbalances.<ref>{{cite book|last=Datt |first=Sundharam|title=Indian Economy|year=2010|publisher=S. Chand}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Massive open online course]] are made available for free by the HRD ministry and various educational institutes.
| |
| | |
| === Online education ===
| |
| {{Expand section|date=March 2021}}
| |
| [[Online education]] in India started during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]]. However, currently only a small proportion of the Indian population has access to online education. The [[Ministry of Human Resource Development]] (MHRD) recently launched the '[[Bharat Padhe Online]]'.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 June 2020|title=Overview of Online Education in India|url=https://sannams4.com/overview-of-online-education-in-india/|access-date=6 March 2021|website=Sannam S4|language=en-US}}</ref>
| |
| The Indian government has imposed one of the longest school closures globally as it suffered through multiple waves of the COVID-19 pandemic. These school closures have revealed the inequities between urban and rural populations, as well as between girls and boys, in adapting to online learning tools.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 November 2021|title=Online vs Offline Classes in India|url=https://www.indien.website/online-vs-offline-classes-due-to-covid-pose-threat/|access-date=4 December 2021|website=Indien.website News Wire|language=en-US}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Quality==
| |
| | |
| ===Literacy===
| |
| {{Main|Literacy in India}}
| |
| [[File:Literacy India 1901 2011 Detail.png|right|thumb|[[Literacy in India]] grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.]]
| |
| | |
| According to the Census of 2011, "every person above the age of 7 years who can read and write with understanding in any language is said to be literate". According to this criterion, the 2011 survey holds the national literacy rate to be 74.04%.<ref name="I09RA-225"/> The youth literacy rate, measured within the age group of 15 to 24, is 81.1% (84.4% among males and 74.4% among females),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/DataCentre/Pages/country-profile.aspx?code=IND®ioncode=40535|title=Country Profiles - India|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-date=18 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018002158/http://www.uis.unesco.org/DataCentre/Pages/country-profile.aspx?code=IND®ioncode=40535|url-status=dead}}</ref> while 86% of boys and 72% of girls are literate in the 10-19 age group.<ref>{{cite news|agency=International Institute for Population Sciences & ORC Macro. 2000|publisher=National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2)}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Within the Indian states, [[Kerala]] has the highest literacy rate of 93.91% whereas [[Bihar]] averaged 61.8% literacy.<ref name="I09RA-225"/> The 2001 statistics indicated that the total number of 'absolute non-literates' in the country was 304 million.<ref name="I09RA-225"/> Gender gap in literacy rate is high, for example in [[Rajasthan]], the state with the lowest female literacy rate in
| |
| India,<ref>{{cite news| title=Rajasthan: India's seventh largest state, lowest in female literacy |url=http://wap.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/rajasthan-india-s-seventh-largest-state-lowest-in-female-literacy-117011100734_1.html |publisher=[[Business Standard]] |work=IndiaSpend.com |author=Khushboo Balani |date=11 January 2017| access-date=1 April 2017}}</ref> average female literacy rate is 52.66% and average male literacy rate is 80.51%, making a gender gap of 27.85%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf |title=Census 2011, Chapter 6 (State of Literacy) |publisher=[[Government of India]] |access-date=1 April 2017}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Attainment===
| |
| {{as of|2011||}}, enrolment rates are 58% for pre-primary, 93% for primary, 69% for secondary, and 25% for tertiary education.<ref name=wdi_enroll>{{cite web|url=http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/2.11|title=World Development Indicators: Participation in education|publisher=World Bank|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Despite the high overall enrolment rate for primary education among rural children of age 10, half could not read at a basic level, over 60% were unable to do division, and half dropped out by the age of 14.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12749787|title=A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India's biggest handicap|newspaper=The Economist|date=11 December 2008}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In 2009, two states in India, [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]], participated in the international [[Programme for International Student Assessment|PISA]] exams which is administered once every three years to 15-year-old's. Both states ranked at the bottom of the table, beating out only [[Kyrgyzstan]] in score, and falling 200 points (two standard deviations) below the average for [[OECD]] countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/indian-schools-dwarfed-in-global-ratings-programme/890091/|title=Indian schools dwarfed in global ratings programme|publisher=Indian Express|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref> While in the immediate aftermath there was a short-lived controversy over the quality of primary education in India, ultimately India decided to not participate in PISA for 2012,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/India-backs-out-of-global-education-test-for-15-year-olds/articleshow/15332715.cms|title=India backs out of global education test for 15-year-olds|publisher=Times of India|access-date=14 August 2014}}</ref> and again not to for 2015.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/India-chickens-out-of-international-students-assessment-programme-again/articleshow/20375670.cms|title=India chickens out of international students assessment programme again|publisher=Times of India|access-date=14 August 2014}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| While the quality of free, public education is in crisis, a majority of the urban poor have turned to [[#Private education|private schools]]. In some urban cities, it is estimated as high as two-thirds of all students attend private institutions,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/31/world/asia/for-indias-poor-private-schools-help-fill-a-growing-demand.html|title=Many of India's Poor Turn to Private Schools|work=The New York Times|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref> many of which charge a modest US$2 per month.
| |
| | |
| ===Public school workforce===
| |
| Officially, the pupil to teacher ratio within the public school system for primary education is 35:1.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRL.TC.ZS|title=World Bank: Pupil-teacher ratio, primary|publisher=World Bank|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref> However, teacher absenteeism in India is exorbitant, with 25% never showing up for work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20848416~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|title=Teachers Skipping Work|publisher=World Bank|access-date=14 August 2014}}</ref> The World Bank estimates the cost in salaries alone paid toNO-Show teachers who have never attended work is US$2 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.worldbank.org/education/hidden-cost-corruption-teacher-absenteeism-and-loss-schools|title=The Hidden Cost of Corruption: Teacher Absenteeism and Loss in Schools|website=World Bank Blogs}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| A study on teachers by Kremer etc. found out that 25% of private sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers were absent during the survey. Among teachers who were paid to teach, absence rates ranged from 14.6% in [[Maharashtra]] to 41.9% in [[Jharkhand]]. Only 1 in nearly 3,000 public school head teachers had ever dismissed a teacher for repeated absence.<ref name=Kremer>{{cite web|author=4–6 p.m. |url=http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/macarthur/inequality/papers/KremerTeacherAbsenceinIndia.pdf |title=Kremer etc. (2004), "Teacher Absence in India: A Snapshot", ''Journal of the European Economic Association'' |publisher=Globetrotter.berkeley.edu |date=30 October 2009 |access-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326211644/http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/macarthur/inequality/papers/KremerTeacherAbsenceinIndia.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref> The same study found "only about half were teaching, during unannounced visits to a nationally representative sample of government primary schools in India."<ref name=Kremer/>
| |
| | |
| ===Higher education===
| |
| As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/index.html |title=12. Report of the Higher Education in India Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance, May 2008 |publisher=Ugc.ac.in |access-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822192450/http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/index.html |archive-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> the access to higher education measured in term of gross enrolment ratio increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 1960–61. By 2006/7 the GER increased to about 11%. Notably, by 2012, it had crossed 20% (as mentioned in an earlier section).
| |
| | |
| According to a survey by All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) released by the ministry of human resource development, Tamil Nadu which has the highest gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher education in the country has registered an increase of 2.6% to take GER to 46.9 per cent in 2016–17.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raman |first1=A. Ragu |title=Tamil Nadu tops in country with 46.9 per cent gross enrollment ratio |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/060118/tamil-nadu-tops-in-country-with-469-per-cent-gross-enrollment-ratio.html |access-date=24 May 2019 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |date=6 January 2018 }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Vocational education===
| |
| An optimistic estimate from 2008 was that only one in five job-seekers in India ever had any sort of [[vocational training]].<ref name="elephant">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12749735|title=A special report on India: An elephant, not a tiger|date=11 December 2008|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>
| |
| However it's expected to grow as the CBSE has brought changes in its education system which emphasises inclusion of certain number and types of vocational subjects in classes 9th and 11th. Although it's not mandatory for schools to go for it but a good number of schools have voluntarily accepted the suggestion and incorporated the change in their curriculum.
| |
| | |
| ===Extracurricular activities===
| |
| [[Extracurricular activity|Extracurricular activities]] include sports, arts, [[National Service Scheme]], [[National Cadet Corps (India)|National Cadet Corps]], [[The Bharat Scouts and Guides]], etc.
| |
| | |
| ==Issues==
| |
| ===Facilities===
| |
| As per 2016 Annual Survey of Education Report (ASER), 3.5% schools in India had no toilet facility while only 68.7% schools had usable toilet facility. 75.5% of the schools surveyed had library in 2016, a decrease from 78.1% in 2014. Percentage of schools with separate girls toilet have increased from 32.9% in 2010 to 61.9%in 2016.<ref>{{cite news |title=Govt Schools Move Up The Learning Curve | url=http://epaperbeta.timesofindia.com/Article.aspx?eid=31816&articlexml=Govt-Schools-Move-Up-The-Learning-Curve-19012017005022 | publisher = [[The Economic Times]] |date=19 January 2017| access-date=5 April 2017}}</ref> 74.1% schools had drinking water facility and 64.5% of the schools had playground.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Status of Education Report 2016 |url=http://img.asercentre.org/docs/Publications/ASER%20Reports/ASER%202016/aser_2016.pdf |work=[[Pratham]] | date=18 January 2017 |access-date =5 April 2017}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Curriculum issues===
| |
| Modern education in India is often criticised for being based on [[rote learning]] rather than problem solving. ''New Indian Express'' says that Indian Education system seems to be producing zombies since in most of the schools students seemed to be spending majority of their time in preparing for competitive exams rather than learning or playing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newindianexpress.com/nation/Indian-education-Creating-zombies-focussed-on-passing-exams/2013/07/31/article1711375.ece |title=Indian Education: creating Zombies focussed on passing exam |first=Anil K |last=Rajvanshi |work=New Indian Express |date=13 July 2013|access-date=27 June 2016}}</ref> ''BusinessWeek'' criticises the Indian curriculum, saying it revolves around rote learning<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_22/b3885015.htm|title=India|publisher=BusinessWeek|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821200623/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_22/b3885015.htm|archive-date=21 August 2009}}</ref> and ''ExpressIndia'' suggests that students are focused on cramming.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/-rote-system-of-learning-still-rules-the-roost-/375996/ |title=Rote system of learning still rules the roost |publisher=ExpressIndia |date=21 October 2008 |access-date=27 June 2016}}</ref>
| |
| ''Preschool for Child Rights'' states that almost 99% of pre-schools do not have any curriculum at all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://preschoolforchildrights.com/home/preschool-kindergarten-articles-curriculum-development/reality-check-for-parents-preschools-in-india-reviews-top-compare-list-good/ |title=Reality Check for Parents: Preschools in India – Reviews, Top, Compare, List, Good |publisher=Preschool for Child Rights |access-date=23 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213132551/http://www.preschoolforchildrights.com/home/preschool-kindergarten-articles-curriculum-development/reality-check-for-parents-preschools-in-india-reviews-top-compare-list-good/ |archive-date=13 December 2013}}</ref> Also creativity is not encouraged or is considered a form of entertainment in most institutions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vishal|first1=Agnel|title=Memory, Logic and Creativity in Indian Education system|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/36574176-memory-logic-and-creativity-in-indian-education-system}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| The British "essentialist" view of knowledge of the nineteenth century emphasised the individual, scientific, universal, and moral aims of education ahead of the social and cultural. This, combined with the colonial construction of Indian society, designed to preserve the ideological lead of the Empire post-1857,1 helped shape the official nineteenth-century school curriculum. The rejection of nationalist Gopal Krishna Gokhale's Bill (1911) to make primary education free and compulsory by the colonial administration and English-educated and often upper-caste elite further helped sustain a curriculum that focused on colonial objectives. Holmes and McLean (1989, 151) argues that despite tensions between the colonial view of education and the nationalist postcolonial aims of education, British essentialism grew unassailable roots in India partly because "colonial values coincided with those of indigenous traditions." (Batra P. 2015)
| |
| | |
| ===Rural education===
| |
| [[File:Karadiaschool.jpg|thumb|220x220px|A primary school in a village in Madhya Pradesh]]
| |
| [[File:Nuchhungi English Medium School Hnahthial Lunglei Mizoram Students.jpg|thumbnail|220x220px|Indian school children in Mizoram]]
| |
| | |
| Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool for bringing social change through community development.<ref name=SettyandRoss120>Setty and Ross, 120</ref> The administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in 1952, the government grouped villages under a Community Development Block—an authority under national programme which could control education in up to 100 villages.<ref name=SettyandRoss120/> A Block Development Officer oversaw a geographical area of {{convert|150|sqmi|km2|sigfig=2}} which could contain a population of as many as 70,000 people.<ref name=SettyandRoss120/>
| |
| | |
| Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes, themselves divided further into ''individual-based'', ''community based'', or the ''Individual-cum-community-based'', in which microscopic levels of development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker:
| |
| | |
| {{quotation|The community development programmes comprise agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, rural industries, rural engineering (consisting of minor irrigation, roads, buildings), health and sanitation including family welfare, family planning, women welfare, child care and nutrition, education including adult education, social education and literacy, youth welfare and community organisation. In each of these areas of development there are several programmes, schemes and activities which are additive, expanding and tapering off covering the total community, some segments, or specific target populations such as small and marginal farmers, artisans, women and in general people below the poverty line.<ref name=SettyandRoss120/>}}
| |
| | |
| Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued throughout the 1950s, with support from private institutions.<ref name=SettyandRoss121>Setty and Ross, 121</ref> A sizeable network of rural education had been established by the time the ''Gandhigram Rural Institute'' was established and 5,200 Community Development Blocks were established in India.<ref name=SettyandRoss122>Setty and Ross, 122</ref> Nursery schools, elementary schools, secondary school, and schools for adult education for women were set up.<ref name=SettyandRoss122/>
| |
| | |
| The government continued to view rural education as an agenda that could be relatively free from bureaucratic backlog and general stagnation.<ref name=SettyandRoss122/> However, in some cases lack of financing balanced the gains made by rural education institutes of India.<ref name=SettyandRoss125/> Some ideas failed to find acceptability among India's poor and investments made by the government sometimes yielded little results.<ref name=SettyandRoss125>Setty and Ross, 125</ref> Today, government rural schools remain poorly funded and understaffed. Several foundations, such as the [[Rural Development Foundation]] (Hyderabad), actively build high-quality rural schools, but the number of students served is small.
| |
| | |
| Education in rural India is valued differently from in an urban setting, with lower rates of completion. An imbalanced [[sex ratio]] exists within schools with 18% of males earning a high school diploma compared with only 10% of females. The estimated number of children who have never attended school in India is near 100 million which reflects the low completion levels.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} This is the largest concentration in the world of youth who haven't enrolled in school.<ref name=Verma>{{cite book|last1=Verma|first1=Suman|last2=Saraswathi|first2=T.S.|title=The World's Youth: Adolescence in Eight Regions of the Globe|date=2002|publisher=The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=0-521-00605-8|page=117}}</ref><ref name=De>{{cite book|last1=De|first1=Anuradha|last2=Drèze|first2=Jean|title=Public Report on Basic Education in India|date=3 June 1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=UK|isbn=0195648706}}</ref><ref name="U.N.">{{cite web|title=Human Development Report 1999|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/260/hdr_1999_en_nostats.pdf|website=United Nations}}</ref><ref name="U.N.1">{{cite web|title=Human Development Report 2000|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/261/hdr_2000_en.pdf|website=United Nations}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Women's education===
| |
| [[File:Bengali Girls' School, Calcutta (LMS, 1869, p.12).jpg|thumb|London Mission Bengali Girls' School, Calcutta ([[London Missionary Society|LMS]], 1869, p.12)<ref name="Fruits-LMS">{{cite book|editor1-last=London Missionary Society|title=Fruits of Toil in the London Missionary Society|date=1869|publisher=John Snow & Co.|location=London|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/fruitsoftoilinth17115gut|access-date=12 September 2016}}</ref>]]
| |
| [[File:KRS girls.jpg|thumb|Girls in Kalleda Rural School, [[Andhra Pradesh]].]]
| |
| [[File:Maharani's College for Women, Mysore.jpg|thumb|Maharanis College for Women, Mysore, India.]]
| |
| {{See also|Women in India}}
| |
| | |
| Women have a much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.<ref name="un_women_free_equal">{{cite web
| |
| |title=Women in India: How Free? How Equal?
| |
| |url=http://www.un.org.in/wii.htm
| |
| |author=Kalyani Menon-Sen, [[A. K. Shiva Kumar]]
| |
| |publisher=United Nations
| |
| |year=2001
| |
| |access-date=24 December 2006
| |
| |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060911183722/http://www.un.org.in/wii.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 11 September 2006}}
| |
| </ref> In the patriarchal setting of the Indian family, girls have lower status and fewer privileges than boys.<ref>Dube, L. 1988. On the construction of gender: Hindu girls in patrilineal India. In ''Socialization, education, and women: Explorations in gender identity,''ed. K. Chanana, New Delhi: Orient Longman.</ref> Conservative cultural attitudes prevent some girls from attending school.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=126801186|title=In India, Can Schools Offer Path Out Of Poverty?|website=[[NPR]]|date=14 May 2010|access-date=23 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Patnaik|first=Prabhat|date=20 December 2019|title=A case to make higher education free|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/education/article30147333.ece|access-date=20 April 2021|magazine=Frontline|language=en|quote=In India, educating daughters is generally accorded a lower priority than educating sons. Even among better-off parents with many children, the tendency is to concentrate resources on educating sons}}</ref> Furthermore, educated high class women are less likely than uneducated low class women to enter the workforce They opt to stay at home due to the traditional, cultural and religious norms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mukherjee|first=Sucharita Sinha|s2cid=155056803|date=1 January 2013|title=Women's Empowerment and Gender Bias in the Birth and Survival of Girls in Urban India|journal=Feminist Economics|volume=19|issue=1|pages=1–28|doi=10.1080/13545701.2012.752312|issn=1354-5701}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| The number of literate women among the female population of India was between 2–6% from the British Raj onward to the formation of the Republic of India in 1947.<ref name=Raman235>Raman, 235</ref> Concerted efforts led to improvement from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981.<ref name=Raman235/> By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India.<ref name=Raman236>Raman, 236</ref> Recently the Indian government has launched''' Saakshar Bharat Mission for Female Literacy'''. This mission aims to bring down female illiteracy by half of its present level.
| |
| | |
| Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in India:
| |
| | |
| {{Quotation|Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for girls' school attendance through programmes for midday meals, free books, and uniforms. This welfare thrust raised primary enrollment between 1951 and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education decided to restructure education in tune with the social framework of each state, and with larger national goals. It emphasised that education was necessary for democracy, and central to the improvement of women's condition. The new policy aimed at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for schools, expansion in the numbers of schools, and policy improvements. Emphasis was placed on expanding girls' occupational centres and primary education; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban institutions. The report tried to connect problems like low school attendance with poverty, and the dependence on girls for housework and sibling day care. The National Literacy Mission also worked through female tutors in villages. Although the minimum marriage age is now eighteen for girls, many continue to be married much earlier. Therefore, at the secondary level, female drop-out rates are high.<ref name=Raman238/>}}
| |
| | |
| Sita Anantha Raman also mentions that while the educated Indian women workforce maintains professionalism, the men outnumber them in most fields and, in some cases, receive higher income for the same positions.<ref name=Raman238>Raman, 238</ref>
| |
| | |
| The education of women in India plays a significant role in improving livings standards in the country{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. A higher female literacy rate improves the quality of life both at home and outside the home, by encouraging and promoting education of children, especially female children, and in reducing the infant mortality rate{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. Several studies have shown that a lower level of women literacy rates results in higher levels of fertility and infant mortality, poorer nutrition, lower earning potential and the lack of an ability to make decisions within a household.<ref>. S. Chandrasekhar and A. Jayaraman, District Level Analysis of the Total Fertility Rate Using Indian Census Data (viewed on 9 March 2011), {{cite web|url=http://paa2004.princeton.edu/download.asp?submissionId%3D41578 |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720030538/http://paa2004.princeton.edu/download.asp?submissionId=41578 |archive-date=20 July 2011 }}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} Women's lower educational levels is also shown to adversely affect the health and living conditions of children{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. A survey that was conducted in India showed results which support the fact that infant mortality rate was inversely related to female literacy rate and educational level.<ref>Women Education in India, (viewed on 9 March 2011), http://www.slideshare.net/siddharth4mba/women-education-in-india {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724094931/http://www.slideshare.net/siddharth4mba/women-education-in-india |date=24 July 2011 }}</ref> The survey also suggests a correlation between education and economic growth.
| |
| | |
| In India, there is a large disparity between female literacy rates in different states.<ref>Literacy Rate and Gender Gap in Sechduled Castes in India, (viewed on 9 March 2011), {{cite web|url=http://www.capabilityapproach.com/pubs/NavjeetKaur.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708114637/http://www.capabilityapproach.com/pubs/NavjeetKaur.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2011 }}</ref> State of Kerala has the highest female literacy rate of 91.98% while [[Rajasthan]] has the lowest female literacy rate of 52.66.<ref>{{cite news| title=Rajasthan: India's seventh largest state, lowest in female literacy |url=http://wap.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/rajasthan-india-s-seventh-largest-state-lowest-in-female-literacy-117011100734_1.html |publisher=[[Business Standard]] |work=IndiaSpend.com |author=Khushboo Balani |date=11 January 2017| access-date=12 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf |title=Census 2011, Chapter 6 (State of Literacy) |publisher=[[Government of India]] |access-date=12 April 2017}}</ref> This correlates to the health levels of states, Kerala has average life expectancy at birth of 74.9 while Rajasthan's average life expectancy at birth is 67.7 years.<ref name="life table">{{cite web|title=Abridged Life Tables - 2010-14 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/2.Analysis_2010-14.pdf |page=5 |publisher=Office of the Registar General & Census Commissioner, India|access-date=12 April 2017}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In India, higher education is defined as the education of an age group between 18 and 24, and is largely funded by the government. Despite women making up 24–50% of higher education enrolment, there is still a gender imbalance within higher education. Only one third of science students and 7% of engineering students, are women. In comparison, however, over half the students studying Education are women.<ref>Saraswathi, T.S. & Verma, Suman. ''<nowiki>Adolescence in India: ''Street Urchins or Silicon Valley Millionaires?''</nowiki>'' pg. 17 from Brown, B. Bradford, Larson, Reed W, & Saraswathi, T.S., The World's Youth: adolescence in eight regions of the globe. Cambridge University Press, 2002.</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Accreditation===
| |
| In January 2010, the Government of India decided to withdraw [[Deemed university]] status from as many as 44 institutions. The Government claimed in its affidavit that academic considerations were not being kept in mind by the management of these institutions and that "they were being run as family fiefdoms".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/2010/01/18232326/44-institutions-to-lose-deemed.html |title=44 institutions to lose deemed university status – Economy and Politics |publisher=livemint.com |date=18 January 2010 |access-date=1 September 2010}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In February 2009, the University Grant Commission found 39 fake institutions operating in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/22-universities-across-India-fake-UGC/425697/ |title=22 universities across India fake: UGC |publisher=ExpressIndia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012003034/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/22-universities-across-India-fake-UGC/425697/ |archive-date=12 October 2012 }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Employer training===
| |
| Only 10% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their employees, compared with over 90% in China.<ref name="wbstrategy">{{cite web|url=http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf |title=Country Strategy for India (CAS) 2009–2012 |publisher=World Bank |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090824103426/http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf |archive-date=24 August 2009}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Teacher careers===
| |
| [[File:Nuchhungi English Medium School Hnahthial Lunglei Mizoram Teachers.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Nuchhungi English Medium School Hnahthial Lunglei Mizoram on Teachers' Day]]
| |
| In the Indian education system, a teacher's success is loosely defined. It is either based on a student's success or based on the years of teaching experience, both of which do not necessarily correlate to a teacher's skill set or competencies. The management of an institution could thereby be forced to promote teachers based on the grade level they teach or their seniority, both of which are often not an indicator of a good teacher.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/in-school/signpost/recognising-excellence-in-the-teaching-profession/article7680538.ece|title=Recognising excellence in the teaching profession|first=Ramya|last=Venkataraman|newspaper=The Hindu|date=23 September 2015|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> This means that either a primary school teacher is promoted to a higher grade, or a teacher is promoted to take up other roles within the institution such as Head of Department, coordinator, Vice Principal or Principal. However, the skills and competencies that are required for each of them vary and a great teacher may not be a great manager. Since teachers do not see their own growth and success in their own hands, they often do not take up any professional development. Thus, there is a need to identify a framework to help a teacher chart a career path based on his/her own competency and help him/her understand his/her own development.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-educationplus/framing-success-in-teaching/article7597239.ece|title=Framing success in teaching|first=Nalini|last=Haridas|newspaper=The Hindu|date=31 August 2015|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Coaching===
| |
| [[File:Old Rajinder Nagar Delhi.jpg|thumb|Old Rajinder Nagar Delhi]]
| |
| Increased competition to get admission in reputed colleges has given rise to private coaching institutes in India. They prepare students for engineering, medical, MBA, SAT, GRE, banking jobs' entrance tests. There are also coaching institutes that teach subjects like English for employment in India and abroad.
| |
| | |
| Private coaching institutes are of two types: offline coaching and online coaching. There are many online coaching centres and apps available in the market and their usage is growing, especially in tier 2 metro cities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Online coaching platforms see uptick |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/online-coaching-platforms-see-uptick/articleshow/63038350.cms |work=The Times of India |date=23 February 2018}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| A 2013 survey by [[ASSOCHAM]] predicted the size of private coaching industry to grow to $40 billion, or Rs 2.39 trillion ([[Long and short scales|short scale]]) by 2015.<ref name="kalpanapathak&msaraswathy">{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/panel-proposes-to-unleash-watchdog-on-private-coaching-115120100060_1.html|title=Panel proposes to unleash watchdog on private coaching|author=Kalpana Pathak & M Saraswathy|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=1 December 2015}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Kota in Rajasthan is the called the capital of engineering and medical colleges' entrance's coaching sector.<ref name="kalpanapathak&msaraswathy"/> In Punjab, English language is taught by coaching institutes for foreign visa aspirants to get the right IELTS score for their applications.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/maple-leaf-in-mustard-field-115122500568_1.html|title=Maple leaf in mustard field|author=Manavi Kapur|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=26 December 2015}}</ref> [[Mukherjee Nagar]] and [[Rajendra Nagar, Delhi|Old Rajinder Nagar]] in Delhi are considered the hub for UPSC [[Civil Services Examination]] coaching.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/the-reading-room/|title=The reading room: These libraries provide UPSC aspirants space and comfort during their preparations|date=24 August 2014|work=The Indian Express}}</ref> To compete in these exams, Center and some state governments also provide free coaching to students, especially to students from minority communities.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/coaching-classes-for-upsc-exams/article7621514.ece|title=Coaching classes for UPSC exams|author=Staff Reporter|work=The Hindu|date=6 September 2015}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Coaching classes have been blamed for the neglect of school education by students.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/management/iit-coaching-centres-play-a-board-game-111102700015_1.html|title=IIT coaching centres play a board game|last=Pathak|first=Kalpana|date=27 October 2011|work=Business Standard India|access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref> Educationists such as [[Munirathna Anandakrishnan|Anandakrishnan]] have criticised the increasing importance being given to coaching classes as they put students under mental stress and the coaching fees add to the financial burden on parents. These educationists opine that if a good schooling system is put in place, children should not need additional coaching to take any competitive examination.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/i-am-appalled-by-the-focus-on-coaching-classes/article24130723.ece|title=I am appalled by the focus on coaching classes|last=Sujatha|first=R.|date=10 June 2018|work=The Hindu|access-date=3 August 2019|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Corruption in education===
| |
| {{further|Capitation fee}}
| |
| Corruption in Indian education system has been eroding the quality of education and has been creating long-term negative consequences for the society. Educational corruption in India is considered one of the major contributors to domestic black money.<ref>{{cite report |date=February 2015 |title=A Study on Widening of Tax Base and Tackling Black Money |url=https://ficci.in/spdocument/20548/STUDY-ON-WIDENING-OF-TAX-BASE-AND-TACKLING-BLACK-MONEY.pdf |publisher=[[Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry]] |access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref> In 2021, [[Manav Bharti University]], a private university, was accused of selling tens of thousands of degrees for money over a decade.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mohan|first=Rohini|date=1 March 2021|title=India's fake degree scandal reflects poor regulation of higher education|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/indias-fake-degree-scandal-reflects-poor-regulation-of-higher-education-0|work=The Straits Times|access-date=7 March 2021}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| "Corruption hurts the poor disproportionately – by diverting funds intended for development, undermining a government's ability to provide basic services, feeding inequality and injustice, and discouraging foreign investment and aid" (Kofi Annan, in his statement on the adoption of the United Nations Convention against Corruption by the General Assembly, NY, November 2003).
| |
| | |
| ===Grade inflation===
| |
| [[Grade inflation]] has become an issue in Indian secondary education. In [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]], a 95 per cent aggregate is 21 times as prevalent today as it was in 2004, and a 90 per cent close to nine times as prevalent. In the [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations|ISC Board]], a 95 per cent is almost twice as prevalent today as it was in 2012. CBSE called a meeting of all 40 school boards early in 2017 to urge them to discontinue "artificial spiking of marks". CBSE decided to lead by example and promised not to inflate its results. But although the 2017 results have seen a small correction, the board has clearly not discarded the practice completely. Almost 6.5 per cent of mathematics examinees in 2017 scored 95 or more – 10 times higher than in 2004 – and almost 6 per cent of physics examinees scored 95 or more, 35 times more than in 2004.<ref>{{cite web
| |
| | url =http://indianexpress.com/article/education/when-90-per-cent-comes-too-easy-cbse-board-exam-results-4689291/
| |
| | title =When 90% comes too easy in CBSE exams
| |
| | last =Chopra
| |
| | first =Ritika
| |
| | date =6 June 2017
| |
| | website =Indian Express
| |
| | access-date =6 June 2017
| |
| }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| |
| | url =http://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/op-ed/110717/inflated-marks-100-and-still-galloping.html
| |
| | title =Inflated marks: 100% and still galloping...
| |
| | last =Kar
| |
| | first =Devi
| |
| | date =11 July 2017
| |
| | website =Deccan Chronicle
| |
| | access-date =12 July 2017
| |
| | quote =Board examination results have lost their credibility in India. }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Initiatives==
| |
| ===Central government involvement===
| |
| {{see also|List of Central Institutes in India|Central University, India}}
| |
| | |
| [[File:Madrasah1.jpg|thumb| The [[madrasah]] of Jamia Masjid mosque in [[Srirangapatna]].]]
| |
| [[File:Elementary School.jpg|thumb|Elementary School in Chittoor. This school is part of the 'Paathshaala' project. The school currently educates 70 students.]]
| |
| Following India's independence, a number of rules were formulated for the backward Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes of India. In 1960, a list identifying 405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled Tribes was published by the central government.<ref name=Elder227>Elder, 227</ref> An amendment was made to the list in 1975, which identified 841 Scheduled Castes and 510 Scheduled Tribes.<ref name=Elder227/> The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes combined was found to be 22.5% with the Scheduled Castes accounting for 17% and the Scheduled Tribes accounting for the remaining 7.5%.<ref name=Elder227/> Following the report many Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly referred to themselves as ''[[Dalit]]'', a [[Marathi language]] terminology used by [[BR Ambedkar|B R Ambedkar]] which literally means "oppressed".<ref name=Elder227/>
| |
| | |
| The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of India's educational programmes.<ref name="I09RA-226-7">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 226–227</ref> Special reservations are also provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India, e.g. a reservation of 15% in ''Kendriya Vidyalaya'' for Scheduled Castes and another reservation of 7.5% in ''Kendriya Vidyalaya'' for Scheduled Tribes.<ref name="I09RA-226-7"/> Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in many schemes and educational facilities in India.<ref name="I09RA-226-7"/> The remote and far-flung regions of North-East India are provided for under the Non-Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since 1998–1999.<ref name="I09RA-236-37">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 236–237</ref> The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure development in these remote areas.<ref name="I09RA-236-37"/>
| |
| | |
| Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], [[Gujarat]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], and [[Uttarakhand]], fall under the ''Mahila Samakhya Scheme'', initiated in 1989.<ref name="I09RA-216">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 216</ref> Apart from provisions for education this programme also aims to raise awareness by holding meetings and seminars at rural levels.<ref name="I09RA-216"/> The government allowed {{INRConvert|340|m}} during 2007–08 to carry out this scheme over 83 districts including more than 21,000 villages.<ref name="I09RA-216"/>
| |
| | |
| Currently there are 68 ''Bal Bhavans'' and 10 ''Bal Kendra'' affiliated to the ''National Bal Bhavan''.<ref name="I09RA-218">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 218</ref> The scheme involves educational and social activities and recognising children with a marked talent for a particular educational stream.<ref name="I09RA-218"/> A number of programmes and activities are held under this scheme, which also involves cultural exchanges and participation in several international forums.<ref name="I09RA-218"/>
| |
| | |
| India's minorities, especially the ones considered 'educationally backward' by the government, are provided for in the 1992 amendment of the Indian National Policy on Education (NPE).<ref name="I09RA-239"/> The government initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for Educationally Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial Assistance or Modernisation of Madarsa Education as part of its revised Programme of Action (1992).<ref name="I09RA-239"/> Both these schemes were started nationwide by 1994.<ref name="I09RA-239"/> In 2004 the Indian parliament passed an act which enabled minority education establishments to seek university affiliations if they passed the required norms.<ref name="I09RA-239">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 239</ref>
| |
| | |
| Ministry of Human Resource and Development, Government of India in collaboration with Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology has also launched a National Scholarship Portal to provide students of India access to National and State Level Scholarships provided by various government authorities. As a Mission Mode Project under the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP), the online service enlists more than 50 scholarship programs every year including the renowned Ministry of Minority Affairs (MOMA) Scholarships for Post-Matric and Pre-Matric studies. In the academic year 2017-18 the MOMA Scholarships facilitated the studies of 116,452 students with scholarships worth ₹3165.7 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/default/files/MCM_5.pdf|title=Ministry Of Minority Affairs Merit cum Means Scholarship Performance Financial year 2017-18 (as on 31.12.2018)|website=Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref> The National Scholarship continues to enlist scholarship programs managed by AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education), UGC (University Grants Commission) and respective state governments.
| |
| | |
| ===Legislative framework===
| |
| Article 45, of the [[Constitution of India]] originally stated:
| |
| {{quotation|The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam150>Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 150</ref>}}
| |
| | |
| This article was a [[Directive Principles in India|directive principle of state policy]] within India, effectively meaning that it was within a set of rules that were meant to be followed in spirit and the government could not be held to court if the actual letter was not followed.<ref name="SripatiandThiruvengadam149-150">Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 149–50</ref> However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate since this principle held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally the only directive principle within the Indian constitution to have a time limit.<ref name="SripatiandThiruvengadam149-150"/>
| |
| | |
| Following initiatives by the [[Supreme Court of India]] during the 1990s the 93rd amendment bill suggested three separate amendments to the Indian constitution:<ref name="SripatiandThiruvengadam152-154">Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 152–154</ref>
| |
| | |
| The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which read:
| |
| {{quotation|The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in a such manner as the State may, by law, determine.<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam154/>}}
| |
| | |
| Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which read:
| |
| {{quotation|Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years: The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of sixteen years.<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam154>Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 154</ref>}}
| |
| | |
| Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:
| |
| {{quotation|...a parent or guardian [shall] provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, [a] ward between the age of six to fourteen years.<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam154/>}}
| |
| | |
| The bill was passed unanimously in the ''[[Lok Sabha]]'', the lower house of the [[Parliament of India|Indian parliament]], on 28 November 2001.<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam156>Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 156</ref> It was later passed by the upper house—the ''[[Rajya Sabha]]''—on 14 May 2002.<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam156/> After being signed by the [[President of India]] the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time and the bill came into effect.<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam156/> Since then those between the age of 6–14 have a [[Right to education|''fundamental right'' to education]].<ref name=SripatiandThiruvengadam149>Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 149</ref>
| |
| | |
| Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:
| |
| {{quotation|The State shall promote, with special care, the education and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the [[Scheduled Castes]] and [[Scheduled Tribes]], and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of social exploitation'.<ref name="I09RA-225"/>}}
| |
| | |
| Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338–342.<ref name="I09RA-225">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 225</ref> Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.<ref name="I09RA-225"/>
| |
| | |
| === Central government expenditure on education ===
| |
| As a part of the tenth [[Five-year plans of India|Five-year Plan]] (2002–2007), the central government of India outlined an expenditure of 65.6% of its total education budget of {{INRConvert|438|b}} i.e. {{INRConvert|288|b}} on elementary education; 9.9% i.e. {{INRConvert|43.25|b}} on secondary education; 2.9% i.e. {{INRConvert|12.5|b}} on adult education; 9.5% i.e. {{INRConvert|41.77|b}} on higher education; 10.7% i.e. {{INRConvert|47|b}} on technical education; and the remaining 1.4% i.e. {{INRConvert|6.24|b}} on miscellaneous education schemes.<ref name="I09RA-223">''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', 223</ref>
| |
| | |
| During the Financial Year 2011–12, the Central Government of India has allocated {{Indian Rupee}} 38,957 crore for the Department of School Education and Literacy which is the main department dealing with primary education in India. Within this allocation, major share of {{Indian Rupee}} 21,000 crore, is for the flagship programme 'Sarva Siksha Abhiyan'. However, budgetary allocation of {{Indian Rupee}} 210,000 million is considered very low in view of the officially appointed Anil Bordia Committee recommendation of {{Indian Rupee}} 356.59 billion for the year 2011–12. This higher allocation was required to implement the recent legislation 'Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are;
| |
| (a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6% of GDP.
| |
| (b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes.
| |
| (c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty.
| |
| (d) To make [[right to education]] a fundamental right for all children in the age group 6–14 years.
| |
| (e) To universalise education through its flagship programmes such as [[Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan]] and [[Midday Meal Scheme]]
| |
| | |
| However, even after five years of implementation of NCMP, not much progress has been seen on this front. Although the country targeted towards devoting 6% share of the GDP towards the educational sector, the performance has definitely fallen short of expectations. Expenditure on education has steadily risen from 0.64% of GDP in 1951–52 to 2.31% in 1970–71 and thereafter reached the peak of 4.26% in 2000–01. However, it declined to 3.49% in 2004–05. There is a definite need to step-up again. As a proportion of total government expenditure, it has declined from around 11.1% in 2000–2001 to around 9.98% during UPA rule, even though ideally it should be around 20% of the total budget. A policy brief issued by [Network for Social Accountability (NSA)]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nsa.org.in |title=Network for Social Accountability |publisher=NSA |date=28 December 2009 |access-date=1 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623134041/http://www.nsa.org.in/ |archive-date=23 June 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> titled "[NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget: UPA Rule and the Education Sector]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/2009/345NSARUBEDU1.htm |title=345 NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget-UPA Rule and the Education Sector by Siba Sankar Mohanty |publisher=Nsa.org.in |date=21 February 2009 |access-date=1 September 2010 }}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> " provides significant revelation to this fact. Due to a declining priority of education in the public policy paradigm in India, there has been an exponential growth in the private expenditure on education also. [As per the available information, the private out of pocket expenditure by the working class population for the education of their children in India has increased by around 1150 per cent or around 12.5 times over the last decade].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/309NSAResearchTeam1.htm |title=309: How the Working Class has Performed in the Turbulent Years of Liberalisation-A Priliminary Study of Working Class Income and Expenditure Survey1999-2000 Page-1 |publisher=Nsa.org.in |access-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208120452/http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/309NSAResearchTeam1.htm |archive-date=8 December 2009 }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| == Conceptual understandings of Inclusive Education ==
| |
| The new [[National Education Policy 2020]](NEP 2020)introduced by the central government is expected to bring profound changes to education in India.
| |
| The policy approved by the [[Second Modi ministry|Union Cabinet of India]] on 29 July 2020, outlines the vision of India's new education system.<ref name="HTHighlights29July">{{Cite web|editor=Nandini|date=29 July 2020|title=New Education Policy 2020 Highlights: School and higher education to see major changes|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/new-education-policy-2020-live-updates-important-takeaways/story-yYm1QaeNyFW4uTTU3g9bJO.html|access-date=30 July 2020|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> The new policy replaces the 1986 [[National Policy on Education#1986|National Policy on Education]]. The policy is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher education as well as vocational training in both rural and urban India. The policy aims to transform India's education system by 2021.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Jebaraj|first=Priscilla|date=2 August 2020|title=The Hindu Explains {{!}} What has the National Education Policy 2020 proposed?|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/education/the-hindu-explains-what-has-the-national-education-policy-2020-proposed/article32249788.ece|access-date=2 August 2020|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Shortly after the release of the policy, the government clarified that no one will be forced to study any particular language and that the medium of instruction will not be shifted from English to any regional language.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|last=Vishnoi|first=Anubhuti|date=31 July 2020|title=No switch in instruction medium from English to regional languages with NEP '20: HRD|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/education/no-switch-in-instruction-medium-from-english-to-mother-tongue/regional-languages-with-nep-20/articleshow/77271164.cms|access-date=31 July 2020}}</ref> The language policy in NEP is a broad ''guideline'' and ''advisory'' in nature; and it is up to the states, institutions, and schools to decide on the implementation.<ref name=":1" /> Education in India is a [[Concurrent List]] subject.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Chopra|first=Ritika|date=2 August 2020|title=Explained: Reading the new National Education Policy 2020|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/reading-new-education-policy-india-schools-colleges-6531603/|access-date=2 August 2020|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Although it may not be appropriate to judge the adoption of a northern concept in the south from a northern perspective, hasty use of such globalised terminology without engaging with the thinking behind it may present no more than empty rhetoric, whatever the context.<ref name="Singal 827–840">{{Cite journal|last=Singal|first=Nidhi|date=3 June 2019|title=Challenges and opportunities in efforts towards inclusive education: reflections from India|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2019.1624845|journal=International Journal of Inclusive Education|volume=23|issue=7–8|pages=827–840|doi=10.1080/13603116.2019.1624845|s2cid=195471991|issn=1360-3116}}</ref> clearly perceives inclusive education as "…a concept that has been adopted from the international discourse, but has not been engaged with in the Indian scenario." She supports this view of lack of conceptual engagement through data collected in semi-structured interviews for her PhD research, where she found that: Many interviewees concurred with the opinions reflected in government documents that inclusion is about children with special needs, as reflected by a disabling condition. A handful of others argue that inclusive education should not be limited to children with disabilities, as it holds relevance for all marginalised groups. Though they were quick to accept that this thinking has not yet prevailed.<ref name="Singal 827–840"/> Indian understandings of disability and educational needs are demonstrated through the interchangeable use of several English terms which hold different meanings in the north. For example, children with special needs or special educational needs tend to be perceived as children with disabilities in India, as demonstrated by Mukhopadhyay and Mani's (2002) chapter on 'Education of Children with Special Needs' in a NIEPA government-funded research report, which solely pertains to children with disabilities. In contrast, the intention of Mary Warnock's term 'special educational needs', coined in the UK in 1978, was to imply that any child, with an impairment or not, may have an individual educational need at some point in their school career (e.g. dyslexia, or language of instruction as a second language) which the teacher should adapt to. This further implies that a child with a disability may not have a special educational need while their able-bodied peers could (Giffard-Lindsay, 2006). In addition, despite the 1987 Mental Health Act finally separating the meaning of learning disability from that of mental illness in India, there is still some confusion in understanding, with the 1995 Persons with Disabilities Act listing both mental retardation and mental illness as categories of disability.<ref>{{Citation|last=Renwick|first=Neil|title=Millennium Development Goal 1: poverty, hunger and decent work in Southeast Asia|date=5 July 2017|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315085883-5|work=The Millennium Development Goals: Challenges, Prospects and Opportunities|pages=63–87|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315085883-5|isbn=978-1-315-08588-3|access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref> Ignorance and fear of genetic inheritance adds to the societal stigma of both. 'Inclusive' and 'integrated' education are also concepts that are used interchangeably,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singal|first=Nidhi|date=October 2005|title=Mapping the field of inclusive education: a review of the Indian literature|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603110500138277|journal=International Journal of Inclusive Education|volume=9|issue=4|pages=331–350|doi=10.1080/13603110500138277|s2cid=146498735|issn=1360-3116}}</ref> understood as the placement of children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms, with the provision of aids and appliances, and specialist training for the teacher on how to 'deal with' students with disabilities. There is little engagement with the connotations of school, curriculum, and teacher flexibility for all children. These rigid, categorical interpretations of subtly different northern concepts are perhaps a reflection of not only the government tendency to categories and label<ref name="Singal 827–840"/> (Julka, 2005; Singal, 2005a) but also a cultural one, most explicitly enforced through the rigidly categorised caste system.
| |
| == Deaf Education in India ==
| |
| === History of education in India for the DHH population ===
| |
| India is very diverse with eight main religions, hundreds of ethnic groups, and 21 languages with hundreds of dialects.<ref name=":04">{{Citation|last1=Mandke|first1=Kalyani|title=Deaf Education in India|date=21 February 2019|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780190880514.001.0001/oso-9780190880514-chapter-14|work=Deaf Education Beyond the Western World|pages=261–284|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/oso/9780190880514.003.0014|isbn=978-0-19-088051-4|access-date=22 October 2021|last2=Chandekar|first2=Prerna}}</ref> This diversity has made it difficult to educate DHH people in India for generations.<ref name=":04" />
| |
| | |
| There is a history of educating the deaf in India, however, there is no single clear approach to their education.<ref name=":04" /> This stems from conditions, some similar to those faced around the world, and others unique to India.<ref name=":04" /> For example, prior to independence of India, there were not clear laws and protections for the disabled.<ref name=":04" /> Since independence, advancements have been made for rights of the disabled, but this has not fully tackled the issue.<ref name=":04" />
| |
| | |
| Pre-independence there were only 24 schools for the deaf in India, and all of these used an oral approach.<ref name=":04" /> The belief was that using sign language would hinder advancements of hearing and speaking in deaf children.<ref name=":04" /> Additionally, there was no single Indian sign language, so signs would differ depending on where the school was located.<ref name=":04" />
| |
| | |
| Post-independence, there are more services and resources available for DHH people, however, challenges with education remain.<ref name=":04" /> There are organizations around the country that work to advance the spread and quality of education for the deaf. <ref name=":04" />
| |
| | |
| === Education for DHH children ===
| |
| Oralism and the use of sign language are two competing approaches to education for DHH people.<ref name=":04" /> While oralism dominates in India, which is an approach that encourages speaking and hearing, it is usually not realistic for DHH children.<ref name=":04" />
| |
| | |
| There is an Indian Sign Language, however, it is not formally recognized by the government and it is not complete or comprehensive.<ref name=":04" /> It varies around the country and is not encouraged by professionals and educators. <ref name=":04" />Beliefs of the past that the use of sign language will hinder the potential advancements of hearing and speaking in DHH children remain.<ref name=":04" /> In recent years, there has been a notion to encourage the use of sign language in India and teach it in schools. <ref name=":04" />In 2017, the first ISL dictionary was released. <ref name=":15">{{Cite web|last=Gavai|first=Avinash|date=25 September 2018|title=Deaf & Defiant: The Rise of India's Hearing-Impaired|url=https://medium.com/ketto-blog/deaf-defiant-the-rise-of-indias-hearing-impaired-b617a064fe78|access-date=22 October 2021|website=Ketto Blog|language=en}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Due to these challenges and beliefs associated with sign language, education for DHH people in India often focuses on teaching children to hear, speak, and read lips, this is known as an oral approach.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=Education for the Deaf|url=http://nadindia.org/Projects/Education|access-date=22 October 2021|website=nadindia.org|language=en}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In India there are regular schools and special schools.<ref name=":04" /> Special schools provide education for children with different disabilities.<ref name=":04" /> Special schools can be beneficial to DHH children, and provide a better education than they would receive in a regular school. <ref name=":04" />However, these schools aren't available for every deaf child.<ref name=":04" /> Sometimes they are located too far from a child's home. <ref name=":04" />Another reason a child may have to attend a regular school is if they receive hearing technology.<ref name=":04" /> Since India focuses on hearing and speaking for the deaf, hearing technology is encouraged. <ref name=":04" />Once a child receives hearing technology it is believed that they can attend regular schools. <ref name=":15" />Even with hearing technology, DHH children still need special education in order to succeed. <ref name=":04" />This puts them at a significant disadvantage in regular school and can cause them to fall behind academically, linguistically, and developmentally.<ref name=":04" /> For these reasons, many deaf children receive poor education or no education at all, causing the illiteracy rate of deaf children to rise. <ref name=":04" />
| |
| | |
| Education in India in regular schools and deaf schools has problems. <ref name=":15" />Even in deaf schools, sign language isn't usually taught and used.<ref name=":15" /> Some use a small amount of sign language but all of the deaf schools in India use or claim to use an oral approach.<ref name=":15" /> Some deaf schools secretly teach sign language due to the stigma and beliefs surrounding the use of sign language, and disability in general, in India. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Petcosky-Kulkarni|first=Kate|date=14 January 2018|title=A Mom Fights To Get An Education For Her Deaf Daughters|language=en|work=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/01/14/575921716/a-mom-fights-to-get-an-education-for-her-deaf-daughters|access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref>Children in deaf schools have to try to learn by hearing or reading lips and writing.<ref name=":3" /> In hearing schools, the children have to do the same.<ref name=":3" /> There are no special accommodations. Additionally, there aren't any teachers that use sign language in regular schools (maybe a few in deaf schools), and there aren't any interpreters.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|first1=Shruti|last1=Vaidya|first2=Atiya|last2=Hajee|first3=Mohammed Aqil|last3=Hajee|title=I was the only deaf student in a classroom – here's how Indian schools are wasting our potential|url=https://scroll.in/magazine/847575/i-was-the-only-deaf-student-in-a-classroom-heres-how-indian-schools-are-wasting-our-potential|access-date=22 October 2021|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| There are a couple of hundred deaf schools in India and vocational training is becoming more common for DHH people.<ref name=":15" />
| |
| | |
| === Higher education ===
| |
| There are no deaf colleges or universities in India. A person's education ends with grade school- where they likely weren't able to learn.<ref name=":24" /> With lack of education, DHH people then have a very difficult time finding a job.<ref name=":24" />
| |
| | |
| There is one interpreter in one college in India, Delhi University. <ref name=":24" />
| |
| | |
| == See also ==
| |
| | |
| * [[Gender inequality in India]]
| |
| * [[Gurukula]]
| |
| * [[List of schools in India]]
| |
| * [[Macaulayism]], historical background to the implementation of English education in India.
| |
| * [[National Translation Mission]]
| |
| * [[Open access in India]]
| |
| * ''[[Two Million Minutes]]'', documentary film
| |
| * ''[[Dreams Choked]]'', documentary film
| |
| * [[Happiness Curriculum]]
| |
| | |
| == Notes ==
| |
| {{notelist}}
| |
| | |
| == References ==
| |
| | |
| ===Citations===
| |
| | |
| {{reflist|2}}
| |
| | |
| ===Bibliography===
| |
| * Azam, Mehtabul, and Andreas Blom. (2008). "Progress in Participation in Tertiary Education in India from 1983 to 2004" (The World Bank, 2008) [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/6292/WPS4793.pdf?sequence=1 online].
| |
| * Basant, Rakesh, and Gitanjali Sen. (2014). "Access to higher education in India: an exploration of its Antecedents." ''Economic and Political Weekly'' (2014): 38-45 [http://vslir.iima.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/11718/11439/1/2013-05-11rakeshbasant.pdf online].
| |
| * Blackwell, Fritz (2004), ''India: A Global Studies Handbook'', ABC-CLIO, {{ISBN|1-57607-348-3}}.
| |
| * Elder, Joseph W. (2006), "Caste System", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1)'' edited by Stanley Wolpert, 223–229, Thomson Gale: {{ISBN|0-684-31350-2}}.
| |
| * Ellis, Catriona. "Education for All: Reassessing the Historiography of Education in Colonial India." ''History Compass'' (2009) 7#2 pp 363–375
| |
| * Dharampal, . (2000). The beautiful tree: Indigenous [https://web.archive.org/web/20150426232508/http://cbseonlineresult.com/ Indian education] in the eighteenth century. Biblia Impex Private Limited, New Delhi 1983; reprinted by Keerthi Publishing House Pvt Ltd., Coimbatore 1995.
| |
| * Suri, R.K. and Kalapana Rajaram, eds. "Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'' (2008), New Delhi: Spectrum, {{ISBN|81-7930-294-6}}.
| |
| * ''India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)'', New Delhi: Additional Director General (ADG), Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, {{ISBN|978-81-230-1557-6}}.
| |
| * Passow, A. Harry et al. ''The National Case Study: An Empirical Comparative Study of Twenty-One Educational Systems.'' (1976) [https://archive.org/details/nationalcasestud0000unse online]
| |
| * Prabhu, Joseph (2006), "Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'' edited by Stanley Wolpert, 23–28, Thomson Gale: {{ISBN|0-684-31351-0}}.
| |
| * Pathania, Rajni. "Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality." ''Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology'' 17.1 (2020) [http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf online].
| |
| * Raman, S.A. (2006). "Women's Education", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 4)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert, 235–239, Thomson Gale: {{ISBN|0-684-31353-7}}.
| |
| *{{cite book |first=Yvette Claire |last=Rosser |title=Curriculum as Destiny: Forging National Identity in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh |year=2003 |publisher=University of Texas at Austin |type=Dissertation |url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2003/rosseryc036/rosseryc036.pdf |access-date=11 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911035259/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2003/rosseryc036/rosseryc036.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}
| |
| * Setty, E.D. and Ross, E.L. (1987), "A Case Study in Applied Education in Rural India", ''Community Development Journal'', 22 ('''2'''): 120–129, Oxford University Press.
| |
| * Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. (2004), "India: Constitutional Amendment Making The Right to Education a Fundamental Right", ''International Journal of Constitutional Law'', 2#1: 148–158.
| |
| * Tilak, Jandhyala B.G. (2015) "How inclusive is higher education in India?." ''Social Change'' 45.2 (2015): 185-223 [https://www.educationforallinindia.com/How_inclusive_is_higher_education_in_india_Social_Change_2015-JBG_Tilak.pdf online].
| |
| * Vrat, Prem (2006), "Indian Institutes of Technology", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'' edited by Stanley Wolpert, 229–231, Thomson Gale: {{ISBN|0-684-31351-0}}.
| |
| * Desai, Sonalde, Amaresh Dubey, B.L. Joshi, Mitali Sen, Abusaleh Shariff and Reeve Vanneman. 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120623054931/http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/06HDinIndia.pdf India Human Development in India: Challenges for a Society in Transition. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.]
| |
| | |
| == External links ==
| |
| <!--NO COMMERCIAL LINKS PLEASE-->
| |
| *[http://mhrd.gov.in/ Ministry of Human Resource Development]
| |
| *[http://www.mospi.nic.in/1-education Education statistics from the Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation]
| |
| | |
| {{India topics}}
| |
| {{Asia topic|Education in}}
| |
| {{Education in India}}
| |
| {{Portal bar|Education|India}}
| |
| | |
| [[Category:Education in India| ]] | |
