Korean War: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 23:31, 21 September 2022

The Korean War (Korean: 한국전잴, Russian: Корейская Война, Chinese: 朝鲜战争), or the Forgotten War, took place between 25 June 1950 and 27 July 1953. It was a civil war fought between between the Republic of Korea (South Korea), and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or North Korea). South Korea was supported by the armed forces of several countries of the United Nations, commanded by the United States. North Korea was supported by the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. The war began at 4:30 a.m. on June 25, 1950. The fighting stopped on July 27, 1953. More than two million Koreans had been killed, mostly in the North.

Both sides blame each other for starting the war. The North, led by the communist Kim Il-Sung, was helped mostly by China, led by Mao Zedong, and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin. There was medical support from East Germany, led by Walter Ulbricht); Hungary, led by Mátyás Rákosi; Romania, led by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej; Czechoslovakia,(led by Klement Gottwald; Poland, led by Bolesław Bierut; and Bulgaria . Other support came from Mongolia, led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan

The South, led by the nationalist Syngman Rhee, was helped by many countries in the United Nations, especially the United States. British troops were on the ground in smaller numbers. The U.S. forces included detachments from its Air Force and Navy.

The war ended on July 27, 1953. The United States keeps troops in South Korea in case North Korea ever invades again. Both Koreas are divided by the Korean Demilitarized Zone, which crosses the 38th parallel.

Origins and causes

In 1910, fifteen years after the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan annexed Korea and was still ruling when World War II ended in 1945. After Japan had surrendered, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to split Korea into two occupation zones for a short time, with the Soviets occupying the north and the Americans occupying the south.

At the Moscow Conference of the Council of Foreign Ministers in December 1945, the Americans and the Soviets agreed on Korea having a provisional government, which would not last long. That became difficult because of the rise of the Cold War.^[1]

The Cold War was an important cause in the Korean War. Relations between the two occupying powers were already bad, but when China became communist in October 1949, US President Harry Truman was very worried that other countries around China would go communist as well, such as Japan. The US Army was a twelfth the size that it had been of five years earlier.^[2]

Stalin had recently lost a Cold War dispute over the Berlin Blockade and the subsequent airlift. Both powers argued mainly over fair border lines and the spread of communism.

Events

25 June 1950
North Korea invades South Korea across the 38th parallel and takes most of South Korea. The South Korean Army retreats to Busan.

July 1950

The United Nations Army intervenes and lands at Incheon, a small port just about halfway down South Korea. From there, they fight North Korea, push it past the border, and separate the Koreas close to the Chinese border just south of the Yalu River.
China starts to feel threatened since the war happens so close to it. It tells the UN and South Korea to return to the border and that they have no business to fight so far into North Korea.

October 1950

The warning given by the Chinese is ignored by the UN (led by US General Douglas MacArthur and so the Chinese People's Liberation Army invades North Korea and helps it fight the UN forces until they are pushed past the border.

December 1950

Because MiG-15s are beating America's Lockheed P-80 Shooting Stars, the F-86 Sabre goes to Korea.

February 1951

Fighting continues until order is restored and neither army is in each other's country, when peace talks begin.

11 April 1951

MacArthur is relieved of his commands for making public statements that contradicted the administration's policies. He wants to invade North Korea.

March 1951 – 27 July 1953

Peace talks continue until 27 July 1953, when no peace is declared, but an armistice is signed by both countries, and the UN withdraws.

Results

Country	Positive	Negative
United States	The expansion of communism is stopped from entering South Korea. Greece and Turkey join NATO. The Truman Doctrine is upheld.	Found by other countries to be far too aggressive, which makes them nervous.
UN	Gets first major success.	Wins only by violence, not peace talks.
Both Koreas	North Korea gets treaty with China. South Korea stays capitalist.	Many people die. Much property is wrecked. No reunification occurs.
People's Republic of China	A foreign war unites the country and improves its rulers' prestige.	Relations with Soviets become worse. Not allowed on UN Security Council.
Soviet Union	North Korea stays communist. The Soviet Air Force is tested against that of United States.	Relations with China worsen. Loses a large amount of money.

Statistics

Total strength

Approximate numbers

United Nations

South Korea – 603,000 soldiers
United States- 327,000
United Kingdom- 14,200
Canada – 8,100
Turkey – 5,500
Australia – 2,300
Philippines – 1,600
New Zealand – 1,400
Netherlands – 3,418
Ethiopia – 1,300
Greece – 1,250
Colombia – 1,300
Thailand – 1,200
Belgium – 891
South Africa – 873
France – 800
Luxembourg – 44
- Total – about 972,000 soldiers

Communist

North Korea – 260,600
China – 1,358,456
Soviet Union – 26,000
- Total – 1,642,600 soldiers

Losses

United Nations

South Korea – 205,000 deaths – 905,800 wounded
United States – 100,503 deaths – 92,073 wounded
United Kingdom – 1,078 deaths – 2,674 wounded
Turkey – 721 deaths – 2,109 wounded
Canada – 507 deaths – 1,001 wounded
Australia – 380 deaths – 1,192 wounded
New Zealand – 34 deaths – 80 wounded
Netherlands – 150 deaths – 3 MIA
France – 69 deaths
Luxembourg – 2 deaths – 2 wounded

Communists

North Korea – 257,806 deaths
China – about 25,000 deaths
Soviet Union – about 300 deaths

Television

The popular television show M*A*S*H, about American doctors serving in the Korean War, lasted longer than the fighting.

Related pages

Cold War

References

↑ Keely Rogers and Jo Thomas, History 20th Century World – The Cold War (2008) p.50
↑ Active Duty Military Personnel, 1941–2011 inforplease.com

External links

[1] Keely Rogers and Jo Thomas, History 20th Century World – The Cold War (2008) p.50

[2] Active Duty Military Personnel, 1941–2011 inforplease.com

[1]

[2]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|1950–1953 war between North and South Korea}}
+The '''Korean War''' ([[Korean language|Korean]]: 한국전잴, [[Russian language|Russian]]: Корейская Война, [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 朝鲜战争), or the '''Forgotten War''', took place between 25 June 1950 and 27 July 1953. It was a [[civil war]] fought between between the [[Republic of Korea]] (South Korea), and the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (or North Korea). South Korea was supported by the armed forces of several countries of the [[United Nations]], commanded by the [[United States]].  North Korea was supported by the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. The war began at 4:30 a.m. on June 25, 1950. The fighting stopped on July 27, 1953. More than two million Koreans had been killed, mostly in the North.
-{{about||other conflicts and wars involving Korea|List of Korean battles|the conflict from 1945 to the present|Korean conflict}}
-{{redirect|6/25|the date|June 25}}
-{{use American English|date=May 2019}}
+Both sides blame each other for starting the war. The North, led by the [[communist]] [[Kim Il-Sung]], was helped mostly by China, led by [[Mao Zedong]], and the Soviet Union, led by [[Joseph Stalin]]. There was medical support from [[East Germany]], led by [[Walter Ulbricht]]); [[Hungary]], led by [[Mátyás Rákosi]]; [[Romania]], led by [[Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej]]; [[Czechoslovakia]],(led by [[Klement Gottwald]]; [[Poland]], led by [[Bolesław Bierut]]; and [[Bulgaria]] . Other support came from [[Mongolia]], led by [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]]
-{{use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
-{{Infobox military conflict
-| conflict          = Korean War
-| partof            = the [[Cold War]] and the [[Korean conflict]]
-| image             = Korean War Montage 2.png
-| image_size        = 300px
-| caption           = Clockwise from top:{{flatlist|
-* A column of the U.S. [[1st Marine Division]]'s [[infantry]] and [[armored warfare|armor]] moves through Chinese lines during their [[Battle of Chosin Reservoir|breakout from the Chosin Reservoir]]
-* UN landing at [[Incheon]] harbor, starting point of the [[Battle of Incheon]]
-* Korean refugees in front of a U.S. [[M46 Patton]] tank
-* U.S. Marines, led by First Lieutenant [[Baldomero Lopez]], landing at Incheon
-* [[F-86 Sabre]] [[fighter aircraft]]
-}}
-| date              = 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=6|day1=25|year1=1950|month2=7|day2=27|year2=1953}})<br />25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=6|day1=25|year1=1950}})
-| place             = [[Korean Peninsula]], [[Yellow Sea]], [[Sea of Japan]], [[Korea Strait]], [[China–North Korea border]]
-| territory         = [[Korean Demilitarized Zone]] established
-* North Korea gains the city of [[Kaesong]], but loses a net total of {{convert|1506|sqmi|km2|abbr=on|order=flip}}, including the city of [[Sokcho]], to South Korea.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Birtle |first=Andrew J. |date=2000 |url=https://history.army.mil/brochures/kw-stale/stale.htm |title=The Korean War: Years of Stalemate |publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History |page=34 |access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref>
-| result            = Inconclusive, Military Stalemate
-* North Korean invasion of South Korea repelled
-* US-led United Nations invasion of North Korea repelled
-* Chinese and North Korean invasion of South Korea repelled
-* [[Korean Armistice Agreement]] signed in 1953
-* [[Korean conflict]] ongoing
-| combatant1        = '''{{flag|First Republic of Korea|name=South Korea|1949|size=23px}}'''
-| combatant1a       = {{plainlist |
-* '''{{flagicon|United Nations|size=23px}} [[United Nations Command|United Nations]]'''{{refn | name = nbUNforces | group = lower-alpha | On 9 July 1951 troop constituents were: US: 70.4%, ROK: 23.3% other UNC: 6.3%<ref name=kim-1996>{{cite thesis|page=213 |url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2408/1/U615357.pdf |title=Anglo-American Relations and the Attempts to Settle the Korean Question 1953–1960 |first=Heesu |last=Kim |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |year=1996 |access-date=9 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410050726/http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2408/1/U615357.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2017 }}</ref>}}
-* '''{{flag|United States|1912|size=23px}}}}'''
-{{Collapsible list
-| title = Combat support:
-| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
-| {{flag|Canada|1921|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Turkey|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Australia|size=23px}}
-| {{flagcountry|Third Philippine Republic|1936|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|New Zealand|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Thailand|1917|size=23px}}
-| {{flagcountry|Ethiopian Empire|size=23px}}
-| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece|state|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|French Fourth Republic|name=France|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Colombia|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Belgium|size=23px}}
-| {{flagcountry|Union of South Africa|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Netherlands|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Luxembourg|size=23px}}
-}}
-{{Collapsible list
-|title= Medical support:<ref name=medical>{{Cite news|last=임|first=성호|date=2020-06-19|title=[6.25전쟁 70년] 이역만리 한국서 수백만명 살리고 의술 전파까지|work=[[Yeonhap News]]|url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20200618138900004?input=1195m|access-date=2021-04-04}}</ref>
-| {{flag|Italy|1946}}{{refn | name = ItalyRedCross| group = lower-alpha |Italy was not part of the United Nations until 1955, but sent Italian Red Cross Field Hospital 68 from 1951<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.korean-war.com/italianRChospital.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-06-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822103003/http://www.korean-war.com/italianRChospital.html |archive-date=2012-08-22 }}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-08-26|title=6.25전쟁 당시 대한민국에 도움의 손길 내밀었던 이탈리아|work=[[Newsis]]|url=https://newsis.com/pict_detail/view.html?pict_id=NISI20160826_0012112661|access-date=2021-04-04}}</ref>
-| {{flag|West Germany|size=23px}}<ref name="Germany">{{Cite news|date=2018-06-22|title=독일, 62년만에 6.25 전쟁 의료지원국에 포함…총 6개국으로 늘어|work=[[해럴드 경제]]|url=http://news.heraldcorp.com/view.php?ud=20180622000293|access-date=2021-04-04}}</ref>
-| {{flag|India|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Norway|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Sweden|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|Denmark|size=23px}}
-}}
-{{Collapsible list
-| title = Other support:
-| {{flagcountry|Israel|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Young |first1=Sam Ma |title=Israel's Role in the UN during the Korean War |journal=Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs |date=2010 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=81–89 |url=http://www.israelcfr.com/documents/4-3/4-3-6-YoungSamMa.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824212403/http://www.israelcfr.com/documents/4-3/4-3-6-YoungSamMa.pdf |archive-date=24 August 2015  |doi=10.1080/23739770.2010.11446616 |s2cid=219293462 }}</ref>
-| {{flag|Republic of China|size=23px|name=Taiwan}}
-| {{flag|Japan|1947}}<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://apjjf.org/2012/10/31/Tessa-Morris-Suzuki/3803/article.html|title=Post-War Warriors: Japanese Combatants in the Korean War−− &#124; The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus|website=apjjf.org}}</ref>
-| {{flagdeco|Pakistan|size=23px}} [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Whan-woo|first=Yi|date=16 September 2019|title=Pakistan's Defense Day rekindles Korean War relief aid|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2019/09/176_275587.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127113137/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2019/09/176_275587.html|archive-date=27 November 2020|access-date=2 May 2020|website=[[The Korea Times]]}}</ref>
-| {{flagcountry|Republic of Cuba (1902–59)|size=23px}}
-| {{flag|El Salvador|size=23px}}
-| {{flagcountry|Francoist Spain|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edles|first1=Laura Desfor|title=Symbol and Ritual in the New Spain: the transition to democracy after Franco|url=https://archive.org/details/symbolritualnews00edle|url-access=limited|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0521628853|page=[https://archive.org/details/symbolritualnews00edle/page/n45 32]}}</ref>
-}}
-| combatant2        = '''{{flag|North Korea|1948|size=23px}}'''
-| combatant2a       = {{plainlist |
-* '''{{flag|China|size=23px}}'''
-* {{flagcountry|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}}
-}}
-{{Collapsible list
-| title = Supported by:
-| {{flagcountry|People's Republic of Bulgaria|1946|size=23px}}
-| {{Nowrap|{{flagcountry|Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|size=23px}}<ref name="rozhlas cz" />}}
-| {{flagcountry|East Germany|1949}}<ref name="528KWA">{{cite book|last1=Edwards |first1=Paul M. |title=Korean War Almanac |series=Almanacs of American wars |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0816074679 |page=528 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5gYCm0bM68sC&pg=PA528 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704225317/https://books.google.com/books?id=5gYCm0bM68sC&pg=PA528 |archive-date=4 July 2017 }}</ref>
-| {{flagcountry|Hungarian People's Republic|1949}}<ref name="528KWA"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kocsis |first1=Piroska |title=Magyar orvosok Koreában (1950–1957) |trans-title=Hungarian physicians in Korea (1950–1957) |url=http://www.archivnet.hu/politika/magyar_orvosok_koreaban_19501957.html |website=ArchivNet: XX. századi történeti források |publisher=Magyar Országos Levéltár |access-date=22 November 2016 |location=Budapest |language=hu |date=2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510103932/http://www.archivnet.hu/politika/magyar_orvosok_koreaban_19501957.html |archive-date=10 May 2017 }}</ref>
-| {{flagcountry|Mongolian People's Republic}}
-| {{flagcountry|Polish People's Republic|1947|size=23px}}
-| {{flagcountry|Socialist Republic of Romania|1948|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Romania's "Fraternal Support" to North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953 |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/romania%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cfraternal-support%E2%80%9D-to-north-korea-during-the-korean-war-1950-1953 |publisher=Wilson Centre |access-date=24 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130221013614/http://wilsoncenter.org/event/romania%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cfraternal-support%E2%80%9D-to-north-korea-during-the-korean-war-1950-1953 |archive-date=21 February 2013 |date=December 2011 }}</ref>
-}}
-| commander1        = {{plainlist |
-* '''{{flagicon|First Republic of Korea|1949|size=23px}} [[Syngman Rhee|Rhee Syng-man]]'''
-* {{flagicon|First Republic of Korea|1949|size=23px}} [[Chung Il-kwon]]
-* {{flagicon|First Republic of Korea|1949|size=23px}} [[Paik Sun-yup]]
-* {{flagicon|First Republic of Korea|1949|size=23px}} [[Shin Sung-mo]]
-}}
-| commander1a       = {{plainlist |
-* '''{{flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} [[Harry S. Truman]]'''
-* {{nowrap|'''{{flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'''}}
-* {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} [[Robert A. Lovett]]
-* {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} [[Douglas MacArthur]]
-* {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} [[Matthew Ridgway]]
-* {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} [[Mark W. Clark]]
-* {{flagicon|United Kingdom|size=23px}} [[Clement Attlee]]
-* {{flagicon|United Kingdom|size=23px}} [[Winston Churchill]]
-}}
-| commander2        = {{plainlist |
-* '''{{flagicon|North Korea|1948|size=23px}} [[Kim Il-sung]]'''
-* {{flagicon|North Korea|1948|size=23px}} [[Pak Hon-yong]]
-* {{flagicon|North Korea|1948|size=23px}} [[Choe Yong-gon (army commander)|Choe Yong-gon]]
-* {{flagicon|North Korea|1948|size=23px}} [[Kim Chaek]]{{KIA}}
-}}
-| commander2a       = {{plainlist |
-* '''{{flagicon|China|size=23px}} [[Mao Zedong]]'''
-* {{flagicon|China|size=23px}} [[Peng Dehuai]]
-* {{flagicon|China|size=23px}} [[Chen Geng]]
-* {{flagicon|China|size=23px}} [[Deng Hua]]
-* {{flagicon|China|size=23px}} [[Hong Xuezhi]]
-* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}} [[Joseph Stalin]]
-* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}} [[Georgy Malenkov]]
-* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}} [[Pavel Zhigarev]]
-}}
-| strength1         = {{plainlist | '''Peak strength:'''
-* {{flagdeco|First Republic of Korea|1948|size=23px}} 602,902<ref>{{cite book|others=Korea Institute of Military History |editor1-last=Millett |editor1-first=Allan Reed |title=The Korean War, Volume 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JFvmnDiH-gC&pg=PA692 |access-date=16 February 2013 |year=2001 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0803277960 |page=692 |quote=Total Strength 602,902 troops }}</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|United States|1912|size=23px}} 326,863<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2004/10/global-us-troop-deployment-1950-2003 |title=Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950–2003 |first=Tim |last=Kane |author-link=Tim Kane |date=27 October 2004 |work=Reports |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |access-date=15 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128071747/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2004/10/global-us-troop-deployment-1950-2003 |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}<br />{{cite news |title=U.S. to keep troop levels the same in South Korea |author=Ashley Rowland |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/u-s-to-keep-troop-levels-the-same-in-south-korea-1.84294 |newspaper=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |date=22 October 2008 |access-date=16 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512203739/http://www.stripes.com/news/u-s-to-keep-troop-levels-the-same-in-south-korea-1.84294 |archive-date=12 May 2013 }}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA562829 |title=U.S. Troops Stationed in South Korea, Anachronistic? |author=Colonel Tommy R. Mize, United States Army |date=12 March 2012 |work=[[United States Army War College]] |publisher=Defense Technical Information Center |access-date=16 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408133136/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA562829 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.gao.gov/assets/160/150991.pdf |title=Military Presence: U.S. Personnel in the Pacific Theater |author=Louis H. Zanardi |author2=Barbara A. Schmitt |author3=Peter Konjevich |author4=M. Elizabeth Guran |author5=Susan E. Cohen |author6=Judith A. McCloskey |date=August 1991 |work=Reports to Congressional Requesters |publisher=[[United States General Accounting Office]] |access-date=15 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615234749/http://www.gao.gov/assets/160/150991.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|1801|size=23px}} 14,198<ref name="UNC-USFK">{{cite web|url=http://www.usfk.mil/About/United-Nations-Command/ |title=USFK United Nations Command |author=USFK Public Affairs Office |work=United States Forces Korea |publisher=United States Department of Defense |access-date=29 July 2016 |quote=Republic of Korea&nbsp;– 590,911<br />Colombia&nbsp;– 1,068<br />United States&nbsp;– 302,483<br />Belgium&nbsp;– 900<br />United Kingdom&nbsp;– 14,198<br />South Africa&nbsp;– 826<br />Canada&nbsp;– 6,146<br />Netherlands&nbsp;– 819<br />Turkey&nbsp;– 5,453<br />Luxembourg&nbsp;– 44<br />Australia&nbsp;– 2,282<br />Philippines&nbsp;– 1,496<br />New Zealand&nbsp;– 1,385<br />Thailand&nbsp;– 1,204{{clarification needed|reason=Conflicts with data on [[Royal Thai Armed Forces]] article|date=December 2021}}<br />Ethiopia&nbsp;– 1,271<br />Greece&nbsp;– 1,263<br />France&nbsp;– 1,119 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711030514/http://www.usfk.mil/About/United-Nations-Command/ |archive-date=11 July 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |title=Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpOp2OO1-DAC&pg=PA126 |access-date=16 February 2013 |year=2002 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0275978358 |page=126 |quote=A peak strength of 14,198 British troops was reached in 1952, with over 40,000 total serving in Korea. }}<br />{{cite web|url=http://ukindprk.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-dprk/uk-korea-relations |title=UK-Korea Relations |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=9 February 2012 |work=British Embassy Pyongyang |publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] |access-date=16 February 2013 |quote=When war came to Korea in June 1950, Britain was second only to the United States in the contribution it made to the UN effort in Korea. 87,000 British troops took part in the Korean conflict, and over 1,000 British servicemen lost their lives }}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.kwva.org/brief_account_of_the_korean_war.htm |title=A Brief Account of the Korean War |author=Jack D. Walker |work=Information |publisher=Korean War Veterans Association |access-date=17 February 2013 |quote=Other countries to furnish combat units, with their peak strength, were: Australia (2,282), Belgium/Luxembourg (944), Canada (6,146), Colombia (1,068), Ethiopia (1,271), France (1,119), Greece (1,263), Netherlands (819), New Zealand (1,389), Philippines (1,496), Republic of South Africa (826), Thailand (1,294), Turkey (5,455), and the United Kingdom (Great Britain 14,198). }}</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|Canada|1921|size=23px}} 8,123<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/collections/korea/didyouknow |title=Land of the Morning Calm: Canadians in Korea 1950–1953 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=7 January 2013 |work=Veterans Affairs Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=22 February 2013 |quote=Peak Canadian Army strength in Korea was 8,123 all ranks. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323093839/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/collections/korea/didyouknow |archive-date=23 March 2013 }}</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|Turkey|size=23px}} 5,453<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|Australia|size=23px}} 2,282<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|Third Philippine Republic|1936|size=23px}} 1,496<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|New Zealand|size=23px}} 1,385<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|Thailand|size=23px}} 1,290{{clarification needed|reason=Conflicts with data on [[Royal Thai Armed Forces]] article|date=December 2021}}<ref name="ROK Web" />
-* {{flagdeco|Ethiopian Empire|size=23px}} 1,271<ref name="517KWA" />
-* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Greece|state|size=23px}} 1,263<ref name="UNC-USFK" /><ref name="517KWA" />
-* {{flagdeco|French Fourth Republic|size=23px}} 1,185<ref name="517KWA">{{cite book|last=Edwards |first=Paul M. |title=Korean War Almanac |series=Almanacs of American wars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5gYCm0bM68sC&pg=PA517 |access-date=22 February 2013 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-0816074679 |page=517 }}</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|Colombia|size=23px}} 1,068<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|Belgium|size=23px}} 900<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|Union of South Africa|size=23px}} 826<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|Netherlands|size=23px}} 819<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-* {{flagdeco|India|size=23px}} 346<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/the-doctor-heroes-of-war/article17529390.ece|title=The doctor-heroes of war|first=D. p|last=Ramachandran|newspaper=The Hindu|date=19 March 2017|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|Sweden|size=23px}} 170<ref name="ROK Web" />
-* {{flagdeco|Japan|1947|size=23px}} 120<ref name="auto"/>
-* {{flagdeco|Norway|size=23px}} 105<ref name="ROK Web" />
-* {{flagdeco|Denmark|size=23px}} 100<ref name="ROK Web" />
-* {{flagdeco|Italy|size=23px}} 72<ref name="ROK Web" />
-* {{flagdeco|Luxembourg|size=23px}} 44<ref name="UNC-USFK" />
-}}
-'''Together:''' 972,334<br />
-'''Total:'''<br />{{flagdeco|United States|1912|size=23px}} 1,780,000<ref name="Fact Sheet: America's Wars">[https://www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf Fact Sheet: America's Wars".] U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Washington D.C., May 2017.</ref>
-| strength2         = {{plainlist | '''Peak strength:'''
-* {{flagdeco|China|1949|size=23px}} 1,450,000<ref name=zhang257>{{harvnb|Zhang|1995|p=257}}.</ref><ref>Xiaobing, Li (2009). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army'' Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 105: "By December 1952, the Chinese forces in Korea had reached a record high of 1.45 million men, including fifty-nine infantry divisions, ten artillery divisions, five antiaircraft divisions, and seven tank regiments. CPVF numbers remained stable until the armistice agreement was signed in July 1953."</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|North Korea|1948|size=23px}} 266,600<ref>{{cite book|last=Shrader |first=Charles R. |title=Communist Logistics in the Korean War |series=Issue 160 of Contributions in Military Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcGs__qQCzgC&pg=PA90 |access-date=17 February 2013 |year=1995 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0313295096 |page=90 |quote=NKPA strength peaked in October 1952 at 266,600 men in eighteen divisions and six independent brigades. }}</ref>
-* {{flagdeco|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}} 26,000<ref name="Whipped">{{cite journal|last1=Kolb |first1=Richard K. |year=1999 |title=In Korea we whipped the Russian Air Force |journal=VFW Magazine |volume=86 |issue=11 |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-43694886 |access-date=17 February 2013 |quote=Soviet involvement in the Korean War was on a large scale. During the war, 72,000 Soviet troops (among them 5,000 pilots) served along the Yalu River in Manchuria. At least 12 air divisions rotated through. A peak strength of 26,000 men was reached in 1952. }}</ref>
-}}
-'''Together:''' 1,742,000
-'''Total:'''<br />{{flagdeco|China|1949|size=23px}} 2,970,000<ref name="xu" /><br>{{flagdeco|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}} 72,000<ref name="Whipped"/>
-| casualties1       = '''Total dead and missing:''' 170,927 dead and 32,585 missing{{efn|162,394 South Koreans, 36,574 Americans, 4,544 others}}<br>'''Total wounded:''' 566,434
- {{Collapsible list
-| bullets = yes
-| title = Details
-| {{flagcountry|First Republic of South Korea|1948|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>137,899 dead<br>450,742 wounded<br>24,495 MIA<br>8,343 POW
-| {{flagcountry|United States|1912|size=23px}}:<br>36,574 dead{{refn | name = USMIA | group = lower-alpha | The remains of 8,075 US servicemen were not recovered,<ref name="DCAS29APR2020">{{cite web|url=https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_korea_sum.xhtml |title=U.S. Military Casualties&nbsp;– Korean War Casualty Summary |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=29 April 2020 |work=Defense Casualty Analysis System |publisher=United States Department of Defense |access-date=29 April 2020 }}</ref> of which 7,586 continue to be listed as missing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dpaa.mil/Our-Missing/Past-Conflicts/|title=Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency > Our Missing > Past Conflicts|website=www.dpaa.mil}}</ref>}}<ref name="DCAS29APR2020"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/how-many-americans-died-in-korea/|title=How Many Americans Died in Korea?|website=www.cbsnews.com}}</ref><br />103,284 wounded<ref name="DCAS29APR2020"/><br>4,714 POW<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aad.archives.gov/aad/series-description.jsp?s=488 |title=Records of American Prisoners of War During the Korean War, created, 1950–1953, documenting the period 1950–1953 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=Access to Archival Databases |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |access-date=6 February 2013 |quote=This series has records for 4,714 U.S. military officers and soldiers who were prisoners of war (POWs) during the Korean War and therefore considered casualties. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101231911/http://aad.archives.gov/aad/series-description.jsp?s=488 |archive-date=1 November 2013 }}</ref>
-| {{flagcountry|United Kingdom|1801}}:<br />1,109 dead<ref name="BESeoul" /><br>2,674 wounded<ref name="BESeoul">{{cite web |url=http://ukinrok.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-korea/defence-relations/korean-war |title=Korean war  |author=Office of the Defence Attaché |date=30 September 2010 |work=British Embassy Seoul |publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] |access-date=16 February 2013}}</ref><br />179 MIA<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>977 POW<ref name="ROK Web" />
-| {{flagcountry|Turkey|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>741 dead<br>2,068 wounded<br>163 MIA<br>244 POW
-| {{flagcountry|Canada|1921|size=23px}}:<br>516 dead<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/teach_resources/korwebquest/grp02/korsum |title=Korean War WebQuest |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=11 October 2011 |work=Veterans Affairs Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=28 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130062836/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/teach_resources/korwebquest/grp02/korsum|archive-date=30 January 2013|quote=In Brampton, Ontario, there is a 60-metre long "Memorial Wall" of polished granite, containing individual bronze plaques which commemorate the 516 Canadian soldiers who died during the Korean War.}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/history/KoreaWar/koreawar_fact |title=Canada Remembers the Korean War |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=1 March 2013 |work=Veterans Affairs Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=27 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006110456/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/history/KoreaWar/koreawar_fact|archive-date=6 October 2012 |quote=The names of 516 Canadians who died in service during the conflict are inscribed in the Korean War Book of Remembrance located in the Peace Tower in Ottawa.}}</ref><br />1,042 wounded<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=4854 |title=Korean War veterans talk of "forgotten war" |author=Aiysha Abdullah |author2=Kirk Fachnie |date=6 December 2010 |work=Canadian Army |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=28 May 2013 |quote=Canada lost 516 military personnel during the Korean War and 1,042 more were wounded. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523072128/http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=4854 |archive-date=23 May 2013 }}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.kvacanada.com/canadians_in_the_korean_war.htm |title=Canadians in the Korean War |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=kvacanada.com |publisher=Korean Veterans Association of Canada Inc. |access-date=28 May 2013 |quote=Canada's casualties totalled 1,558 including 516 who died. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511043518/http://www.kvacanada.com/canadians_in_the_korean_war.htm |archive-date=11 May 2013 }}<br />{{cite news |title=2013 declared year of Korean war veteran |agency=The Canadian Press |url=http://news.ca.msn.com/canada/2013-declared-year-of-korean-war-veteran |newspaper=MSN News |date=8 January 2013 |access-date=28 May 2013 |quote=The 1,558 Canadian casualties in the three-year conflict included 516 people who died. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102154432/http://news.ca.msn.com/canada/2013-declared-year-of-korean-war-veteran |archive-date=2 November 2013 }}</ref><br />1 MIA<ref name="ROK Web" /><br />33 POW<ref>{{cite web|url=http://legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2003/07/canadians-in-korea/ |title=Canadians in Korea |author=Ted Barris |date=1 July 2003 |work=legionmagazine.com |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion |access-date=28 May 2013 |quote=Not one of the 33 Canadian PoWs imprisoned in North Korea signed the petitions. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720042136/http://legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2003/07/canadians-in-korea/ |archive-date=20 July 2013 }}</ref>
-| {{flagcountry|Australia|size=23px}}:<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/korea/mia/ Australian War Memorial Korea MIA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328164845/https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/korea/mia/ |date=28 March 2012 }} Retrieved 17 March 2012</ref><br />339 dead<br />1,216 wounded<br />43 MIA<br />26 POW
-| {{flagcountry|French Fourth Republic|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>262 dead<br />1,008 wounded<br>7 MIA<br>12 POW
-| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece|state|size=23px}}<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>192 dead<br />543 wounded<br>3 POW
-| {{flagcountry|Colombia|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>163 dead<br />448 wounded<br>28 POW
-| {{flagcountry|Thailand|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>129 dead<br />1,139 wounded<br>5 MIA{{clarification needed|reason=Conflicts with data on [[Royal Thai Armed Forces]] article|date=December 2021}}
-| {{flagcountry|Ethiopian Empire|size=23px}}<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>121 dead<br>536 wounded
-| {{flagcountry|Netherlands|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>122 dead<br>645 wounded<br>3 MIA
-| {{flagcountry|Belgium|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>101 dead<br>478 wounded<br>5 MIA<br>1 POW
-| {{flagcountry|Third Philippine Republic|1936|size=23px}}:<ref name="GWHQ2002">{{cite book|editor1-last=Sandler |editor1-first=Stanley |title=Ground Warfare: H–Q |series=Volume 2 of Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PA160 |access-date=19 March 2013 |year=2002 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1576073445 |page=160 |quote=Philippines: KIA 92; WIA 299; MIA/POW 97<br />New Zealand: KIA 34; WIA 299; MIA/POW 1 }}</ref><br>92 dead<br>299 wounded<br>97 MIA/POW
-| {{flagcountry|Japan|1947}}:<ref name="auto"/><br>79 dead
-| {{flagcountry|Union of South Africa|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>34 dead<br>9 POW
-| {{flagcountry|New Zealand|size=23px}}:<ref name="GWHQ2002" /><br>34 dead<br>299 wounded<br>1 MIA/POW
-| {{flagcountry|Norway|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>3 dead
-| {{flagcountry|Luxembourg|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web" /><br>2 dead<br>13 wounded
-| {{flagcountry|India|size=23px}}:<ref name="The Times, 14 August 1950">{{cite news | newspaper = [[The Times]] | date = 14 August 1950 | title = Two War Reporters Killed | location = London | issn = 0140-0460 | ref = {{sfnRef|''The Times'', 14 August 1950}}}}</ref><br>1 dead
-}}
-| casualties2       = '''Total dead and missing:''' 398,000–926,000 dead and 145,000+ missing{{efn|335,000–526,000 North Koreans, 208,729–400,000 Chinese, 299 Soviet}}<br>'''Total wounded:''' 686,500
- {{Collapsible list
-| bullets = yes
-| title = Details
-| {{flagcountry|North Korea|1948|size=23px}}:<br />215,000–406,000 dead<ref name="Rummel1997" /><ref name="EB">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War|title=Korean War &#124; Combatants, Summary, Years, Map, Casualties, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref><br />303,000 wounded<br />120,000 MIA or POW<ref name="Hickey" />
-| {{flagcountry|China|1949|size=23px}}:<br />''Chinese sources'':<ref name="Li111" /><br />197,653 dead<ref>{{cite web |last1=Xu |first1=Yang |title=抗美援朝烈士新确认为197653人 副军长儿子到场 |trans-title = Martyrs from the War to Resist America and Aid Korea are newly identified as 197,653, and the deputy commander's son is present |url=http://world.people.com.cn/n/2014/1030/c1002-25939560.html |website=[[People's Daily|People's Daily Online]] |publisher=[[Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party]] |access-date=16 July 2021 |language=zh-cn |date=30 October 2014 |quote=在安葬仪式上，记者获悉，现已确认的抗美援朝烈士共有１９７６５３名。确认的抗美援朝烈士名录包括抗美援朝战争期间牺牲和失踪的志愿军官兵、支前民兵民工、支前工作人员，以及停战后至志愿军回国前帮助朝鲜民主主义共和国生产建设牺牲和因伤复发牺牲的人员。 |trans-quote=At the burial ceremony, the reporter was informed that there are now 197,653 confirmed martyrs of the War to Resist America and Aid Korea. The list of confirmed martyrs includes the officers and soldiers of the volunteer army who died and went missing during the War to Resist America and Aid Korea, the militia and militia workers who supported the front, the staff who supported the front, as well as those who died after the armistice until the return of the volunteer army to help the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in production and construction and those who died due to recurrence of injuries. }}</ref><br />383,500 wounded<br />450,000 hospitalized<br />25,621 missing (Those who defected or were captured were included in missing)<ref name="china.org.cn">[http://www.china.org.cn/china/2010-06/28/content_20365659.htm "180,000 Chinese soldiers killed in Korean War, says Chinese general"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603132334/http://www.china.org.cn/china/2010-06/28/content_20365659.htm |date=3 June 2013 }}. China Daily, 28 June 2010. State Council Information Office, Chinese government, Beijing. "According to statistics compiled by the army's medical departments and hospitals, 114,084 servicemen were killed in military action or accidents, and 25,621 soldiers had gone missing. The other about 70,000 casualties died from wounds, illness and other causes, he said. To date, civil affairs departments have registered 183,108 war martyrs, Xu said."</ref><br />7,110 captured<br />14,190 defected<br />''U.S. estimates'':<ref name="Hickey" /><br />400,000+ dead<br />486,000 wounded
-| {{flagcountry|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}}:<br />299 dead<br />335 planes lost<ref name="Krivosheev1997" />
-}}
-| casualties3       = {{plainlist |
-* '''Total civilian deaths:''' 2–3 million (est.)<ref name="Cumings p. 35"/><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453"/>
-* '''South Koreans:'''<br />''990,968 total casualties''<ref name="ROK Web" />
-* '''North Koreans:''' <br />''1,550,000 total casualties'' (est.)<ref name="ROK Web" />
-}}
-| notes             =
-| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Korean War}}
-}}
-The '''Korean War''' (see [[#Names|§ Names]]) was a war fought between [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]] from 25 June 1950 to 27 July 1953. The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following clashes along the border and [[rebellions]] in South Korea.<ref>"The creation of an independent South Korea became UN policy in early 1948. Southern communists opposed this, and by autumn partisan warfare had engulfed parts of every Korean province below the 38th parallel. The fighting expanded into a limited border war between the South's newly formed Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) and the North Korean border constabulary as well as the North's Korean People's Army (KPA)."{{cite web|last1=Millett (PHD) |first1=Allan |title=Korean War |url=http://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War |website=britannica.com |access-date=21 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424090911/http://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War |archive-date=24 April 2016 }}</ref>{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=247–53}}{{sfn|Stueck|2002|p=71}} North Korea was supported by [[China]] and the [[Soviet Union]] while South Korea was supported by the [[United Nations]], principally the [[United States]]. The fighting ended with an [[Korean Armistice Agreement|armistice]] on 27 July 1953.
+The South, led by the [[nationalist]] [[Syngman Rhee]], was helped by many countries in the United Nations, especially the United States. British troops were on the ground in smaller numbers. The U.S. forces included detachments from its Air Force and Navy.
-In 1910, [[Korea under Japanese rule|imperial Japan annexed Korea]], where it ruled for 35 years until its [[surrender of Japan|surrender]] at the end of [[World War II]] on 15 August 1945.{{efn|the signing ceremony was held 18 days later, on 2 September 1945}} The United States and the Soviet Union [[Division of Korea|divided Korea]] along the [[38th parallel north|38th parallel]] into two zones of occupation. The [[Provisional People's Committee of North Korea|Soviets administered the northern zone]] and the [[United States Army Military Government in Korea|Americans administered the southern zone]]. In 1948, as a result of [[Cold War]] tensions, the occupation zones became two sovereign states. A [[socialist state]], the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], was established in the north under the [[Politics of North Korea|totalitarian communist leadership]] of [[Kim Il-sung]] while a [[capitalist state]], the [[first Republic of Korea|Republic of Korea]], was established in the south under the authoritarian autocratic leadership of [[Syngman Rhee]]. Both governments of the two new Korean states claimed to be the sole [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimate]] government of all of Korea, and neither accepted the border as permanent.
+The war ended on July 27, 1953. The United States keeps troops in South Korea in case North Korea ever invades again. Both Koreas are divided by the [[Korean Demilitarized Zone]], which crosses the 38th parallel.
-North Korean military ([[Korean People's Army]] (KPA)) forces crossed the border and drove into South Korea on 25 June 1950.<ref name="Devine 2007 819-821" /> The [[United Nations Security Council]] denounced the North Korean move as an invasion and authorized the formation of the [[United Nations Command]] and the dispatch of forces to Korea<ref>[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 83]]</ref> to repel it.<ref>[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 82]]</ref><ref>Derek W. Bowett, United Nations Forces: A Legal Study of United Nations Practice, Stevens, London, 1964, pp. 29–60</ref> The [[Soviet Union]] was boycotting the UN for recognizing [[Taiwan]] (Republic of China) as [[China]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Security-Council|title=United Nations Security Council - History|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> and China (People's Republic of China) on the mainland was not recognized by the UN, so neither could support their ally North Korea at the Security Council meeting. Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel.<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=141}}</ref>
+== Origins and causes ==
+In 1910, fifteen years after the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], [[Japan]] annexed Korea and was still ruling when [[World War II]] ended in 1945. After Japan had surrendered, the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] agreed to split Korea into two occupation zones for a short time, with the Soviets occupying the north and the Americans occupying the south.
-After the first two months of war, [[Republic of Korea Army|South Korean Army]] (ROKA) and American forces hastily dispatched to Korea were on the point of defeat, retreating to a small area behind a defensive line known as the [[Battle of Pusan Perimeter|Pusan Perimeter]]. In September 1950, a [[Battle of Incheon|risky amphibious UN counteroffensive]] was launched at [[Incheon]], cutting off KPA troops and supply lines in South Korea. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north. UN forces [[UN offensive into North Korea|invaded North Korea]] in October 1950 and moved rapidly towards the [[Yalu River]]—the border with China—but on 19 October 1950, Chinese forces of the [[People's Volunteer Army]] (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war.<ref name="Devine 2007 819-821" /> The [[UN retreat from North Korea|UN retreated from North Korea]] after the [[First Phase Offensive]] and the [[Second Phase Offensive]]. Chinese forces were in South Korea by late December.
+At the Moscow Conference of the [[Council of Foreign Ministers]] in December 1945, the Americans and the Soviets agreed on Korea having a [[provisional government]], which would not last long. That became difficult because of the rise of the [[Cold War]].<ref>Keely Rogers and Jo Thomas, ''History 20th Century World – The Cold War'' (2008) p.50</ref>
-In these and subsequent battles, [[Seoul]] was [[Operation Ripper |captured four times]], and communist forces were [[UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive|pushed back]] to positions around the 38th parallel, close to where the war had started. After this, the front stabilized, and the last two years were a [[attrition warfare|war of attrition]]. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive US bombing campaign. [[Fighter aircraft#Jet-powered fighters|Jet fighters]] confronted each other in [[air-to-air combat]] for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.
+The Cold War was an important cause in the Korean War. Relations between the two occupying powers were already bad, but when [[China]] became communist in October 1949, US President [[Harry Truman]] was very worried that other countries around China would go communist as well, such as Japan. The [[United States Army|US Army]] was a twelfth the size that it had been of five years earlier.<ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0004598.html Active Duty Military Personnel, 1941–2011] inforplease.com</ref>
-The fighting ended on 27 July 1953 when the [[Korean Armistice Agreement]] was signed. The agreement created the [[Korean Demilitarized Zone]] (DMZ) to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no [[peace treaty]] was ever signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war, engaged in a [[frozen conflict]].<ref name="HeFeng2013">{{cite book|last1=He |first1=Kai |last2=Feng |first2=Huiyun |title=Prospect Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis in the Asia Pacific: Rational Leaders and Risky Behavior |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAaHqijyLy8C&pg=PA50 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135131197 |page=50 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704225317/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAaHqijyLy8C&pg=PA50 |archive-date=4 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name="LiCribb2014">{{cite book|last1=Li |first1=Narangoa |last2=Cribb |first2=Robert |title=Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfMYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 |year=2014 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231160704 |page=194 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704225317/https://books.google.com/books?id=zfMYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 |archive-date=4 July 2017 }}</ref> In April 2018, the leaders of North and South Korea met at the DMZ<ref>{{cite news|title=Kim becomes first North Korean leader to cross border into South since war|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-southkorea-summit-crossing/kim-becomes-first-north-korean-leader-to-cross-border-into-south-since-war-idUSKBN1HY01L|access-date=28 April 2018|work=Reuters|date=27 April 2018}}</ref> and agreed to work toward a treaty to formally end the Korean War.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/asia/live-news/north-korea-south-korea-summit-intl/index.html|title=North and South Korean leaders hold historic summit: Live updates|work=CNN|date=26 April 2018|access-date=27 April 2018|language=en}}</ref>
+Stalin had recently lost a Cold War dispute over the [[Berlin Blockade]] and the subsequent airlift. Both powers argued mainly over fair border lines and the spread of communism.
-The Korean War was among the most destructive conflicts of the modern era, with [[#Casualties|approximately 3 million war fatalities]] and a larger proportional civilian death toll than [[World War II]] or the [[Vietnam War]]. It incurred the destruction of virtually all of Korea's major cities, [[#Civilian deaths and massacres|thousands of massacres]] by both sides, including the [[Bodo League massacre|mass killing of tens of thousands of suspected communists]] by the South Korean government, and the [[#UN Command POWs|torture and starvation of prisoners of war]] by the North Koreans. North Korea became [[#Bombing of North Korea|among the most heavily bombed countries]] in history.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=2015-08-03|title=Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/8/3/9089913/north-korea-us-war-crime|access-date=2021-10-18|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref> Additionally, several million North Koreans are estimated to have fled North Korea over the course of the war.<ref name="Robinson 119-120"/>
+== Events ==
+[[File:USMC Casualty Naktong River.jpg|thumb|200px|Casualties near Pusan]]
+[[File:Battle of Inchon.png|200px|thumb|UN Forces landing at Inchon]]
+* '''25 June 1950'''
+* North Korea invades South Korea across the 38th [[Circle of latitude|parallel]] and takes most of South Korea. The South Korean Army retreats to [[Busan]].
+'''July 1950'''
+* The United Nations Army intervenes and lands at [[Incheon]], a small port just about halfway down South Korea. From there, they fight North Korea, push it past the border, and separate the Koreas close to the Chinese border just south of the [[Yalu River]].
+* China starts to feel threatened since the war happens so close to it. It tells the UN and South Korea to return to the border and that they have no business to fight so far into North Korea.
+;October 1950
+* The warning given by the Chinese is ignored by the UN (led by US General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and so the Chinese People's Liberation Army invades North Korea and helps it fight the UN forces until they are pushed past the border.
+; December 1950
+* Because [[MiG-15]]s are beating America's [[Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star]]s, the [[F-86 Sabre]] goes to Korea.
+;February 1951
+* Fighting continues until order is restored and neither army is in each other's country, when peace talks begin.
+;11 April 1951
+* MacArthur is relieved of his commands for making public statements that contradicted the administration's policies. He wants to invade North Korea.
+;March 1951 – 27 July 1953
+* Peace talks continue until 27 July 1953, when no peace is declared, but an [[armistice]] is signed by both countries, and the UN withdraws.
-==Names==
+== Results ==
-{{Infobox transliteration
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border;1px"
-| title = Korean War
+! Country !! Positive !! Negative
-| skhangul = 6·25 전쟁 or 한국 전쟁
+|-
-| skhanja = 六二五戰爭 or 韓國戰爭
+| '''United States''' ||The expansion of communism is stopped from entering South Korea. Greece and Turkey join [[NATO]]. The Truman Doctrine is upheld.
-| skrr = Hanguk Jeonjaeng
+| Found by other countries to be far too aggressive, which makes them nervous.
-| skmr = Han'guk Chŏnjaeng
+|-
-| northkorea =
+| '''UN''' || Gets first major success. || Wins only by violence, not peace talks.
-| nkhangul = 조국해방전쟁
+|-
-| nkhanja = 祖國解放戰爭
+| '''Both Koreas''' || North Korea gets treaty with China. South Korea stays capitalist. || Many people die. Much property is wrecked. No reunification occurs.
-| nkrr = Joguk haebang Jeonjaeng
+|-
-| nkmr = Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng
+| '''People's Republic of China''' || A foreign war unites the country and improves its rulers' prestige. || Relations with Soviets become worse. Not allowed on UN Security Council.
-| northkorea2 = yes
+|-
-| ibox-order = ko4, ko3
+| '''Soviet Union''' || North Korea stays communist. The Soviet Air Force is tested against that of United States. || Relations with China worsen. Loses a large amount of money.
-}}
+|}
-In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as the "625 War" ({{Korean|hangul=6·25 전쟁|hanja=六二五戰爭|labels=no}}), the "625 Upheaval" ({{Korean|hangul=6·25 동란|hanja=六二五動亂|rr=yook-i-o dongnan|labels=no}}), or simply "625", reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.<ref name="Hoare1999" />
-In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the "Fatherland Liberation War" ({{transl|ko|Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng}}) or alternatively the ''"[[Names of Korea#Korea|Chosǒn]]'' [Korean] ''War"'' ({{Korean|hangul=조선전쟁|mr=Chosǒn chǒnjaeng|context=north|labels=no}}).<ref name="Kim2003" />
+== Statistics ==
+=== Total strength ===
+*Approximate numbers
+==== United Nations ====
+* South Korea – 603,000 soldiers
+* United States- 327,000
+* United Kingdom- 14,200
+* Canada – 8,100
+* Turkey – 5,500
+* Australia – 2,300
+* Philippines – 1,600
+* New Zealand – 1,400
+* Netherlands – 3,418
+* Ethiopia – 1,300
+* Greece – 1,250
+* Colombia – 1,300
+* Thailand – 1,200
+* Belgium – 891
+* South Africa – 873
+* France – 800
+* Luxembourg – 44
+** Total – about 972,000 soldiers
-In mainland China, the military campaign is most commonly and officially known as "Resist America and Assist Korea"<ref>{{cite journal
+==== Communist ====
-|title='The Great Movement to Resist America and Assist Korea': how Beijing sold the Korean War
+* North Korea – 260,600
-|last=Rawnsley
+* China – 1,358,456
-|first=Gary D.
+* Soviet Union – 26,000
-|journal=Media, War & Conflict
+** Total – 1,642,600 soldiers
-|volume=2
-|issue=3
-|date=2009
-|pages=285–315
-|doi=10.1177/1750635209345186
-|s2cid=143193818
-}}</ref> ({{zh | t = {{linktext|抗|美|援|朝}}|p = Kàngměi Yuáncháo|c=}})<!---PRC uses traditional Chinese during the war---->, although the term "''[[Names of Korea#Chinese-speaking areas|Chosǒn]]'' War" ({{zh<!--  -->|t=朝鮮戰爭|p= Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng}}) is sometimes used unofficially. The term "''[[Names of Korea|Hán]]'' (Korean) War" ({{zh<!--  -->|t=韓戰|p= Hán Zhàn}}) is most commonly used in Taiwan (Republic of China), Hong Kong and Macau.
-In the US, the war was initially described by President [[Harry S. Truman]] as a "[[police action]]" as the United States never formally declared war on its opponents and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations.<ref name="Truman1950" /> It has been sometimes referred to in the [[English-speaking world]] as "The Forgotten War" or "The Unknown War" because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, relative to the global scale of [[World War II]], which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the [[Vietnam War]], which succeeded it.<ref name="Naval Historical Center" />{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p= 2}}
+=== Losses ===
+==== United Nations ====
+* South Korea – 205,000 deaths – 905,800 wounded
+* United States – 100,503 deaths – 92,073 wounded
+* United Kingdom – 1,078 deaths – 2,674 wounded
+* Turkey – 721 deaths – 2,109 wounded
+* Canada – 507 deaths – 1,001 wounded
+* Australia – 380 deaths – 1,192 wounded
+* New Zealand – 34 deaths – 80 wounded
+* Netherlands – 150 deaths – 3 MIA
+* France – 69 deaths
+* Luxembourg – 2 deaths – 2 wounded
+*
-==Background==
+==== Communists ====
-===Imperial Japanese rule (1910–1945)===
+* North Korea – 257,806 deaths
-{{Main|Korea under Japanese rule}}
+* China – about 25,000 deaths
-[[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] severely diminished the influence of [[Qing dynasty|China]] over Korea in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–95), ushering in the short-lived [[Korean Empire]].{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=}} A decade later, after defeating [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russia]] in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904–05), Japan made Korea its [[protectorate]] with the [[Eulsa Treaty]] in 1905, then annexed it with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910|Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty]] in 1910.<ref name="Schnabel1972" />
+* Soviet Union – about 300 deaths
-Many [[Korean nationalism|Korean nationalists]] fled the country. The [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]] was founded in 1919 in [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Nationalist China]]. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its US-based founding president, [[Syngman Rhee]].{{sfn|Stueck|2002|pp=19–20}} From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean [[communist]]s led internal and external warfare against the Japanese.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=23}}{{sfn|Dear|Foot|1995|p=516}}
+== Television ==
+The popular television show ''[[M*A*S*H]]'', about American [[medical doctor|doctors]] serving in the Korean War, lasted longer than the fighting.
-In China, the Nationalist [[National Revolutionary Army]] and the communist [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by [[Lee Beom-seok (prime minister)|Yi Pom-Sok]], fought in the [[Burma Campaign]] (December 1941&nbsp;– August 1945). The communists, led by [[Kim Il-sung]] among others, fought the Japanese in Korea and [[Manchuria]].{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=160–61, 195–96}}
+== Related pages ==
+* [[Cold War]]
-At the [[Cairo Conference (1943)|Cairo Conference]] in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom and the United States all decided that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent".<ref name="Early1943"/>
+== References ==
+{{reflist}}
-===Korea divided (1945–1949)===
-{{Main|Division of Korea}}
-At the [[Tehran Conference]] in November 1943 and the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its [[Allies of World War II|allies]] in the [[Pacific War]] within three months of the [[Victory in Europe Day|victory in Europe]]. Germany officially surrendered on 8 May 1945, and [[Soviet–Japanese War|the USSR declared war on Japan]] [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|and invaded Manchuria]] on 8 August 1945, three months later. This was three days after the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki#Bombing of Hiroshima|atomic bombing of Hiroshima]].{{sfn|Dear|Foot|1995|p=516}}<ref name="Whelan1991" /> By 10 August, the [[Red Army]] had begun to occupy the north of Korea.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=24, 25}}
-On the night of 10 August in Washington, [[Colonel (United States)|US Colonels]] [[Dean Rusk]] and [[Charles H. Bonesteel III]] were assigned to divide Korea into Soviet and US occupation zones and proposed the [[38th parallel north|38th Parallel]] as the dividing line. This was incorporated into the US [[General Order No. 1]] which responded to the [[Surrender of Japan|Japanese surrender]] on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th Parallel, Rusk observed, "even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by US forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement&nbsp;... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops". He noted that he was "faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area".{{sfn|Goulden|1983|p=17}} As Rusk's comments indicate, the US doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this.<ref name="McCullough1992" />{{sfn|Appleman|1998|p=}}<ref name="McCune1946" /><ref name="Grajdanzev1945" /> Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]], however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th Parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of US forces in the south.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=24, 25}}
-On 8 September 1945, [[Lieutenant general (United States)|US Lieutenant General]] [[John R. Hodge]] arrived in [[Incheon]] to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th Parallel.{{sfn|Appleman|1998|p=}} Appointed as military governor, Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the [[United States Army Military Government in Korea]] (USAMGIK 1945–48).{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p= 63}} He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power, but in the face of Korean protests quickly reversed this decision.<ref name="Hermes2002" /> Hodge did keep in governmental positions a large number of Koreans who had directly served and collaborated with the Japanese colonial government. This presence was particularly pronounced in the Korean National Police Force, who would later suppress widespread rebellions to the ROK. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short-lived [[People's Republic of Korea]] (PRK) due to its suspected Communist sympathies.
-In December 1945, Korea was administered by a US-Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the [[Moscow Conference (1945)|Moscow Conference]], with the aim of granting independence after a five-year trusteeship.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=25–26}}{{sfn|Becker|2005|p=53}} The idea was not popular among Koreans and riots broke out.<ref name="Schnabel1972" /> To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People's Committees on 12 December 1945.{{sfn|Jager|2013|pp=41–42}} Following further large-scale civilian unrest,{{sfn|Cumings|1981|loc=chapter 3, 4}} the USAMGIK declared [[martial law]].
-Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the US government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and the Korean Communists refused to co-operate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|p=211}}{{sfn|Jager|2013|p=47}} A [[1948 South Korean general election|general election]] was held in the South on 10 May 1948.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=26}}<ref name="Time1946" /> North Korea held [[1948 North Korean parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] three months later on 25 August.{{sfn|Malkasian|2001|p=13}}
-The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, and elected Syngman Rhee as [[President of South Korea|President]] on 20 July 1948. This election is generally considered to have been manipulated by the Rhee regime. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Soviet Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union agreed to the establishment of a communist government{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=26}} led by Kim Il-sung.<ref name="AMH" />
-The Soviet Union withdrew its forces from Korea in 1948, and US troops withdrew in 1949.
-===Chinese Civil War (1945–1949)===
-{{Main|Chinese Civil War|Chinese Communist Revolution}}
-With the end of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|war with Japan]], the Chinese Civil War resumed in earnest between the Communists and Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with [[materiel|matériel]] and manpower.{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=110}} According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese PLA during the war.{{sfn|Chen|1994|pp=110–11}} North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=110}}
-The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea.{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=110}} China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=111}}
-After the formation of the PRC, the PRC government named the Western nations, led by the US, as the biggest threat to its national security.{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=26}} Basing this judgment on China's [[century of humiliation]] beginning in the mid-19th century,{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=22}} US support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War,{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=41}} and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries,{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=21}} the PRC Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the US' crusade against Communism.{{sfn|Chen|1994|p=19}} As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the PRC leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery.{{sfn|Chen|1994|pp=25–26, 93}}
-===Communist insurgency in South Korea (1948–1950)===
-By 1948, a large-scale North Korea-backed insurgency had broken out in the southern half of the peninsula. This was exacerbated by the ongoing undeclared border war between the Koreas, which saw division-level engagements and thousands of deaths on both sides.<ref>Gibby, Bryan (2012). ''Will to Win: American Military Advisors in Korea, 1946–1953''. University Alabama Press. p. 72.</ref> The ROK in this time was almost entirely trained and focused on counterinsurgency, rather than conventional warfare. They were equipped and advised by a force of a few hundred American officers, who were largely successful in helping the ROKA to subdue guerrillas and hold its own against [[Korean People's Army|North Korean military]] (Korean People's Army, KPA) forces along the 38th parallel.<ref name="Bryan, p. 76">Bryan, p. 76.</ref> Approximately 8,000 South Korean soldiers and police died in the insurgent war and border clashes.<ref name="EB"/>
-The [[Jeju uprising|first socialist uprising]] occurred without direct North Korean participation, though the guerrillas still professed support for the northern government. Beginning in April 1948 on the isolated island of Jeju, the campaign saw mass arrests and repression by the South Korean government in the fight against the South Korean Labor Party, resulting in a total of 30,000 violent deaths, among them 14,373 civilians (of whom ~2,000 were killed by rebels and ~12,000 by ROK security forces). The [[Yeosu–Suncheon rebellion]] overlapped with it, as several thousand army defectors waving red flags massacred right-leaning families. This resulted in another brutal suppression by the government and between 2,976 and 3,392 deaths. By May 1949, both uprisings had been crushed.
-Insurgency reignited in the spring of 1949 when attacks by guerrillas in the mountainous regions (buttressed by army defectors and North Korean agents) increased. Insurgent activity peaked in late 1949 as the ROKA engaged so-called People's Guerrilla Units. Organized and armed by the North Korean government, and backed up by 2,400 KPA commandos who had infiltrated through the border, these guerrillas launched a large offensive in September aimed at undermining the South Korean government and preparing the country for the KPA's arrival in force. This offensive failed.<ref>Bryan, pp. 76-77.</ref> However, by this point the guerrillas were firmly entrenched in the Taebaek-san region of the [[North Gyeongsang Province]] (around Taegu), as well as in the border areas of the [[Gangwon Province, South Korea|Gangwon Province]].<ref name="Bryan, p. 78">Bryan, p. 78.</ref>
-While the insurgency was ongoing, the ROKA and KPA engaged in multiple battalion-sized battles along the border, starting in May 1949.<ref name="Bryan, p. 76"/> Serious border clashes between South and North continued on 4 August 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th Parallel. The 2nd and 18th ROK Infantry Regiments repulsed initial attacks in Kuksa-bong (above the 38th Parallel)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mapcarta.com/16197292|title=Kuksa-bong|website=Mapcarta|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref> and Ch'ungmu,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/rok/18in-rgt.htm|title=18th Infantry Regiment|first=John|last=Pike|website=www.globalsecurity.org|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref> and at the end of the clashes ROK troops were "completely routed".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lY5-7ZirsmgC&q=august+4+1949|title=The Korean War: A History|first=Bruce|last=Cumings|date=27 July 2010|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|access-date=11 November 2017|via=Google Books|isbn=9780679603788}}</ref> Border incidents decreased significantly by the start of 1950.<ref name="Bryan, p. 78"/>
-Meanwhile, counterinsurgency efforts in the South Korean interior intensified; persistent operations, paired with worsening weather conditions, eventually denied the guerrillas sanctuary and wore away their fighting strength. North Korea responded by sending more troops to link up with existing insurgents and build more partisan cadres; the number of North Korean infiltrators had reached 3,000 men in 12 units by the start of 1950, but all of these units were destroyed or scattered by the ROKA.<ref>Bryan, pp. 79-80.</ref> On 1 October 1949, the ROKA launched a three-pronged assault on the insurgents in South Cholla and Taegu. By March 1950, the ROKA claimed 5,621 guerrillas killed or captured and 1,066 small arms seized. This operation crippled the insurgency. Soon after, the North Koreans made two final attempts to keep the uprising active, sending two battalion-sized units of infiltrators under the commands of Kim Sang-ho and Kim Moo-hyon. The first battalion was annihilated to a man over the course of several engagements by the ROKA 8th Division. The second battalion was annihilated by a two-battalion hammer-and-anvil maneuver by units of the ROKA 6th Division, resulting in a loss toll of 584 KPA guerrillas (480 killed, 104 captured) and 69 ROKA troops killed, plus 184 wounded.<ref>Bryan, p. 80.</ref> By spring of 1950, guerrilla activity had mostly subsided; the border, too, was calm.<ref>Bryan, p. 82.</ref>
-===Prelude to war (1950)===
-By 1949, South Korean and US military actions had reduced the active number of indigenous communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il-sung believed that widespread uprisings had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to attempt to persuade him.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|pp=3–4}}
-Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. PLA forces were still embroiled in the [[Chinese Civil War]], while US forces remained stationed in South Korea.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=3}} By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: PLA forces under [[Mao Zedong]] had secured final victory in China, US forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets [[Soviet atomic bomb project|had detonated their first nuclear bomb]], breaking the US atomic monopoly. As the US had not directly intervened to stop the communist victory in China, Stalin calculated that they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with their [[Embassy of the United States, Moscow|embassy in Moscow]], and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|pp=9, 10}} Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the [[Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance|Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance]].{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=11}}
-In April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to attack the government in the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed. For Kim, this was the fulfillment of his goal to unite Korea after its division by foreign powers. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the US.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=10}} Kim met with Mao in May 1950. Mao was concerned the US would intervene but agreed to support the North Korean invasion. China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=139–40}} However, Mao sent more ethnic Korean PLA veterans to Korea and promised to move an army closer to the Korean border.{{sfn|Weathersby|1993|p=29}} Once Mao's commitment was secured, preparations for war accelerated.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=13}}<ref>Mark O'Neill, "Soviet Involvement in the Korean War: A New View from the Soviet-Era Archives", OAH Magazine of History, Spring 2000, p. 21.</ref>
-Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. These generals completed the plans for the attack by May.{{sfn|Weathersby|1993|pp=29–30}} The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the [[Ongjin County, South Hwanghae|Ongjin Peninsula]] on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch a counterattack that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the ROK. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants and capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=14}}
-On 7 June 1950, Kim Il-sung called for a Korea-wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in [[Haeju]] on 15–17 June 1950. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture that Rhee rejected outright.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=10}} On 21 June, Kim Il-Sung revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th Parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin Peninsula. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and that South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change of plan.{{sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=15}}
-While these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th Parallel, especially at [[Kaesong]] and Ongjin, many initiated by the South.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=247–53}}{{sfn|Stueck|2002|p=71}} The ROK was being trained by the US [[Korean Military Advisory Group]] (KMAG). On the eve of war, KMAG commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice".{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=255–56}} For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when US diplomat [[John Foster Dulles]] visited Korea on 18 June.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=249–58}}
-Although some South Korean and US intelligence officers predicted an attack from the North, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had happened.{{sfn|Millett|2007|p=17}} The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] noted the southward movement by the KPA, but assessed this as a "defensive measure" and concluded an invasion was "unlikely".<ref>{{cite news|title=CIA Files Show U.S. Blindsided By Korean War |author=Tom Gjelten |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128092817 |newspaper=[[National Public Radio]] |date=25 June 2010 |access-date=16 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824155650/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128092817 |archive-date=24 August 2013 }}</ref> On 23 June, UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Seth|first=Michael J.|title=A history of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/historykoreafrom00seth|url-access=limited| year = 2010 | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | location = Lanham, MD | isbn = 978-0742567160 | page = [https://archive.org/details/historykoreafrom00seth/page/n344 324]}}</ref>
-===Comparison of forces===
-Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the PLA were sent to North Korea.{{sfn|Millett|2007|p=14}} Chinese involvement was extensive from the beginning, building on previous collaboration between the Chinese and Korean communists during the Chinese Civil War. In the fall of 1949, two PLA divisions composed mainly of [[Koreans in China|Korean-Chinese]] troops (the 164th and 166th) entered North Korea, followed by smaller units throughout the rest of 1949; these troops brought with them not only their experience and training, but their weapons and other equipment, changing little but their uniforms. The reinforcement of the KPA with PLA veterans continued into 1950, with the 156th division and several other units of the former Fourth Field Army arriving (also with their equipment) in February; the PLA 156th Division was reorganized as the KPA 7th Division. By mid-1950, between 50,000 and 70,000 former PLA troops had entered North Korea, forming a significant part of the KPA's strength on the eve of the war's beginning.<ref>Stuecker, William (2004). ''Korean War: World History''. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 102–103.</ref> Several generals, such as [[Lee Kwon-mu]], were PLA veterans born to ethnic Koreans in China. The combat veterans and equipment from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, armed by the US military with mostly [[small arms]], but no heavy weaponry such as tanks.{{sfn|Millett|2007|p=15}} While older histories of the conflict often referred to these ethnic Korean PLA veterans as being sent from northern Korea to fight in the Chinese Civil War before being sent back, recent Chinese archival sources studied by Kim Donggill indicate that this was not the case. Rather, the soldiers were indigenous to China (part of China's longstanding ethnic Korean community) and were recruited to the PLA in the same way as any other Chinese citizen.<ref>Zhihua Shen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWNbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT306&dq=were+indigenous+in+Northeast+China+and+that+the+North+Korean+regime+never+dispatched+soldiers+to+Manchuria&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjTku_0waDoAhXSIjQIHcURDG4Q6AEwAHoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=were%20indigenous%20in%20Northeast%20China%20and%20that%20the%20North%20Korean%20regime%20never%20dispatched%20soldiers%20to%20Manchuria&f=false "A Misunderstood Friendship: Mao Zedong, Kim Il-sung, and Sino–North Korean Relations, 1949–1976".] Columbia University Press, September 2018.</ref>
-According to the first official census in 1949 the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72lpTkNcJQ4C&pg=PA61 |title=Policy and Economic Performance in Divided Korea During the Cold War Era: 1945–91|first=Nick|last=Eberstadt|date=27 September 2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|via=Google Books|isbn=9780844742748}}</ref> and by mid-1950 North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, [[Chuncheon]], [[Uijeongbu]] and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 [[T-34#T-34-85|T-34-85]] tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, and some 150 [[Yakovlev|Yak]] fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea.{{sfn|Appleman|1998|p=}} Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea-borne artillery for their armies.
-In contrast, the South Korean population was estimated at 20&nbsp;million<ref name="Armstrong"/> and its army was unprepared and ill-equipped. <!-- In ''South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu'' (1961), R. E. Appleman reports the ROK forces' low combat readiness --> As of 25 June 1950 the ROK had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the US military, but requests were denied), and a 22-plane air force comprising 12 [[Liaison aircraft|liaison-type]] and 10 [[T-6 Texan|AT-6]] advanced-trainer airplanes. Large US garrisons and air forces were in Japan,{{sfn|Appleman|1998|p=17}} but only 200–300 US troops were in Korea.<ref name="james19500625">{{Cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/1950/06/25/North-Koreans-invade-South-Korea/1012416555294/ |title=North Koreans invade South Korea |last=James |first=Jack |date=25 June 1950 |access-date=29 July 2017 |agency=United Press |language=en}}</ref>
-==Course of the war==
-[[File:Korean war 1950-1953.gif|thumb|upright|Territory often changed hands early in the war, until the front stabilized.{{legend|#d45444|North Korean, Chinese, and Soviet forces}}{{legend|#4cd444|South Korean, U.S., Commonwealth, and United Nations forces}}]]
-[[File:South Korean refugees mid-1950.jpg|thumb|Hundreds of thousands of South Koreans fled south in mid-1950 after the North Korean army invaded.]]
-At dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the KPA crossed the 38th Parallel behind artillery fire.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=14}} The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee".{{sfn|Appleman|1998|p=21}} [[Battle of Ongjin|Fighting]] began on the strategic Ongjin Peninsula in the west.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=260–63}}<ref>{{cite book| title = The Making of Modern Korea | url = https://archive.org/details/makingmodernkore00buzo | url-access = limited | last = Buzo | first = Adrian | year = 2002| publisher = Routledge|  location = London | isbn = 978-0415237499 |page=[https://archive.org/details/makingmodernkore00buzo/page/n88 78]}}</ref> There were initial South Korean claims that the 17th Regiment captured the city of Haeju, and this sequence of events has led some scholars to argue that the South Koreans fired first.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=260–63}}<ref>{{cite book | title = Korea since 1850 | last1 = Lone |  first1 = Stewart| last2 = McCormack | first2 = Gavan | author-link2 = Gavan McCormack | publisher = Longman Cheshire | location = Melbourne | year = 1993 | pages=110–11 }}</ref>
-Whoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, within an hour, KPA forces attacked all along the 38th Parallel. The KPA had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The ROK had no tanks, anti-tank weapons or heavy artillery to stop such an attack. In addition, the South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion and these were routed in a few days.{{sfn|Millett|2007|pp=18–19}}
-On 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with some of the government. On 28 June, at 2&nbsp;am, the ROK blew up the [[Hangang Bridge bombing|Hangang Bridge]] across the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]] in an attempt to stop the KPA. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it and hundreds were killed.<ref name="Chosun2010" /><ref name="johnston20">{{cite book |last= Johnston |first= William |title= A war of patrols: Canadian Army operations in Korea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=64ZAy7NvwCgC&q=Han%20River%20demolish&pg=PA20 |publisher= Univ of British Columbia Pr |isbn= 978-0774810081 |page= 20|date= 1 November 2011 }}</ref> Destroying the bridge also trapped many ROK units north of the Han River.{{sfn|Millett|2007|pp=18–19}} In spite of such desperate measures, [[First Battle of Seoul|Seoul fell]] that same day. A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and forty-eight subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=269–70}}
-On 28 June, Rhee ordered the [[Bodo League massacre|massacre of suspected political opponents]] in his own country.<ref name="Edwards32">{{cite book |last=Edwards |first= Paul |title= Historical Dictionary of the Korean War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scZN59DXeOwC&q=Rhee%20bodo%20league%20massacre%20order&pg=PA32 |publisher= Scarecrow Press |isbn= 978-0810867734 |page= 32|date= 10 June 2010 }}</ref>
-In five days, the ROK, which had 95,000 men on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 men. In early July, when US forces arrived, what was left of the ROK were placed under US operational command of the [[United Nations Command]].<ref name="Webb" />
-===Factors in US intervention===
-The Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Dean Acheson]].{{sfn|Kim|1973|p=30}} Truman himself was at his home in [[Independence, Missouri]].<ref name="upi19500624">{{Cite news |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1950/06/24/Press-spokesman-doubts-President-Truman-yet-told-of-Korea-conflict/3625210094214/ |title=Press spokesman doubts President Truman yet told of Korea conflict |date=24 June 1950 |access-date=29 July 2017 |agency=UP |language=en}}</ref> Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/korea-and-fear-world-war-iii|title=Korea and the Fear of World War III|last=Wells|first=Samuel|publisher=Wilson Center|date=23 June 2020|accessdate=4 July 2021}}</ref> At the same time, the administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly escalate without American intervention. Said diplomat [[John Foster Dulles]] in a [[diplomatic cable|cable]]: "To sit by while Korea is overrun by unprovoked armed attack would start a disastrous chain of events leading most probably to world war."{{sfn|Beschloss|2018|p=447}}
-While there was initial hesitance by some in the US government to get involved in the war, considerations about Japan played a part in the ultimate decision to engage on behalf of South Korea. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, US experts on East Asia saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no US policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene&nbsp;... The essential point&nbsp;... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan."{{sfn|Kim|1973|p=46}}
-Another major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction if the US intervened. The Truman administration was fearful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea. At the same time, "[t]here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from [the conflict]".{{sfn|Rees|1964|p=22}} Yugoslavia—a possible Soviet target because of the [[Tito–Stalin Split|Tito-Stalin Split]]—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]]'s post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots".<ref name="schindler19980224">{{cite journal|url=http://20committee.com/2015/09/29/dodging-armageddon-the-third-world-war-that-almost-was-1950/ |title=Dodging Armageddon: The Third World War That Almost Was, 1950 |author=Schindler, John R. |journal=Cryptologic Quarterly |date=24 February 1998 |pages=85–95 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930082157/http://20committee.com/2015/09/29/dodging-armageddon-the-third-world-war-that-almost-was-1950/ |archive-date=30 September 2015 }}</ref> Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the UN and encourage Communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans, and the US immediately began using air and naval forces that were in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing troops on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.{{sfn|Rees|1964|p=23}}
-The Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of US resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against US forces in Korea.{{sfn|Rees|1964|p=26}} The Truman administration now believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.
-===United Nations Security Council Resolutions===
-{{Further|List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning North Korea}}
-On 25 June 1950, the [[United Nations Security Council]] unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of South Korea, with [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 82|UN Security Council Resolution 82]]. The Soviet Union, a [[United Nations Security Council veto power|veto-wielding power]], had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting [[Taiwan]]'s occupation of [[China and the United Nations|China's permanent seat]] in the UN Security Council.{{sfn|Malkasian|2001|p=16}} After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 83|Resolution 83]] recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered US air and sea forces to help South Korea. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the US of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.<ref name="Gromyko1950" />
-The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from US Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated [[Charter of the United Nations|UN Charter]] Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the UN Charter's scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of all the five permanent members including the Soviet Union.<ref name="Gross1951" /><ref name="Schick1950" />
-Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were retreating southwards or [[Defection|defecting]] en masse to the northern side, the KPA.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=23}}
-===United States' response (July–August 1950)===
-[[File:KumRiver Howitzer.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of soldiers readying a large gun in some brush|A U.S. howitzer position near the Kum River, 15 July]]
-[[File:Man-of-the-Year-TIME-1951.jpg|thumb|Man of the Year, the American soldier on [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]] cover, 1951]]
-As soon as word of the attack was received,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.learner.org/workshops/primarysources/coldwar/docs/onkorea.html|title=Truman Address on Korea|website=www.learner.org|access-date=17 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408045123/https://www.learner.org/workshops/primarysources/coldwar/docs/onkorea.html|archive-date=8 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea.{{sfn|Goulden|1983|p=48}}<ref name="Hess2001" /> Truman and Acheson discussed a US invasion response and agreed that the US was obligated to act, comparing the North Korean invasion with [[Adolf Hitler]]'s aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of [[appeasement]] must not be repeated.<ref name="Graebner1979" /> Several US industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War.<ref>Reis, M. (12 May 2014), "[http://www.historyassociates.com/blog/historical-research-blog/industrial-mobilization-records-overview/ WWII and Korean War Industrial Mobilization: History Programs and Related Records]" ({{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715064838/http://www.historyassociates.com/blog/historical-research-blog/industrial-mobilization-records-overview/ |date=15 July 2014 }}), History Associates, retrieved 17 June 2014.</ref> President Truman later explained that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the US goal of the global [[containment]] of communism as outlined in the [[NSC 68|National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68)]] (declassified in 1975):
-{{quote|Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall, Communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger Communist neighbors.<ref name="Truman1980" />}}
-In August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12&nbsp;billion for military action in Korea.<ref name="Hess2001" />
-Because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General [[Omar Bradley]], Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], was faced with re-organizing and deploying a US military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.{{sfn|Blair|2003|p=290}}<ref>Hofmann, George F., "Tanks and the Korean War: A case study of unpreparedness", ''Armor'', Vol. 109 Issue 5 (Sep/Oct 2000), pp. 7–12: In 1948, the [[US Army]] had to impose an 80 percent reduction in equipment requirements, deferring any equipment modernization. When the Joint Chiefs of Staff submitted a $30&nbsp;billion total defense budget for FY 1948, the administration capped the [[United States Department of Defense|DOD]] budget at the $14.4&nbsp;billion set in 1947 and progressively reduced in succeeding fiscal years until January 1950, when it was reduced again to $13.5&nbsp;billion.</ref>
-Acting on Secretary of State Acheson's recommendation, President Truman ordered [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers]] in Japan [[General of the Army (United States)|General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] to transfer matériel to the South Korean military while giving air cover to the evacuation of US nationals. The President disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral US bombing of the North Korean forces and ordered the [[United States Seventh Fleet|US Seventh Fleet]] to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea. The United States denied Taiwan's request for combat, lest it provoke a PRC retaliation.{{sfn|Rees|1964 | page = 27}} Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize" the [[Taiwan Strait]], Chinese premier [[Zhou Enlai]] criticized both the UN and US initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory".{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=140}}
-===The drive south and Pusan (July–September 1950)===
-[[File:KoreanWarFallenSoldier1.jpg|thumb|G.I. comforting a grieving infantryman]]
-[[File:Chaffees at Masan.jpg|thumb|M24 Chaffee light tanks of the US Army's [[25th Infantry Division (United States)|25th Infantry Division]] wait for an assault of North Korean [[T-34-85]] tanks at [[Masan]]]]
-[[File:HA-SC-98-06983-Crew of M24 along Naktong River front-Korean war-17 Aug 1950.JPEG|thumb|Crew of an [[M-24 Chaffee|M-24]] tank along the Nakdong River front, August 1950]]
-[[File:US-tanks-korea.jpg|thumb|Pershing and Sherman tanks of the [[73rd Heavy Tank Battalion]] at the Pusan Docks, Korea.]]
-The [[Battle of Osan]], the first significant US engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540-soldier [[Task Force Smith]], which was a small forward element of the [[24th Infantry Division (United States)|24th Infantry Division]] which had been flown in from Japan.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=45}} On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the KPA at [[Osan]] but without weapons capable of destroying the KPA tanks. The KPA defeated the US soldiers; the result was 180 American dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back US forces at [[Battle of Pyongtaek|Pyongtaek]], [[Battle of Chonan|Chonan]], and [[Battle of Chochiwon|Chochiwon]], forcing the 24th Division's retreat to [[Daejeon|Taejeon]], which the KPA captured in the [[Battle of Taejon]]; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including its commander, Major General [[William F. Dean]].{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=48}}
-By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK and the [[Eighth United States Army]] southwards.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=53}} The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks was now keenly felt, as US troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions. Facing a veteran and well-led KPA force, and lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, the Americans retreated and the KPA advanced down the Korean Peninsula.<ref>Dunford, J.F. (Lt. Col.) ''The Strategic Implications of Defensive Operations at the Pusan Perimeter July–September 1950'', Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College (7 April 1999) pp. 6–8, 12</ref><ref>Zabecki, David T., ''Stand or Die: 1950 Defense of Korea's Pusan Perimeter'', Military History (May 2009): The inability of US forces to stop the 1950 North Korean summer offensive cost the Eighth Army 4,280 killed in action, 12,377 wounded, with 2,107 missing and 401 confirmed captured between 5 July and 16 September 1950. In addition, the lives of tens of thousands of South Korean soldiers and civilians were lost as well.</ref> During their advance, the KPA purged South Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, General MacArthur warned North Korean leader Kim Il-sung that he would be held responsible for the KPA's atrocities.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p= 56}} By September, UN forces were hemmed into a small corner of southeast Korea, near [[Busan|Pusan]]. This {{convert|140|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=off|adj=on}} perimeter enclosed about 10% of Korea, in a line partially defined by the [[Nakdong River]].
-Although Kim's early successes led him to predict he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible US deployment, Zhou Enlai secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of [[Gao Gang]]. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military advisor in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea. Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to PLA commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for US naval activity in the [[Korea Strait]].{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=141}}
-In the resulting [[Battle of Pusan Perimeter]] (August–September 1950), the UN forces withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at [[Battle of Naktong Bulge|the Naktong Bulge]], [[Battle of P'ohang-dong|P'ohang-dong]], and [[Battle of Taegu|Taegu]]. The [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support [[sortie]]s that destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=47–48, 66}} To deny materiel to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the US Navy air forces attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the over-extended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=58}} On 27 August, [[67th Fighter Squadron]] aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident.<ref>[https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v07/pg_793 493rd meeting of the UN Security Council, 31 August 1950] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302173851/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v07/pg_793 |date=2 March 2016 }} ''[[United Nations Security Council]] Official Records'' No. 35, p. 25</ref> The US proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the US should pay in compensation but the Soviets vetoed the US proposal.<ref>[https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v07/d551 Telegram, Dean Rusk to James Webb] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302165211/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v07/d551 |date=2 March 2016 }} ''[[Foreign Relations Series|Foreign Relations of the United States]]'' 1950 Volume VII, Korea, Document 551</ref><ref>{{cite journal | year = 1950 | title = work of the Security Council from August 1, 1950 to September 18, 1950 | journal = [[International Organization]]  | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | page = 638 | doi = 10.1017/S0020818300029465  }}</ref>
-Meanwhile, US garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=59–60}} Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the US mainland from the [[port of San Francisco]] to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle-ready.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=61}} In early September 1950, UN forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=}}{{sfn|Appleman|1998|p=61}}
-===Battle of Incheon (September 1950)===
-{{Main|Battle of Incheon}}
-[[File:IncheonLandingMcArthur.jpg|thumb|right|General [[Douglas MacArthur]], UN Command CiC (seated), observes the naval shelling of Incheon from {{USS|Mount McKinley|AGC-7|6}}, 15 September 1950]]
-[[File:KoreanWar recover Seoul.jpg|thumb|right|Combat in the streets of Seoul]]
-[[File:A U.S. Marine tank follows a line of prisoners of war down a village street. - NARA - 532408.tif|thumb|Pershing tanks in downtown Seoul during the [[Second Battle of Seoul]] in September 1950. In the foreground, [[United Nations]] troops round up [[North Korea]]n prisoners-of-war.]]
-Against the rested and re-armed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN forces, they lacked naval and air support.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=58, 61}} To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur recommended an [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious landing]] at Incheon, near Seoul and well over {{convert|100|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} behind the KPA lines.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=67}} On 6 July, he ordered Major General [[Hobart R. Gay]], commander of the US [[1st Cavalry Division (United States)|1st Cavalry Division]], to plan the division's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from [[Yokohama]], Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.<ref name="Cavalry Outpost Publications" />
-Soon after the war began, General MacArthur began planning a landing at Incheon, but [[the Pentagon]] opposed him.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=67}} When authorized, he activated a combined US Army and Marine Corps, and ROK force. US [[X Corps (United States)|X Corps]], led by Major General [[Edward Almond]], consisted of 40,000 men of the [[1st Marine Division (United States)|1st Marine Division]], the [[7th Infantry Division (United States)|7th Infantry Division]] and around 8,600 ROK soldiers.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=68}} By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, [[psychological warfare]], [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of the city of Incheon.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=70}}
-===Breakout from the Pusan Perimeter===
-{{main|Pusan Perimeter Offensive|UN September 1950 counteroffensive|Second Battle of Seoul}}
-On 16 September Eighth Army began its breakout from the Pusan Perimeter. ''Task Force Lynch'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Hoyt | first=Edwin P. |title=On to the Yalu | location=New York | publisher=Stein and Day |year=1984 | page=104}}</ref> 3rd Battalion, [[7th Cavalry Regiment]], and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence–Reconnaissance Platoon) advanced through {{convert|106.4|mi|order=flip|abbr=on}} of KPA territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan on 27 September.<ref name="Cavalry Outpost Publications" /> X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in Southern Korea.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=71–72}} On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General [[Matvei Zakharov|H. M. Zakharov]] to North Korea to advise Kim Il-sung to halt his offensive around the Pusan perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou Enlai suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the UN forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}}
-On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by UN forces. US air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery. KPA troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving [[Pyongyang]] vulnerable.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}} During the general retreat only 25,000 to 30,000 KPA soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref name="KIMH" /> On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}}
-===UN forces invade North Korea (September–October 1950)===
-{{Main|UN offensive into North Korea}}
-On 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th Parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily".<ref name="Weintraub2000" /> On 29 September MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}} On 30 September, US [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[George Marshall]] sent an [[eyes only|eyes-only]] message to MacArthur: "We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel."<ref name="Weintraub2000" /> During October, the South Korean police [[Goyang Geumjeong Cave Massacre|executed people]] who were suspected to be sympathetic to North Korea,<ref name=Hankyoreh100209>{{cite news|url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/403731.html |title=Goyang Geumjeong Cave Massacre memorial service |newspaper=[[Hankyoreh]] |date=9 February 2010 |access-date=20 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516121629/http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/403731.html |archive-date=16 May 2012 }}</ref> and [[Namyangju massacre|similar massacres]] were carried out until early 1951.<ref name=SanDiegoUnionTribune20081206>{{cite news|url=http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2008/dec/06/korea-mass-executions-120608/ |title=Children 'executed' in 1950 South Korean killings |agency=[[Associated Press]] |author1=Charles J. Hanley |author2=Jae-Soon Chang |newspaper=[[U-T San Diego]] |date=6 December 2008 |access-date=1 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104124044/http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2008/dec/06/korea-mass-executions-120608/ |archive-date=4 November 2012 }}</ref> The Joint Chiefs of Staff on 27 September sent to General MacArthur a comprehensive directive to govern his future actions: the directive stated that the primary goal was the destruction of the KPA, with unification of the Korean Peninsula under Rhee as a secondary objective "if possible"; the Joint Chiefs added that this objective was dependent on whether or not the Chinese and Soviets would intervene, and was subject to changing conditions.<ref>Appleman 1998, pp. 607-609.</ref>
-[[File:Korean War, train attack.jpg|thumb|[[US Air Force]] attacking railroads south of [[Wonsan]] on the eastern coast of North Korea]]
-On 30 September, Zhou Enlai warned the US that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the US crossed the 38th Parallel. Zhou attempted to advise KPA commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics that allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai-shek's [[Encirclement Campaigns]] in the 1930s, but by some accounts, KPA commanders did not use these tactics effectively.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=143–44}} Historian [[Bruce Cumings]] argues, however, that the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=278–81}}
-By 1 October 1950, the UN Command repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th Parallel; the ROK advanced after them, into North Korea.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=79–94}} MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA's unconditional surrender.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=144}} Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=81}} The X Corps [[UN offensive into North Korea#X Corps comes ashore (26-29 October)|landed at Wonsan]] (in southeastern North Korea) and [[Riwon]] (in northeastern North Korea) on 26 October, but these cities had already been captured by ROK forces.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=87–88}} The Eighth US Army drove up western Korea and [[Battle of Pyongyang (1950)|captured Pyongyang]] on 19 October 1950.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=90}} The [[187th Infantry Regiment (United States)|187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team]] made their first of two [[Battle of Yongju|combat jumps]] during the Korean War on 20 October 1950 at [[Sunchon, North Korea|Sunchon]] and [[Sukchon]]. The mission was to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue US [[prisoners of war]]. At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by {{convert|50–100|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} of mountainous terrain.{{sfn|Stueck|2002|pp=92–93}} In addition to the 135,000 captured, the KPA had also suffered some 200,000 men killed or wounded for a total of 335,000 casualties since the end of June 1950, and had lost 313 tanks (mostly T-34/85 models). A mere 25,000 KPA regulars retreated across the 38th Parallel, as their military had entirely collapsed. The UN forces on the peninsula numbered 229,722 combat troops (including 125,126 Americans and 82,786 South Koreans), 119,559 rear area troops, and 36,667 US Air Force personnel.{{sfn|Clodfelter|1989|p=11}}
-Taking advantage of the UN Command's strategic momentum against the communists, MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort. Truman disagreed, and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=83}}
-===China intervenes (October–December 1950)===
-[[File:China Crosses Yalu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Chinese forces cross the frozen Yalu River.]]
-On 30 June 1950, five days after the outbreak of the war, Zhou Enlai, premier of the PRC and vice-chairman of the Central Military Committee of the CCP (CMCC), decided to send a group of Chinese military intelligence personnel to North Korea to establish better communications with Kim II Sung as well as to collect first-hand materials on the fighting. One week later, on 7 July, Zhou and Mao chaired a conference discussing military preparations for the Korean Conflict. Another conference took place on 10 July. Here it was decided that the Thirteenth Army Corps under the Fourth Field Army of the PLA, one of the best trained and equipped units in China, would be immediately transformed into the Northeastern Border Defense Army (NEBDA) to prepare for "an intervention in the Korean War if necessary". On 13 July the CMCC formally issued the order to establish the NEBDA, appointing [[Deng Hua]], the commander of the Fifteenth Army Corps and one of the most talented commanders of the Chinese Civil War, to coordinate all preparation efforts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Jian |title=China's Changing Aims during the Korean War, 1950—1951 |journal=The Journal of American-East Asian Relations |date=1992 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=8–41 |jstor=23613365 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23613365 |access-date=26 January 2021 |issn=1058-3947}}</ref>{{rp|11–12}}
-On 20 August 1950, Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that "Korea is China's neighbor... The Chinese people cannot but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question". Thus, through neutral-country diplomats, China warned that in safeguarding Chinese [[national security]], they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=83}} President Truman interpreted the communication as "a bald attempt to blackmail the UN", and dismissed it.<ref name="Offner2002" /> Mao ordered that his troops should be ready for action by the end of August. Stalin, by contrast, was reluctant to escalate the war with a Chinese intervention.<ref>Sheng, Michael. "Mao's Role in the Korean Conflict: A Revision". ''Twentieth Century China'', Volume 39, Issue 3, pp. 269–290. September 2014. Quote: "But Mao's eagerness to be a part of the Korean revolutionary cause against ''American aggressors'' continued at home. On August 5, Mao telegraphed Gao Gang (高岗 1905–1954), the Commander and Commissar of the NDA, that ''there will probably have no military operation (for the NDA) in August, but (it) should be prepared for combat in early September. Every unit should be ready within this month in order to move to the front to fight.'' When commanders reported that it was unlikely that the troops could reach combat-ready status so quickly, Mao moved his timetable back a little, but on August 18 he demanded that the NDA must be ready for combat before September 30. Historian Chen Jian is correct that Mao ''had been inclined to send Chinese troops to Korea in later August and early September,'' and that the Chinese intervention was delayed in part due to reluctance on the part of Stalin and Kim."</ref>
-On 1 October 1950, the day that UN troops crossed the 38th Parallel, the Soviet ambassador forwarded a telegram from Stalin to Mao and Zhou requesting that China send five to six divisions into Korea, and Kim Il-sung sent frantic appeals to Mao for Chinese military intervention. At the same time, Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces themselves would not directly intervene.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=144}}
-[[File:1954 deng hua.jpg|thumb|left|Three commanders of PVA during the Korean War. From left to right: [[Chen Geng]] (1952), [[Peng Dehuai]] (1950–1952) and [[Deng Hua]] (1952–1953)]]
-In a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2 to 5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the US in Korea.{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|pp=355–56}} Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After [[Lin Biao]] politely refused Mao's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment),{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p=355}} Mao decided that [[Peng Dehuai]] would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao's position.{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p=355}} Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if US troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China, the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea.{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p=359}} On 4 August 1950, with a planned invasion of Taiwan aborted due to the heavy US naval presence, Mao reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea when the People's Liberation Army's (PLA) Taiwan invasion force was reorganized into the PLA North East Frontier Force.<ref name="AcademyC2000" /> On 8 October 1950, Mao redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the [[People's Volunteer Army]] (PVA).<ref name="Academy2000" />
-To enlist Stalin's support, Zhou and a Chinese delegation arrived in Moscow on 10 October, at which point they flew to Stalin's home on the [[Black Sea]].{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p=360}} There they conferred with the top Soviet leadership, which included Joseph Stalin as well as [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], [[Lavrentiy Beria]] and [[Georgy Malenkov]]. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition but warned Zhou that the [[Soviet Air Forces|Soviet Air Force]] would need two or three months to prepare any operations. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis and that the Soviet Air Force would only operate over Chinese airspace, and only after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=146, 149}} Mao did not find Soviet air support especially useful, as the fighting was going to take place on the south side of the Yalu.{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p=361}} Soviet shipments of matériel, when they did arrive, were limited to small quantities of trucks, grenades, machine guns, and the like.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|p=266}}
-Immediately on his return to Beijing on 18 October 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai and Gao Gang, and the group ordered two hundred thousand PVA troops to enter North Korea, which they did on 19 October.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=147–48}} UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and [[bivouac shelter|bivouac]] discipline minimized aerial detection.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=102}} The PVA marched "dark-to-dark" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away;{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=102}} PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-[[division (military)|division]] army to march the {{convert|286|mi|order=flip|abbr=on}} from [[Dandong|An-tung]], Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days. Another division night-marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging {{convert|18|mi|order=flip|abbr=on}} daily for 18 days.{{sfn|Appleman|1998|p=}}
-Meanwhile, on 15 October 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur [[Wake Island Conference|met at Wake Island]]. This meeting was much publicized because of the General's discourteous refusal to meet the President on the continental United States.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=88}} To President Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea,{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=89}} and that the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria and some 100,000–125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River. He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter" without air force protection.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref name="Donovan1996" />
-[[File:Warkorea American Soldiers.jpg|thumb|Soldiers from the US [[2nd Infantry Division (United States)|2nd Infantry Division]] in action near the Ch'ongch'on River, 20 November 1950]]
-[[File:Chosin.jpg|thumb|A column of the [[1st Marine Division (United States)|US 1st Marine Division]] move through Chinese lines during their breakout from the Chosin Reservoir.]]
-[[File:Map Eighth Army Retreat.jpg|thumb|Map of the UN retreat in the wake of Chinese intervention]]
-After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the [[UN offensive into North Korea#Chinese First Phase Campaign (25 October-6 November)|First Phase Offensive]] on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border. This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after PVA troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Force to provide air cover and supported more aid to China.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/01402391003590291|title = China and the Dispatch of the Soviet Air Force: The Formation of the Chinese–Soviet–Korean Alliance in the Early Stage of the Korean War|journal = Journal of Strategic Studies|volume = 33|issue = 2|pages = 211–30|year = 2010|last1 = Shen|first1 = Zhihua|s2cid = 154427564}}</ref> After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK [[II Corps (South Korea)|II Corps]] at the [[Battle of Onjong]], the first confrontation between Chinese and US military occurred on 1 November 1950. Deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA [[79th Group Army|39th Army]] [[encirclement|encircled]] and attacked the US [[8th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|8th Cavalry Regiment]] with three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in the [[Battle of Unsan]].<ref name="Stewart" /> The surprise assault resulted in the UN forces retreating back to the [[Ch'ongch'on River]], while the PVA unexpectedly disappeared into mountain hideouts following victory. It is unclear why the Chinese did not press the attack and follow up their victory.
-The UN Command, however, were unconvinced that the Chinese had openly intervened because of the sudden PVA withdrawal. On 24 November, the [[Home-by-Christmas Offensive]] was launched with the US Eighth Army advancing in northwest Korea, while US X Corps attacked along the Korean east coast. But the PVA were waiting in ambush with their [[Second Phase Offensive]], which they executed at two sectors: in the East at the Chosin Reservoir and in the Western sector at Ch'ongch'on River.
-On 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou Enlai the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=147–48}} On 25 November on the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the [[Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River]], and then inflicted heavy losses on the US [[2nd Infantry Division (United States)|2nd Infantry Division]] on the UN forces' right flank.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=98–99}} Believing that they could not hold against the PVA the Eighth Army began to [[UN retreat from North Korea|retreat from North Korea]] crossing the 38th Parallel in mid-December.{{sfn|Mossman|1990|p=160}} UN morale hit rock bottom when Lieutenant General [[Walton Walker]], commander of the US Eighth Army, was killed on 23 December 1950 in an automobile accident.
-In the east on 27 November the PVA 9th Army Group initiated the [[Battle of Chosin Reservoir]]. Here the UN forces fared comparatively better: like the Eighth Army the surprise attack also forced X Corps to retreat from northeast Korea, but they were in the process able to break out from the attempted encirclement by the PVA and execute a [[Battle of Chosin Reservoir#Aftermath|successful tactical withdrawal]]. X Corps managed to establish a defensive perimeter at the port city of [[Hungnam]] on 11 December and were able to [[Hungnam evacuation|evacuate]] by 24 December in order to reinforce the badly depleted US Eighth Army to the south.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=104–11}}{{sfn|Mossman|1990|p=158}} During the evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=110}} The [[SS Meredith Victory|SS ''Meredith Victory'']] was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN forces [[scorched earth|razed]] most of Hungnam city, with particular attention to the port facilities.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref name="DoyleMayer1979" /> The UN retreat from North Korea also saw the massive evacuation from the capital city of [[Pyongyang]]. In early December, UN forces including the British Army’s [[29th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|29th Infantry Brigade]] evacuated Pyongyang along with large numbers of refugees.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pyongyang taken as UN retreats, 1950|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/pyongyang-taken-as-un-retreats/znhynrd|access-date=2021-09-10|website=BBC Archive|language=en}}</ref>Around 4.5 million North Koreans are estimated to have fled from North Korea to either the South or elsewhere abroad.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=Faces of the Korean War {{!}} DW {{!}} 25.07.2013|url=https://www.dw.com/en/faces-of-the-korean-war/g-16973830|access-date=2021-09-10|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref>On 16 December 1950, President Truman declared a [[State of emergency#United States|national state of emergency]] with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2914-proclaiming-the-existence-national-emergency |title=The American Presidency Project Harry S Truman Proclamation 2914—Proclamation 2914—Proclaiming the Existence of a National Emergency |website=UC Santa Barbara |publisher=UC Santa Barbara |access-date=October 22, 2021 |quote=}}</ref> which remained in force until 14 September 1978.{{refn | name = nbJolley1971 | group = lower-alpha | See 50 U.S.C. S 1601: "All powers and authorities possessed by the President, any other officer or employee of the Federal Government, or any executive agency... as a result of the existence of any declaration of national emergency in effect on 14 September 1976 are terminated two years from 14 September 1976."; Jolley v. INS, 441 F.2d 1245, 1255 n.17 (5th Cir. 1971).}} The next day, 17 December 1950, Kim Il-sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China.<ref>Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, MAO: The Unknown Story.</ref>
-China justified its entry into the war as a response to "American aggression in the guise of the UN".<ref name="AcademyC2000" /> Later, the Chinese claimed that US bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened.<ref name="Weng1966" /><ref name="AcademyB2000" />
-===Fighting around the 38th Parallel (January–June 1951)===
-A ceasefire presented by the UN to the PRC shortly after the [[Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River]] on December 11, 1950 was rejected by the Chinese government which was convinced of the PVA's invincibility after its victory in that battle and the wider [[Second Phase Offensive]], and also wanted to demonstrate China's desire for a total victory through the expulsion of the UN forces from Korea.{{sfn|Zhang|1995|pp=119–126}}<ref>{{citation
-| last       = Alexander
-| first      = Bevin R.
-| author-link = Bevin Alexander
-| year       = 1986
-| title      = Korea: The First War We Lost
-| publisher  = Hippocrene Books, Inc
-| location   = New York
-| isbn       = 978-0-87052-135-5
-| pages = 371–376
-}}</ref> With Lieutenant General [[Matthew Ridgway]] assuming the command of the US Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their [[Third Battle of Seoul|Third Phase Offensive]] (also known as the "Chinese New Year's Offensive") on New Year's Eve of 1950/51. Utilizing night attacks in which UN fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy. UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result, some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=117}} The offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to capture Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951. Following this, the CPV party committee issued orders regarding tasks during rest and reorganization on 8 January 1951, outlining Chinese war goals. The orders read: "the central issue is for the whole party and army to overcome difficulties &hellip; to improve tactics and skills. When the next campaign starts &hellip; we will annihilate all enemies and liberate all Korea."  In his telegram to Peng on 14 January, Mao stressed the importance of preparing for "the last battle" in the spring in order to "fundamentally resolve the [Korean] issue".<ref>Zhihua, Shen, and Yafeng Xia. "Mao Zedong's Erroneous Decision During the Korean War: China's Rejection of the UN Cease-fire Resolution in Early 1951". Asian Perspective 35, no. 2 (2011): 187–209.</ref>
-[[File:Korean War bombing Wonsan.jpg|thumb|[[A-26 Invader|B-26 Invaders]] bomb logistics depots in Wonsan, North Korea, 1951]]
-These setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using [[nuclear weapon]]s against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, with the intention that radioactive fallout zones would interrupt the Chinese supply chains.<ref name="MacArthur" /> However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the ''esprit de corps'' of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=113}}
-UN forces retreated to [[Suwon]] in the west, [[Wonju]] in the center, and the territory north of [[Samcheok]] in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=117}} The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=118}} In late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, General Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which became [[Operation Thunderbolt (1951)|Operation Thunderbolt]] (25 January 1951).{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} A full-scale advance followed, which fully exploited the UN's air superiority,{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=120}} concluding with the UN forces reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}}
-Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] passed [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 498|Resolution 498]] on 1 February, condemning the PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/5/ares5.htm |title=Resolution 498(V) Intervention of the Central People's Government of People's Republic of China in Korea |publisher=United Nations |date=1 February 1951 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525180549/http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/5/ares5.htm |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/index-3262.html |title=Cold War International History Project's Cold War Files |publisher=Wilson Center |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930121857/http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/index-3262.html |archive-date=30 September 2013  }}</ref>
-In early February, the ROK [[11th Division (South Korea)|11th Division]] ran the operation to destroy the guerrillas and their sympathizer citizens in [[South Gyeongsang|Southern Korea]].<ref name=jd030210/> During the operation, the division and police conducted the [[Geochang massacre]] and [[Sancheong–Hamyang massacre]].<ref name=jd030210>{{cite news
- |url=http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=1932280
- |title=SURVIVOR Hundreds were killed in a 1951 massacre. One man is left to remember.
- |newspaper=[[JoongAng Daily]]
- |date=10 February 2003
- |access-date=6 April 2013
- |url-status=live
- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608041139/http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=1932280
- |archive-date=8 June 2011
-}}</ref> In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at [[Battle of Hoengsong|Hoengseong]]. But the offensive was soon blunted by US [[IX Corps (United States)|IX Corps]] at [[Jipyeong-ri|Chipyong-ni]] in the center.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} The US [[23rd Infantry Regiment (United States)|23rd Regimental Combat Team]] and the [[French Battalion in the Korean War|French Battalion]] fought a short but desperate [[Battle of Chipyong-ni|battle]] that broke the attack's momentum.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} The battle is sometimes known as the "[[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]] of the Korean War": 5,600 South Korean, US, and French troops were surrounded on all sides by 25,000 PVA. UN forces had previously retreated in the face of large PVA/KPA forces instead of getting cut off, but this time they stood and fought, and won.<ref name="Timmons" />
-[[File:U.S. Marines in the Korean War 003.jpg|thumb|left|upright|US Marines move out over rugged mountain terrain while closing with North Korean forces.]]
-In the last two weeks of February 1951, ''Operation Thunderbolt'' was followed by [[Operation Killer]], carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} Operation Killer concluded with US [[I Corps (United States)|I Corps]] re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=122}} On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with [[Operation Ripper]], expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the fourth and final conquest of the city in a year's time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5&nbsp;million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=122}}<ref name="KIMH" />
-On 1 March 1951, Mao sent a cable to Stalin emphasizing the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the need for air cover, especially over supply lines. Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war. In late April Peng Dehuai sent his deputy, [[Hong Xuezhi]], to brief Zhou Enlai in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these efforts were never sufficient. At the same time, large-scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]] (PLAAF) began participating in the war from September 1951 onward.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=149}} The Fourth Phase Offensive had catastrophically failed, in contrast to the success of the Second Phase Offensive and limited gains of the Third Phase Offensive. The U.N. forces, after earlier defeats and subsequent retraining, proved much harder to infiltrate by Chinese light infantry than they had been in previous months. From 31 January to 21 April, the Chinese had suffered 53,000 casualties.<ref>Xiaobing, Li (2014). ''China's Battle for Korea: The 1951 Spring Offensive''. Indiana University Press. p. 63.</ref>
-On 11 April 1951, President Truman [[President Truman's relief of General Douglas MacArthur|relieved General MacArthur]] as Supreme Commander in Korea.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=123–27}} There were several reasons for the dismissal. MacArthur had crossed the 38th Parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed that whether to use nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the President's.{{sfn|Stein|1994|p=69}} MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a larger war and felt a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution.{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p= 600}} MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the President and thus had violated the [[United States Constitution|US Constitution]].{{sfn|Stein|1994|p=79}} A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea, and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.{{sfn|Halberstam|2007|p= 498}}
-[[File:Centurion tanks and infantry of the Gloucestershire Regiment advancing to attack Hill 327 in Korea, March 1951. BF454.jpg|thumb|British UN troops advance alongside a [[Centurion tank]], March 1951]]
-MacArthur was relieved primarily due to his determination to expand the war into China, which other officials believed would needlessly escalate a limited war and consume too many already overstretched resources. Despite MacArthur's claims that he was restricted to fighting a limited war when China was fighting all-out, congressional testimony revealed China was using restraint as much as the US was, as they were not using air power against front-line troops, communication lines, ports, naval air forces, or staging bases in Japan, which had been crucial to the survival of UN forces in Korea. Simply fighting on the peninsula had already tied down significant portions of US airpower; as [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Air Force chief of staff]] [[Hoyt Vandenberg]] said, 80–85% of the tactical capacity, one-fourth of the strategic portion, and 20% of air defense forces of the USAF were engaged in a single country. There was also fear that crossing into China would provoke the Soviet Union into entering the war. General Omar Bradley testified that there were 35 Russian divisions totaling some 500,000 troops in the Far East, and if sent into action with the approximately 85 Russian submarines in the vicinity of Korea, they could overwhelm US forces and cut supply lines, as well as potentially assist China in taking over territory in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/redacted-testimony-fully-explains-why-general-macarthur-was-fired-180960622/|title=The Redacted Testimony That Fully Explains Why General MacArthur Was Fired|last1=Brands|first1=H.W. |date=28 September 2016 |website=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |access-date=25 March 2017}}</ref>
-General Ridgway was appointed Supreme Commander in Korea, and he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks,{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=127}} while General [[James Van Fleet]] assumed command of the US Eighth Army.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=130}} Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations [[Operation Courageous|''Courageous'']] (23–28 March 1951) and [[Operation Tomahawk|''Tomahawk'']] (23 March 1951) (a combat jump by the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team) were a joint ground and airborne infiltration meant to trap PVA forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to the ''Kansas Line'', north of the 38th Parallel.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=131}}
-The PVA counterattacked in April 1951, with the [[Chinese Spring Offensive|Fifth Phase Offensive]], with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men).{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=131–32}} The first thrust of the offensive fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the [[Battle of the Imjin River]] (22–25 April 1951) and the [[Battle of Kapyong]] (22–25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the ''No-name Line'' north of Seoul.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=133–34}} Casualty ratios were grievously disproportionate; Peng had expected a 1–1 or 2-1 ratio, but instead, Chinese combat casualties from 22 to 29 April totaled between 40,000 and 60,000 compared to only 4,000 for the UN&nbsp;– a casualty ratio between 10–1 and 15–1.<ref>Xiaobing 2014, pp. 124-125.</ref> By the time Peng had called off the attack in the western sector on 29 April, the three participating armies had lost a third of their front-line combat strength within a week.<ref>Xiaobing 2014, p. 125.</ref> Additional casualties were incurred on 30 April. On 15 May 1951, the PVA commenced the second impulse of the Spring Offensive and attacked the ROK and US X Corps in the east at the [[Battle of the Soyang River|Soyang River]]. 370,000 PVA and 114,000 KPA troops had been mobilized for the second step of the Fifth Phase Offensive, with the bulk attacking in the eastern sector with about a quarter attempting to pin the US I Corps and IX Corps in the western sector. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May and repulsed over the following days, with western histories generally designating 22 May as the end of the offensive.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=136–37}}<ref>Xiaobing 2014, p. 149.</ref> At month's end, the Chinese planned the third step of the Fifth Phase Offensive (withdrawal), which they estimated would take 10 to 15 days to complete for their 340,000 remaining men, and set the retreat date for the night of 23 May. They were caught off guard when the US Eighth Army counterattacked and regained the ''Kansas Line'' on the morning of 12 May, 23 hours before the expected withdrawal.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=137–38}}<ref name="Xiaobing 2014, p. 181">Xiaobing 2014, p. 181.</ref> The surprise attack turned the retreat into "the most severe loss since our forces had entered Korea"; from 16 May to 23 May, the PVA had suffered another 45,000 to 60,000 casualties before their remaining men managed to evacuate back north.<ref name="Xiaobing 2014, p. 181"/> Per official Chinese statistics, the Fifth Phase Offensive as a whole had cost the PVA 102,000 men (85,000 killed/wounded, 17,000 captured), with unknown but significant losses for the KPA.<ref>Xiaobing 2009, pp. 101-102</ref>
-The end of the Fifth Phase Offensive preceded the start of the [[UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive]]. During the counteroffensive, the US-led coalition captured land up to about {{convert|6|mi|km|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} north of the 38th Parallel, with most forces stopping at the ''Kansas Line'' and a minority going further to the ''Wyoming Line.''  PVA and KPA forces suffered greatly during this offensive, especially in the Chuncheon sector and at Chiam-ni and Hwacheon; in the latter sector alone the PVA/KPA suffered over 73,207 casualties, including 8,749 captured, compared to 2,647 total casualties of the US IX Corps which engaged them.<ref>Mossman, Billy (1988). United States Army in the Korean War: Ebb and Flow November 1950 – July 1951. United States Army Center of Military History. p. 465.</ref> The UN's ''Kansas Line'' halt and subsequent offensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953. The disastrous failure of the Fifth Phase Offensive (which Peng later recalled as one of only four mistakes he made in his military career) "led Chinese leaders to change their goal from driving the UNF out of Korea to merely defending China's security and ending the war through negotiations".<ref>Xiaobing 2009, p. 103</ref>
-===Stalemate (July 1951&nbsp;– July 1953)===
-For the remainder of the war, the UN and the PVA/KPA fought but exchanged little territory, as the stalemate held. Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted [[Korean Armistice Agreement#Armistice discussions|armistice negotiations]] began on 10 July 1951 at Kaesong, an ancient capital of North Korea located in PVA/KPA held territory.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=145, 175–77}} On the Chinese side, Zhou Enlai directed peace talks, and [[Li Kenong]] and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=149}} Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the goal of the UN forces was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=159}} The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations and later effected military and psychological operations in order to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war. The two sides constantly traded artillery fire along the front, the American-led forces possessing a large firepower advantage over the Chinese-led forces. For example, in the last three months of 1952 the UN fired 3,553,518 field gun shells and 2,569,941 mortar shells, while the communists fired 377,782 field gun shells and 672,194 mortar shells: an overall 5.83:1 ratio in the UN's favor.<ref>Clodfelter 1989, p. 22.</ref> The communist insurgency, reinvigorated by North Korean support and scattered bands of KPA stragglers, also resurged in the south. In the autumn of 1951, Van Fleet ordered Major General Paik Sun-yup to break the back of guerrilla activity. From December 1951 to March 1952, ROK security forces claimed to have killed 11,090 partisans and sympathizers and captured 9,916 more.<ref name="EB"/>
-[[File:M46 tiger paint.png|thumb|upright=1.3|left|US [[M46 Patton]] tanks, painted with tiger heads thought to demoralize Chinese forces]]
-The principal battles of the stalemate include the [[Battle of Bloody Ridge]] (18 August–15 September 1951),{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=160}} the [[Battle of the Punchbowl]] (31 August-21 September 1951), the [[Battle of Heartbreak Ridge]] (13 September–15 October 1951),{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=161–62}} the [[Battle of Old Baldy]] (26 June–4 August 1952), the [[Battle of White Horse]] (6–15 October 1952), the [[Battle of Triangle Hill]] (14 October–25 November 1952), the [[Battle of Hill Eerie]] (21 March–21 June 1952), the sieges of [[Outpost Harry]] (10–18 June 1953), the [[Third Battle of the Hook|Battle of the Hook]] (28–29 May 1953), the [[Battle of Pork Chop Hill]] (23 March–16 July 1953) and the [[Battle of Kumsong]] (13–27 July 1953).
-PVA troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that, in November 1951, Zhou Enlai called a conference in [[Shenyang]] to discuss the PVA's logistical problems. At the meeting it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area, to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to directly address the problems confronting PVA troops.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=148}}
-[[File:02 Dad in action april1952 Korea sepia.jpg|thumb|New Zealand artillery crew in action, 1952]]
-In the months after the Shenyang conference, Peng Dehuai went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the [[Central Military Commission (People's Republic of China)|Military Commission]], presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?" The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and, to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=148–49}}
-With peace negotiations ongoing, the Chinese attempted one final offensive in the final weeks of the war to capture territory: on 10 June, 30,000 Chinese troops struck two South Korean and one US divisions on a {{convert|8|mi|km|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} front, and on 13 July, 80,000 Chinese soldiers struck the east-central Kumsong sector, with the brunt of their attack falling on four South Korean divisions. In both cases, the Chinese had some success in penetrating South Korean lines, but failed to capitalize, particularly when the US forces present responded with overwhelming firepower. Chinese casualties in their final major offensive of the war (above normal wastage for the front) were about 72,000, including 25,000 killed in action compared to 14,000 for the UN (the vast majority of these deaths were South Koreans, though 1,611 were Americans). The communists fired 704,695 field gun shells in June–July compared to 4,711,230 fired by the UN, a ratio of 6.69:1. June 1953 saw the highest monthly artillery expenditure of the war by both sides.<ref>Clodfelter 1989, p. 24.</ref>
-===Armistice (July 1953&nbsp;– November 1954)===
-{{main|Korean Armistice Agreement}}
-[[File:C Coy 2 RAR soldiers on The Hook Jun 1953 (AWM 157648).png|thumb|left|Men from the [[Royal Australian Regiment]], June 1953]]
-The on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years,{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=144–53}} first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighboring village of [[Panmunjom]].{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=147}} A major, problematic negotiation point was [[prisoner of war]] (POW) repatriation.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=187–99}} The PVA, KPA and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north,<ref name="Boose2000" /> which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=189–90}} A [[Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission]], under the chairman Indian General [[K. S. Thimayya]], was subsequently set up to handle the matter.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=242–45}}
-In 1952, the US elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president-elect, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=240}} With the United Nations' acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice,<ref>{{cite web|last=Harrison (Lt. Col.) |first=William T. |title=Military Armistice in Korea: A Case Study for Strategic Leaders |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA404504 |access-date=11 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801180412/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA404504 |archive-date=1 August 2013 }}</ref> the KPA, the PVA and the UN Command signed the [[Korean Armistice Agreement]] on 27 July 1953. South Korean president Syngman Rhee refused to sign the agreement. The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no [[peace treaty]].<ref name="US neutral commission" /> North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War.<ref name="Ho1993" /><ref name="KCNA2011" />
-Under the Armistice Agreement, the belligerents established the [[Korean Demilitarized Zone]] (DMZ), along the frontline which vaguely follows the 38th Parallel. The DMZ runs northeast of the 38th Parallel; to the south, it travels west. Kaesong, site of the initial armistice negotiations, originally was in pre-war South Korea, but now is part of North Korea. The DMZ has since been patrolled by the KPA and the ROK and the US still operating as the UN Command.
-The Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China and the United States to participate in continued peace talks.
-After the war, [[Operation Glory]] was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 US Army and US Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner-of-war camps were delivered to the South Korean government.<ref name="OperationGlory" /> After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the [[National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific]] (The Punchbowl), on the island of [[Oahu]], Hawaii. [[Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office]] (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and North Korea transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the US, and all but 416 were identified by name.<ref name="DPMO" /> From 1996 to 2006, North Korea recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border.<ref name="Army Times" />
-===Division of Korea (1954–present)===
-{{See also|Korean Demilitarized Zone}}
-[[File:Korean War armistice agreement 1953.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Delegates sign the Korean Armistice Agreement in [[Panmunjom|P'anmunjŏm]].]]
-The Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the [[Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission]] (NNSC), composed of members from the Swiss<ref name="SwissArmy" /> and Swedish<ref name="SwedishArmy" /> Armed Forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.
-In April 1975, [[South Vietnam]]'s capital was [[Fall of Saigon|captured]] by the [[People's Army of Vietnam]]. Encouraged by the success of the Communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il-sung saw it as an opportunity to invade the South. Kim visited China in April of that year and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea.<ref name="KimIlsung1975">{{cite web|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/nkidp-e-dossier-no-7-east-german-documents-kim-il-sung%E2%80%99s-april-1975-trip-to-beijing#_ftn2 |title=NKIDP e-Dossier No. 7: East German Documents on Kim Il Sung's April 1975 Trip to Beijing |author=Ria Chae |date=May 2012 |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars |series=North Korea International Documentation Project |access-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104124051/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/nkidp-e-dossier-no-7-east-german-documents-kim-il-sung%E2%80%99s-april-1975-trip-to-beijing |archive-date=4 November 2012 }}</ref>
-[[File:ObservationPostOuellette.jpg|thumb|A U.S. Army officer confers with South Korean soldiers at Observation Post (OP) Ouellette, viewing northward, in April 2008]]
-[[File:DMZ seen from the north, 2005.jpg|thumb|The [[Korean Demilitarized Zone|DMZ]] as seen from the north, 2005]]
-Since the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. From 1966 to 1969, a large number of cross-border incursions took place in what has been referred to as the [[Korean DMZ Conflict]] or the Second Korean War. In 1968, a North Korean commando team unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate South Korean president [[Park Chung-hee]] in the [[Blue House Raid]]. In 1976, the [[axe murder incident]] was widely publicized. Since 1974, [[North Korean tunnels|four incursion tunnels]] leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine [[ROKS Cheonan sinking|torpedoed and sank]] the South Korean [[corvette]] {{ROKS|Cheonan|PCC-772|6}}, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors.<ref name="BBC2010" /> Again in 2010, North Korea [[Bombardment of Yeonpyeong|fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong]] island, killing two military personnel and two civilians.<ref name="Reuters2010" />
-After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid.<ref>{{cite news|last=Park |first=Madison |title=North Korea declares 1953 armistice invalid |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/03/11/world/asia/north-korea-armistice/index.html |access-date=11 March 2013 |newspaper=CNN |date=11 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311175505/http://www.cnn.com/2013/03/11/world/asia/north-korea-armistice/index.html |archive-date=11 March 2013 }}</ref> On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression".<ref name="end of armistise">{{cite web|last=Chang-Won |first=Lim |title=North Korea confirms end of war armistice |url=http://www.tolonews.com/en/afghanistan/9765-north-korea-confirms-end-of-war-armistice |publisher=Tolo News |access-date=17 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702052515/http://www.tolonews.com/en/afghanistan/9765-north-korea-confirms-end-of-war-armistice |archive-date=2 July 2014  }}</ref> On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it entered a "state of war" with South Korea and declared that "The long-standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over".<ref name="NK state of war">{{cite news|title=North Korea enters 'state of war' with South |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21979127 |access-date=30 March 2013 |newspaper=BBC News |date=30 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330013512/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21979127 |archive-date=30 March 2013 }}</ref> Speaking on 4 April 2013, the US Secretary of Defense, [[Chuck Hagel]], informed the press that Pyongyang "formally informed" the Pentagon that it "ratified" the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii.<ref>{{cite news|title=North Korea threatens pre-emptive nuclear strike against US |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/07/north-korea-threatens-nuclear-strike-us |access-date=4 April 2013 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=7 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104194322/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/07/north-korea-threatens-nuclear-strike-us |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}</ref> Hagel also stated the US would deploy the [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] [[anti-ballistic missile]] system to Guam, because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea.<ref>{{cite news|title=North Korea threats: US to move missiles to Guam |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22021832 |access-date=4 April 2013 |newspaper=BBC News |date=3 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404001650/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22021832 |archive-date=4 April 2013 }}</ref>
-In 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to formally end the war. While the [[White House]] agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected due to North Korea's refusal to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty.<ref name="CassellaChiacu">{{cite news|last1=Cassella |first1=Megan |last2=Chiacu |first2=Doina |title=U.S. rejected North Korea peace talks offer before last nuclear test: State Department |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-nuclear-idUSKCN0VU0XE |access-date=22 February 2016 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=21 February 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222022637/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-nuclear-idUSKCN0VU0XE |archive-date=22 February 2016 }}</ref>
-On 27 April 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talks to end the ongoing 65-year conflict. They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/27/asia/korean-summit-intl/index.html|title=North and South Korea vow to end the Korean War in historic accord|last=Griffiths|first=James|date=27 April 2018|work=CNN|access-date=29 April 2018}}</ref>
-On 22 September 2021, South Korean President [[Moon Jae-in|Moon Jae-In]] reiterated his call to formally end the Korean War, in his speech at the [[United Nations General Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-21|title=South Korean leader repeats call for declaration to end Korean War|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korean-leader-repeats-call-declaration-end-korean-war-2021-09-21/|access-date=2021-09-22|website=Reuters|language=en}}</ref>
-==Characteristics==
-===Casualties===
-Approximately 3&nbsp;million people died in the Korean War, the majority of whom were civilians, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War-era.<ref name="Cumings p. 35">{{cite book|last=Cumings|first=Bruce|author-link=Bruce Cumings|title=The Korean War: A History|publisher=[[Modern Library]]|year=2011|isbn=9780812978964|page=35|quote=Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2&nbsp;million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of non-hostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2&nbsp;million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat.}}</ref><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453">{{cite book|last=Lewy|first=Guenter|author-link=Guenter Lewy|title=America in Vietnam|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1980|isbn=9780199874231|pages=450–453|quote=For the Korean War the only hard statistic is that of American military deaths, which included 33,629 battle deaths and 20,617 who died of other causes. The North Korean and Chinese Communists never published statistics of their casualties. The number of South Korean military deaths has been given as in excess of 400,000; the South Korean Ministry of Defense puts the number of killed and missing at 281,257. Estimates of communist troops killed are about one-half million. The total number of Korean civilians who died in the fighting, which left almost every major city in North and South Korea in ruins, has been estimated at between 2 and 3 million. This adds up to almost 1&nbsp;million military deaths and a possible 2.5&nbsp;million civilians who were killed or died as a result of this extremely destructive conflict. The proportion of civilians killed in the major wars of this century (and not only in the major ones) has thus risen steadily. It reached about 42 percent in World War II and may have gone as high as 70 percent in the Korean War.&nbsp;... we find that the ratio of civilian to military deaths [in Vietnam] is not substantially different from that of World War II and is well below that of the Korean War.|title-link=America in Vietnam}}</ref><ref name="Kim p.45">{{cite book|last=Kim|first=Samuel S.|chapter=The Evolving Asian System|title=International Relations of Asia|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|year=2014|isbn=9781442226418|page=45|quote=With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8&nbsp;million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4&nbsp;million including the Chinese Civil War (1&nbsp;million), the Korean War (3&nbsp;million), the Vietnam War (2&nbsp;million), and the [[Pol Pot]] [[Cambodian genocide|genocide]] in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=McGuire|first=James|title=Wealth, Health, and Democracy in East Asia and Latin America|url=https://archive.org/details/wealthhealthdemo00mcgu|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2010|isbn=9781139486224|page=[https://archive.org/details/wealthhealthdemo00mcgu/page/n217 203]|quote=In Korea, war in the early 1950s cost nearly 3 million lives, including nearly a million civilian dead in South Korea.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Painter|first=David S.|author-link=David S. Painter|title=The Cold War: An International History|url=https://archive.org/details/coldwarinternati00pain|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=1999|isbn=9780415153164|page=[https://archive.org/details/coldwarinternati00pain/page/n40 30]|quote=Before it ended, the Korean War cost over 3 million people their lives, including over 50,000 US servicemen and women and a much higher number of Chinese and Korean lives. The war also set in motion a number of changes that led to the militarization and intensification of the Cold War.}}</ref> Samuel S. Kim lists the Korean War as the deadliest conflict in East Asia—itself the region most affected by armed conflict related to the Cold War–from 1945 to 1994, with 3&nbsp;million dead, more than the Vietnam War and Chinese Civil War during the same period.<ref name="Kim p.45"/> Although only rough estimates of civilian fatalities are available, scholars from [[Guenter Lewy]] to Bruce Cumings have noted that the percentage of civilian casualties in Korea was higher than in World War II or the Vietnam War, with Cumings putting civilian casualties at 2&nbsp;million and Lewy estimating civilian deaths in the range of 2&nbsp;million to 3&nbsp;million.<ref name="Cumings p. 35"/><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453"/> Cumings states that civilians represent "at least" half of the war's casualties, while Lewy suggests that the civilian portion of the death toll "may have gone as high as 70 percent", compared to Lewy's estimates of 42% in World War II and 30%–46% in the Vietnam War.<ref name="Cumings p. 35"/><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453"/> Data compiled by the [[Peace Research Institute Oslo]] (PRIO) lists just under 1&nbsp;million "battle deaths" over the course of the Korean War (with a range of 644,696 to 1.5&nbsp;million) and a mid-value estimate of 3&nbsp;million total deaths (with a range of 1.5&nbsp;million to 4.5&nbsp;million), attributing the difference to excess mortality among civilians from one-sided massacres, starvation, and disease.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lacina|first=Bethany|url=https://files.prio.org/ReplicationData/BattleDeathsDataset/PRIO%20Battle%20Deaths%20Dataset%203.0%20Documentation.pdf|title=The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946–2008, Version 3.0|publisher=[[Peace Research Institute Oslo]]|date=September 2009|pages=359–362|access-date=29 August 2019}}</ref> Compounding this devastation for Korean civilians, virtually all of the major cities on the entire Korean Peninsula were destroyed as a result of the war.<ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453"/> In both per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the country most devastated by the war. According to [[Charles K. Armstrong]], the war resulted in the death of an estimated 12%–15% of the North Korean population ({{circa}} 10&nbsp;million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|Soviet citizens killed in World War II]]".<ref name="Armstrong">{{cite journal|last=Armstrong|first=Charles K.|url=https://apjjf.org/-Charles-K--Armstrong/3460/article.pdf|title=The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950–1960|journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal|volume=8|issue=51|page=1|date=20 December 2010|access-date=13 September 2019|quote=The number of Korean dead, injured or missing by war's end approached three million, ten percent of the overall population. The majority of those killed were in the North, which had half of the population of the South; although the DPRK does not have official figures, possibly twelve to fifteen percent of the population was killed in the war, a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II.}}</ref>
-====Military====
-[[File:South Africa-Korean War Memorial01.jpg|thumb|Korean War memorials are found in every UN Command Korean War participant country; this one is in [[Pretoria]], South Africa.]]
-According to the data from the US Department of Defense, the US suffered 33,686 battle deaths, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths, and 17,730 other deaths during the Korean War.<ref name="amerdead">{{cite news| author=Rhem, Kathleen T.| publisher=defense.gov. US Department of Defense|title=Defense.gov News Article: Korean War Death Stats Highlight Modern DoD Safety Record |url=http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=45275| date=8 June 2000|access-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114121831/http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=45275|archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref> American combat casualties were over 90 percent of non-Korean UN losses. U.S. battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950.<ref>[https://aad.archives.gov/aad/display-partial-records.jsp?dt=2512&sc=27406%2C27409%2C27410%2C27361%2C27363%2C27364%2C27366%2C27384%2C27392&cat=all&tf=F&bc=%2Csl%2Cfd&q=&as_alq=&as_anq=&as_epq=&as_woq=&nfo_27406=V%2C10%2C1900&op_27406=0&txt_27406=&nfo_27409=V%2C40%2C1900&op_27409=0&txt_27409=&nfo_27410=V%2C1%2C1900&cl_27410=&nfo_27361=N%2C8%2C1889&op_27361=3&txt_27361=&txt_27361=&nfo_27363=V%2C50%2C1900&op_27363=0&txt_27363=&nfo_27364=V%2C50%2C1900&op_27364=0&txt_27364=&nfo_27366=V%2C2%2C1900&cl_27366=&nfo_27384=D%2C8%2C1950&op_27384=8&txt_27384=06%2F28%2F1950&txt_27384=10%2F31%2F1950&nfo_27392=V%2C2%2C1900&cl_27392=H Defense Casualty Analysis System search] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20141221221335/http://aad.archives.gov/aad/display-partial-records.jsp?dt=2512&sc=27406,27409,27410,27361,27363,27364,27366,27384,27392&cat=all&tf=F&bc=,sl,fd&q=&as_alq=&as_anq=&as_epq=&as_woq=&nfo_27406=V,10,1900&op_27406=0&txt_27406=&nfo_27409=V,40,1900&op_27409=0&txt_27409=&nfo_27410=V,1,1900&cl_27410=&nfo_27361=N,8,1889&op_27361=3&txt_27361=&txt_27361=&nfo_27363=V,50,1900&op_27363=0&txt_27363=&nfo_27364=V,50,1900&op_27364=0&txt_27364=&nfo_27366=V,2,1900&cl_27366=&nfo_27384=D,8,1950&op_27384=8&txt_27384=06/28/1950&txt_27384=10/31/1950&nfo_27392=V,2,1900&cl_27392=H |date=21 December 2014 }} Korean War Extract Data File. Accessed 21 December 2014.</ref> The first four months of the Korean War, that is, the war prior to the Chinese intervention (which started near the end of October), were by far the bloodiest per day for the US forces as they engaged and destroyed the comparatively well-equipped KPA in intense fighting. American medical records show that from July to October 1950, the US Army sustained 31 percent of the combat deaths it ultimately incurred in the whole 37-month war.<ref>[http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/korea/reister/appb.htm Office of Medical History&nbsp;– Army Nurse Corps History]. Accessed 7 January 2019. Table B-1.</ref> The U.S. spent [[US$]]30&nbsp;billion in total on the war.<ref>Daggett, Stephen. [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22926.pdf Costs of Major U.S. Wars]. Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC, p. 2.</ref> Some 1,789,000 American soldiers served in the Korean War, accounting for 31 percent of the 5,720,000 Americans who served on active-duty worldwide from June 1950 to July 1953.<ref name="Fact Sheet: America's Wars" />
-South Korea reported some 137,899 military deaths and 24,495 missing. Deaths from the other non-American U.N. militaries totaled 3,730, with another 379 missing.<ref name="ROK Web" />
-Data from official Chinese sources reported that the PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 34,000 non-battle deaths, 340,000 wounded, and 7,600 missing during the war. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China.<ref name="xu" /> In 2010, the Chinese government revised their official tally of war losses to 183,108 dead (114,084 in combat, 70,000 outside of combat) and 25,621 missing.<ref name="china.org.cn"/> Overall, 73 percent of Chinese infantry troops served in Korea (25 of 34 armies, or 79 of 109 infantry divisions, were rotated in). More than 52 percent of the Chinese air force, 55 percent of the tank units, 67 percent of the artillery divisions, and 100 percent of the railroad engineering divisions were sent to Korea as well.<ref>Xiaobing 2009, p. 106</ref> Chinese soldiers who served in Korea faced a greater chance of being killed than those who served in World War II or the Chinese Civil War.<ref>Xiaobing 2009, p. 111.</ref> In terms of financial cost, China spent over 10&nbsp;billion yuan on the war (roughly US$3.3&nbsp;billion), not counting USSR aid which had been donated or forgiven.<ref name="Xiaobing 2009, p. 112">Xiaobing 2009, p. 112.</ref> This included $1.3&nbsp;billion in money owed to the Soviet Union by the end of it. This was a relatively large cost, as China had only 1/25 the national income of the United States.<ref name="xu" /> Spending on the Korean War constituted 34–43 percent of China's annual government budget from 1950 to 1953, depending on the year.<ref name="Xiaobing 2009, p. 112"/> Despite its underdeveloped economy, Chinese military spending was the world's fourth-largest globally for most of the war after that of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, though by 1953, with the winding down of the Korean War (which ended halfway through the year) and the escalation of the [[First Indochina War]] (which reached its peak in 1953–1954), French spending also surpassed Chinese spending by about a third.<ref>Correlates of War: National Material Capabilities (v4.0) Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from [https://ourworldindata.org/military-spending here.] Accessed 8 August 2019.</ref>
-According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, North Korean military losses totaled 294,151 dead, 91,206 missing, and 229,849 wounded, giving North Korea the highest military deaths of any belligerent in both absolute and relative terms.<ref name="Andrew C. Nahm 2004 pages 129-130">Andrew C. Nahm; James Hoare (2004). "Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Korea". Scarecrow Press, pp. 129–130.</ref> The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset gave a similar figure for North Korean military deaths of 316,579.<ref name=PRIO>Bethany Lacina and Nils Petter Gleditsch, 2005. ―Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths.‖ European Journal of Population: 21(2–3): 145–166. Korean data available at  [http://files.prio.org/ReplicationData/BattleDeathsDataset/PRIO%20Battle%20Deaths%20Dataset%203.0%20Documentation.pdf "The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946–2008, Version 3.0"], pp. 359–362</ref> Chinese sources reported similar figures for the North Korean military of 290,000 "casualties" and 90,000 captured.<ref name="xu" /> The exact financial cost of the war for North Korea is unknown, but was known to be massive in terms of both direct losses and lost economic activity; the country was devastated both by the cost of the war itself and [[Bombing of North Korea 1950-1953|the American strategic bombing campaign]], which among other things destroyed 85 percent of North Korea's buildings and 95 percent of its power generation capacity.<ref>Harden, Blaine (2017). ''King of Spies: The Dark Reign of America's Spymaster in Korea''. New York, p. 9.</ref>
-The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated" from the battlefield.<ref name="xu" /> Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed and 303,000 wounded.<ref name="Hickey" /> Cumings cites a much higher figure of 900,000 fatalities among Chinese soldiers.<ref name="Cumings p. 35"/>
-====Civilian====
-According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, there were over three-quarters of a million confirmed violent civilians deaths during the war, another million civilians were pronounced missing, and millions more ended up as refugees. In South Korea, some 373,500 civilians were killed, more than 225,600 wounded, and over 387,740 were listed as missing. During the first communist occupation of Seoul alone, the KPA massacred 128,936 civilians and deported another 84,523 to North Korea. On the other side of the border, some 1,594,000 North Koreans were reported as casualties including 406,000 civilians reported as killed, and 680,000 missing. Over 1.5&nbsp;million North Koreans fled to the South during the war.<ref name="Andrew C. Nahm 2004 pages 129-130"/>
-===US unpreparedness for war===
-In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of US Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General [[Floyd L. Parks]] stated that "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man ... [T]hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat ... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament."<ref>Lewis, Adrian R., ''The American culture of war'', New York: Taylor & Francis Group, {{ISBN|978-0415979757}} (2007), p. 82</ref>
-[[File:Dutch soldier returns sniper fire in Korea-1952.jpg|thumb|A soldier of the Dutch detachment of the UN forces in North Korea prepares to return sniper fire, 1952]]
-By 1950, US Secretary of Defense [[Louis A. Johnson]] had established a policy of faithfully following President Truman's defense economization plans and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained US military forces in the war's early stages.{{sfn|Blair|2003|p=}}
-As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper" since the US Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request.{{sfn|Blair|2003|p=}}<ref name="blockade">{{cite web|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week2/kw_78_1.jpg|title=Memorandum of Information for the Secretary&nbsp;– Blockade of Korea|date=6 July 1950|publisher=Truman Presidential Library&nbsp;– Archives|access-date=28 July 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809213846/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week2/kw_78_1.jpg|archive-date=9 August 2007}}</ref> Army officials, desperate for weaponry, recovered [[Sherman tank]]s from World War II Pacific battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea.{{sfn|Blair|2003|p=}} Army Ordnance officials at Fort Knox pulled down [[M26 Pershing]] tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army's hastily formed [[70th Tank Battalion]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Armor Debacle in Korea, 1950: Implications For Today|last=Connor|first=Arthur W.|publisher=U.S. Army War College|year=1992|page=73}}</ref> Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter-bomber aircraft, the Air Force took [[P-51 Mustang|F-51 (P-51)]] propeller-driven aircraft out of storage or from existing [[Air National Guard]] squadrons, and rushed them into front-line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.<ref>Close, Robert A. (Cmdr), [https://www.usna.com/SSLPage.aspx?pid=656 ''Helo Operations''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214182049/https://www.usna.com/SSLPage.aspx?pid=656 |date=14 February 2012 }}, Class of '45, U.S. Naval Academy Alumni Association & Foundation: "There were insufficient spare sets of blades for all ships having helos. Naturally, the ship didn't have a set. So we used our hands to smooth the busted [wooden] ribs and fabric back into reasonable aerodynamic shape and bandaged the wound with masking tape...Flew that way for two weeks."</ref>
-US [[United States Army Reserve|Army Reserve]] and [[Army National Guard]] infantry soldiers and new inductees (called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions) found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground-support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the [[Bazooka#Rocket Launcher, M20 "Super Bazooka"|M20 3.5-inch (89&nbsp;mm) ''Super Bazooka'']].<ref>Blair, Clay, ''The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953'', Naval Institute Press (2003), p. 50: The planned introduction into service of the M20, an antitank weapon urgently required to defeat the thick cast armor of Soviet tanks being supplied to the North Koreans, had been cancelled due to budget cuts.</ref> Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn out, 'red-lined' [[M1 Garand|M1 rifles]] or [[M1 Carbine|carbines]] in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair.<ref>{{cite web | publisher=Korean War Educator | year=1999–2000 | title=Memoirs, William E. Anderson sub. Defective Weapons | url=http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/memoirs/anderson_william/index.htm#Defective | access-date=8 July 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/memoirs/gatliff_george/index.htm |title=Veterans' Memoirs: George W. Gatliff |year=2012 |work=Korean War Educator|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully under-strength,<ref>Warren, James A., ''American Spartans: The U.S. Marines'', New York: Simon & Schuster (2005), pp. 139–40: Repeated cuts in active-duty [[Fleet Marine Force]]s (FMF), planned combat deployments in the Atlantic and [[Persian Gulf]] (in the event of war with the Soviet Union), and [[United States Sixth Fleet|Sixth Fleet]] deployments in the Mediterranean left only the under-strength [[4th Marine Division (United States)|4th Marine Division]]&nbsp;– a reserve unit&nbsp;– available for combat in the western Pacific.</ref> as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).<ref name="Shipmate2000">{{cite journal|date=June 2000|title=You Can't Get There From Here: The Inchon Story|url=http://www.usna.com/News_pubs/Publications/Shipmate/2000/2000_06/inchon.htm|format=– <sup>[https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=intitle%3AYou+Can%27t+Get+There+From+Here%3A+The+Inchon+Story&as_publication=Shipmate&as_ylo=2000&as_yhi=2000&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>|journal=Shipmate|author=Krulak, Lieutenant General Victor H., USMC, retired|archive-date=13 November 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021113195108/http://www.usna.com/News_pubs/Publications/Shipmate/2000/2000_06/inchon.htm}}</ref>
-Due to public criticism of his handling of the Korean War, Truman decided to ask for Johnson's resignation. On 19 September 1950, Johnson resigned as Secretary of Defense, and the president quickly replaced him with General [[George C. Marshall]].
-===Armored warfare===
-The initial assault by KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T-34-85 tanks.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=14, 43}} A KPA [[Tank corps (Soviet Union)|tank corps]] equipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion. These drove against the ROK with few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the T-34s.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=39}} Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed.{{sfn|Perrett|1987|pp=134–35}} The KPA tanks had a good deal of early successes against ROK infantry, Task Force Smith and the US [[M24 Chaffee]] light tanks that they encountered.<ref>[[#Reference-Zaloga-1996|Zaloga & Kinnear 1996: 36]]</ref>{{sfn|Stein|1994|p=18}} Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing KPA armor. The tide turned in favor of the UN forces in August 1950 when the KPA suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including [[M4 Sherman|M4A3 Sherman]] medium tanks backed by M26 heavy tanks, and the British [[Centurion tank|Centurion]], [[Churchill tank|Churchill]] and [[Cromwell tank|Cromwell]] tanks.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=182–84}}
-The Incheon landings on 15 September cut off the KPA supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result of this and the Pusan perimeter breakout, the KPA had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the KPA withdrew from the South, a total of 239 T-34s and 74 [[SU-76]] self-propelled guns were lost.{{sfn|Perrett|1987|p=135}} After November 1950, KPA armor was rarely encountered.<ref>[[#Reference-Zaloga-1996|Zaloga & Kinnear 1996: 33–34]]</ref>
-Following the initial assault by the north, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large-scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the eastern central zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.{{sfn|Ravino|Carty|2003|p=130}}
-===Naval warfare===
-{{Further|List of US Navy ships sunk or damaged in action during the Korean conflict}}
-{{Naval engagements of the Korean War}}
-[[File:KoreanWarNavyGunfire.jpg|thumb|To disrupt North Korean communications, {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}} fires a salvo from its 16-inch guns at shore targets near [[Chongjin]], North Korea, 21 October 1950]]
-Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the war featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the US Navy cruiser {{USS|Juneau|CL-119|6}}, the Royal Navy cruiser {{HMS|Jamaica|44|6}} and the Royal Navy frigate {{HMS|Black Swan|L57|6}} fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them.
-USS ''Juneau'' later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK ship ''PC-703'' sank a North Korean minelayer in the [[Battle of Haeju]] Island, near Incheon. Three other supply ships were sunk by ''PC-703'' two days later in the [[Yellow Sea]].<ref name="Marolda2003" /> Thereafter, vessels from the UN nations held undisputed control of the sea about Korea. The gunships were used in shore bombardment, while the aircraft carriers provided air support to the ground forces.
-During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to UN navy ships was from [[magnetic mine]]s. During the war, five US Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 US warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.korean-war.com/USNavy/usnavyshipssunk.html |title=Korean War |work=korean-war.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120050209/http://www.korean-war.com/USNavy/usnavyshipssunk.html |archive-date=20 January 2013  }}</ref>
-===Aerial warfare===
-{{Further|MiG Alley|USAF Units and Aircraft of the Korean War|Korean People's Air Force}}
-The war was the first in which [[jet aircraft]] played the central role in air combat. Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, [[F4U Corsair]], and [[Hawker Sea Fury]]{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=174}}—all [[Reciprocating engine|piston-engined]], propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster, [[turbojet|jet-powered]] fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the [[P-80 Shooting Star]], [[F9F Panther]], [[Gloster Meteor#Service during the Korean War|Gloster Meteor]] and other jets under the UN flag dominated the [[Korean People's Air Force]] (KPAF) propeller-driven Soviet [[Yakovlev Yak-9]] and [[Lavochkin La-9]]s.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=182}}{{sfn|Werrell|2005|p=71}} By early August 1950, the KPAF was reduced to only about 20 planes.<ref name="airforcemag1april20">{{cite web |url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/the-difference-in-korea/|title=The Difference in Korea|last1=Correll|first1=John T.|date=1 April 2020|website=[[Air Force Magazine]] |access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>
-[[File:WarKorea B-29-korea.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [[B-29 Superfortress]] bomber dropping its bombs]]
-The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the KPAF with the [[MiG-15]], one of the world's most advanced jet fighters.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=182}} The heavily armed MiGs were faster than first-generation UN jets and therefore could reach and destroy US [[B-29 Superfortress]] bomber flights despite their fighter escorts. With increasing B-29 losses, the USAF was forced to switch from a daylight bombing campaign to the safer but less accurate nighttime bombing of targets.
-The USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the [[F-86 Sabre]]. These arrived in December 1950.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=183}}{{sfn|Werrell|2005|pp=76–77}} The MiG was designed as a bomber interceptor. It had a very high [[Ceiling (aeronautics)|service ceiling]]—{{convert|50000|ft|m|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=on}} and carried very heavy weaponry: one 37&nbsp;mm cannon and two 23&nbsp;mm cannons. The F-86 had a ceiling of {{convert|42000|ft|m|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=on}} and were armed with six [[M2 Browning|.50 caliber (12.7&nbsp;mm) machine guns]], which were range adjusted by radar [[Gunsights#Aircraft gunsights|gunsights]]. If coming in at higher altitude, the advantage of choosing to engage or not went to the MiG. Once in a level flight [[dogfight]], both swept-wing designs attained comparable maximum speeds of around {{convert|660|mi/h|km/h|sigfig=2|abbr=on|order=flip}}. The MiG climbed faster, but the Sabre turned and dived better.<ref name="Sherman2000" />
-In the summer and autumn of 1951, the outnumbered Sabres of the USAF's [[4th Fighter Wing|4th Fighter Interceptor Wing]]—only 44 at one point—continued seeking battle in [[MiG Alley]], where the Yalu River marks the Chinese border, against Chinese and North Korean air forces capable of deploying some 500 aircraft. Following Colonel [[Harrison Thyng]]'s communication with the Pentagon, the [[51st Fighter Wing|51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing]] finally reinforced the beleaguered 4th Wing in December 1951; for the next year-and-a-half stretch of the war, aerial warfare continued.<ref name="DavisThyng" />
-[[File:Sikorsky HRS-1 of HMR-161 in flight over USS Sicily (CVE-118) off Inchon on 1 September 1952 (80-G-477573).jpg|thumb|A US Navy [[Sikorsky H-19|Sikorsky HO4S]] flying near {{USS|Sicily|CVE-118|6}}]]
-Unlike the Vietnam War, in which the Soviet Union only officially sent "advisers", the [[64th Fighter Aviation Corps]] saw action in the Korean air war. Fearful of confronting the US directly, the Soviet Union denied the involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the wireless in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a ''[[casus belli]]'' that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war expand to include the Soviet Union, and potentially escalate into atomic warfare.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=182}}
-After the war, and to the present day, the USAF reports an F-86 Sabre [[Loss exchange ratio|kill ratio]] in excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire.<ref name="Puckett2005" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Frans P.B. Osinga |title=Science, Strategy and War: The Strategic Theory of John Boyd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3DtoVuj_Sn4C&pg=PA24 |date=24 January 2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1134197095 |page=24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903234731/https://books.google.com/books?id=3DtoVuj_Sn4C&pg=PA24 |archive-date=3 September 2015 }}<br />{{cite book|author1=Mark A. Lorell |author2=Hugh P. Levaux |title=The Cutting Edge: A Half Century of Fighter Aircraft R&D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EhtEM2Knh_cC&pg=PA48 |year=1998 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0833025951 |page=48 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921220856/https://books.google.com/books?id=EhtEM2Knh_cC&pg=PA48 |archive-date=21 September 2015 }}<br />{{cite book|author=Craig C. Hannah |title=Striving for Air Superiority: The Tactical Air Command in Vietnam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CEb1sFobGgcC&pg=PA90 |year=2002 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1585441464 |page=90 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044307/https://books.google.com/books?id=CEb1sFobGgcC&pg=PA90 |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's PLAAF reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively. However, one source claims that the USAF has more recently cited 224 losses (c.100 to air combat) out of 674 F-86s deployed to Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/feature/cold-war-battle-the-sky-f-86-saber-vs-mig-15-12909|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203204118/http://nationalinterest.org/feature/cold-war-battle-the-sky-f-86-saber-vs-mig-15-12909|url-status=dead|title=Cold War Battle in the Sky: F-86 Saber vs. Mig-15|first=Michael|last=Peck|date=18 May 2015|archive-date=3 December 2016|website=The National Interest}}</ref>
-Regardless of the actual ratio, American Sabres were very effective at controlling the skies over Korea; since no other UN fighter could contend with the MiG-15, F-86s largely took over air combat once they arrived, relegating other aircraft to performing air-to-ground duties. Despite being outnumbered (the number of Sabres in theater never exceeded 150 while MiG-15s reached 900 at their peak), North Korean and Chinese aircraft were seldom encountered south of Pyongyang. UN ground forces, supply lines, and infrastructure were not attacked from the air and although North Korea had 75 airfields capable of supporting MiGs, after 1951 any serious effort to operate from them was abandoned, keeping them based across the Yalu River in the safety of China. This confined most air-to-air engagements to MiG Alley, giving UN aircraft free rein to conduct strike missions over enemy territory with little fear of interception. Although jet dogfights are remembered as a prominent part of the Korean War, counter-air missions comprised just 12% of [[Far East Air Forces]] sorties, and four times as many sorties were performed for [[close air support]] and interdiction.<ref name="airforcemag1april20"/>
-The war marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also for [[rotorcraft]], featuring the first large-scale deployment of [[helicopter]]s for [[medical evacuation]] (medevac).<ref name="Kreisher2007" /> In 1944–1945, during the Second World War, the [[Sikorsky R-4|YR-4]] helicopter saw limited ambulance duty, but in Korea, where rough terrain trumped the [[jeep]] as a speedy medevac vehicle,<ref name="OliveDrab" /> helicopters like the [[Sikorsky H-19]] helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as [[Mobile Army Surgical Hospital]]s.<ref name="Day" /> As such, the medical evacuation and care system for the wounded was so effective for the UN forces that a wounded soldier who arrived at a MASH unit alive typically had a 97% chance of survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Booker |last2=Jatoi |first2=Ismail |date=May 2005 |title=The Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH): A Military and Surgical Legacy |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=97 |issue=5 |pages=650–651 |pmc=2569328 |pmid=15926641 |quote=Air evacuation undoubtedly contributed to the dramatic reduction in the death rate of wounded soldiers in the Korean War, compared with previous conflicts (World War I, 8.5%; World War II, 4%; and Korean War, 2.5%)}}</ref> The limitations of jet aircraft for [[close air support]] highlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to the development of the helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War (1965–75).<ref name="Kreisher2007" />
-===Bombing of North Korea===
-{{Main|Bombing of North Korea}}
-[[File:Pyongyang 1951.jpg|thumb|Pyongyang in May 1951]]
-The initial bombing attack on North Korea was approved on the fourth day of the war, 29 June 1950, by General Douglas MacArthur immediately upon request by the commanding general of the Far East Air Forces (FEAF), George E. Stratemeyer.<ref name=Kim2012>{{cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Taewoo|title=Limited War, Unlimited Targets: U.S. Air Force Bombing of North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953| journal=Critical Asian Studies |date=2012| volume=44| issue=3|pages=467–92|doi=10.1080/14672715.2012.711980|s2cid=142704845}}.</ref> Major bombing began in late July.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Ethics of Destruction: Norms and Force in International Relations |author=Ward Thomas |page=[https://archive.org/details/ethicsofdestruct00thom/page/149 149] |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |date=14 June 2001 |isbn=978-0801487415 |url=https://archive.org/details/ethicsofdestruct00thom/page/149 }}</ref> U.S. airpower conducted 7,000 close support and interdiction airstrikes that month, which helped slow the North Korean rate of advance to {{convert|2|mi|km|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} a day.<ref name="airforcemag1april20"/> On 12 August 1950, the USAF dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons.<ref name="Cumings2006"/>
-From June through October, official US policy was to pursue [[precision bombing]] aimed at communication centers (railroad stations, marshaling yards, main yards, and railways) and industrial facilities deemed vital to war-making capacity. The policy was the result of debates after World War II, in which US policy rejected the [[Carpet bombing|mass civilian bombings]] that had been conducted in the later stages of World War II as unproductive and immoral.<ref name=Kim2012/> In early July, General [[Emmett O'Donnell Jr.]] requested permission to [[Firebombing|firebomb]] five North Korean cities. He proposed that MacArthur announce that the UN would employ the [[Air raids on Japan#Firebombing attacks|firebombing methods that "brought Japan to its knees]]". The announcement would warn the leaders of North Korea "to get women and children and other noncombatants the hell out".<ref name=ConwayLanz/>
-According to O'Donnell, MacArthur responded, "No, Rosie, I'm not prepared to go that far yet. My instructions are very explicit; however, I want you to know that I have no compunction whatever to your bombing bona fide military objectives, with high explosives, in those five industrial centers. If you miss your target and kill people or destroy other parts of the city, I accept that as a part of war."<ref name=ConwayLanz/>
-In September 1950, MacArthur said in his public report to the UN, "The problem of avoiding the killing of innocent civilians and damages to the civilian economy is continually present and given my personal attention."<ref name=ConwayLanz/>
-In October 1950, FEAF commander General Stratemeyer requested permission to attack the city of [[Sinuiju]], a provincial capital with an estimated population of 60,000, "over the widest area of the city, without warning, by burning and high explosive". MacArthur's headquarters responded the following day: "The general policy enunciated from Washington negates such an attack unless the military situation clearly requires it. Under present circumstances this is not the case."<ref name=ConwayLanz/>
-Following the intervention of the Chinese in November, General MacArthur ordered increased bombing on North Korea which included firebombing against the country's arsenals and communications centers and especially against the "Korean end" of all the bridges across the Yalu River.<ref>{{cite book |title=Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the U.S. Air Force, 1947–1997 |author=Walter J. Boyne |author-link=Walter J. Boyne |pages=[https://archive.org/details/beyondwildbluehi0000boyn_m4a6/page/78 78–79] |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |date=15 June 1998 |isbn=978-0312187057 |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondwildbluehi0000boyn_m4a6/page/78 }}</ref> As with the [[Strategic bombing during World War II|aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II]], the nominal objective of the USAF was to destroy North Korea's war infrastructure and [[demoralization (warfare)|shatter the country's morale]].
-On 3 November 1950, General Stratemeyer forwarded to MacArthur the request of Fifth Air Force commander General [[Earle E. Partridge]] for clearance to "burn Sinuiju". As he had done previously in July and October, MacArthur denied the request, explaining that he planned to use the town's facilities after seizing it. However, at the same meeting, MacArthur agreed for the first time to a firebombing campaign, agreeing to Stratemeyer's request to burn the city of Kanggye and several other towns: "Burn it if you so desire. Not only that, Strat, but burn and destroy as a lesson to any other of those towns that you consider of military value to the enemy." The same evening, MacArthur's chief of staff told Stratemeyer that the firebombing of Sinuiju had also been approved. In his diary, Stratemeyer summarized the instructions as follows: "Every installation, facility, and village in North Korea now becomes a military and tactical target." Stratemeyer sent orders to the Fifth Air Force and Bomber Command to "destroy every means of communications and every installation, factory, city, and village".<ref name=ConwayLanz/>
-On 5 November 1950, General Stratemeyer gave the following order to the commanding general of the Fifth Air Force: "Aircraft under Fifth Air Force control will destroy all other targets including all buildings capable of affording shelter." The same day, twenty-two B-29s attacked [[Kanggye]], destroying 75% of the city.<ref name=Kim2012/>
-After MacArthur was removed as UN Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and ultimately extended it to all of North Korea.<ref>{{cite book |title=Brief History: Brief History of Korea |author=Mark Peterson |page=149 |publisher=Facts on File |date=1 December 2009 |isbn=978-0816050857}}</ref> The U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, on Korea, more than during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II.<ref name="Walkom2010" /><ref name="japanfocus.org">{{cite journal|last1=Armstrong|first1=Charles|title=The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950–1960|journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal|date=20 December 2010|volume=8|issue=51|url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-charles_k_-armstrong/3460/article.html}}</ref> North Korea ranks alongside [[Cambodia]] (500,000 tons), [[Laos]] (2&nbsp;million tons) and South Vietnam (4&nbsp;million tons) as among the most heavily bombed countries in history, with Laos suffering the most extensive bombardment relative to its size and population.<ref>{{cite journal|author-link1=Ben Kiernan|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|last2=Owen|first2=Taylor|url=http://apjjf.org/2015/13/16/Ben-Kiernan/4313.html|title=Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications|journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal|volume=13|issue=17|date=27 April 2015|access-date=30 August 2019}}</ref>
-[[File:B-26B 452BW(L) bombing Korea 29May1951.jpg|thumb|left|A USAF Douglas B-26B Invader of the 452nd Bombardment Wing bombing a target in North Korea, 29 May 1951]]
-Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed as a result.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=297–98}}{{sfn|Jager|2013|pp=237–42}} The war's highest-ranking US POW, Major General William F. Dean,<ref name="Witt2005" /> reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland.<ref name="Cumings2004" /><ref>William F Dean (1954) ''General Dean's Story'', (as told to William L Worden), Viking Press, pp. 272–73.</ref> North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent".<ref name="japanfocus.org"/> In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed their population to build dugouts and mud huts and to dig tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kim |first1=Taewoo |title=Overturned Time and Space: Drastic Changes in the Daily Lives of North Koreans during the Korean War |journal=Asian Journal of Peacebuilding |date=2014 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=244–45 |doi=10.18588/201411.000030 |url=http://s-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/93639/1/07_Taewoo%20Kim.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701203519/http://s-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/93639/1/07_Taewoo%20Kim.pdf |archive-date=1 July 2015 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[General of the Air Force (United States)|US Air Force General]] [[Curtis LeMay]] commented: "We went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too."<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kohn |editor1-first=Richard, H. |editor2-last=Harahan |editor2-first=Joseph, P. |title=Strategic Air Warfare: An Interview with Generals Curtis E. LeMay, Leon W. Johnson, David A. Burchinal, and Jack J. Catton |page=[https://archive.org/details/strategicairwarf00lema/page/88 88] |publisher=Office of Air Force History |date=1988 |isbn=978-0912799568 |url=https://archive.org/details/strategicairwarf00lema/page/88 }}</ref> US Colonel [[Dean Rusk]], later [[United States Secretary of State|secretary of state]], stated the US bombed "everything that moved in North Korea, every brick standing on top of another."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=2015-08-03|title=Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/8/3/9089913/north-korea-us-war-crime|access-date=2021-10-18|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref> Pyongyang, which saw 75 percent of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets left.<ref>{{Cite book| last1= Oberdorfer| first1=Don| last2=Carlin| first2=Robert | title=The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History | publisher = Basic Books| year = 2014 | page = 181 | isbn = 978-0465031238}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Taewoo|title=Limited War, Unlimited Targets: U.S. Air Force Bombing of North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953|journal=Critical Asian Studies|date=2012|volume=44|issue=3|pages=467–92|doi=10.1080/14672715.2012.711980|s2cid=142704845}}</ref> On 28 November, Bomber Command reported on the campaign's progress: 95 percent of [[Manpojin]] was destroyed, along with 90 percent of [[Hoeryong]], [[Namsi]] and [[Koindong]], 85 percent of [[Chosan County|Chosan]], 75 percent of both [[Sakchu County|Sakchu]] and [[Huichon]] and 20 percent of [[Uiju]]. According to USAF damage assessments, "Eighteen of twenty-two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated."<ref name=ConwayLanz>{{cite journal|last1=Conway-Lanz|first1=Sahr|title=The Ethics of Bombing Civilians After World War II: The Persistence of Norms Against Targeting Civilians in the Korean War|journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal|date=15 September 2014|volume=12|issue=37|url=http://japanfocus.org/-Sahr-Conway_Lanz/4180/article.html}}</ref> By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea.<ref name="Robinson 119-120">{{cite book | title = Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey | last = Robinson | first = Michael E | year = 2007 | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | location = Honolulu, HI | isbn = 978-0824831745 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/119 119]-[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/120/mode/2up 120] | url = https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/119 }}</ref>
-In May 1953, [[Bombing of North Korea#May 1953: Attacks on Major Dams|five major North Korean dams were bombed]]. According to Charles K. Armstrong, the bombing of these dams and ensuing floods threatened several million North Koreans with starvation, although large-scale famine was averted with emergency aid provided by North Korea's allies.<ref name="Armstrong"/>
-General Matthew Ridgway said that except for air power, "the war would have been over in 60 days with all Korea in Communist hands". UN air forces flew 1,040,708 combat and combat support sorties during the war. FEAF flew the majority at 710,886 (69.3% of sorties), with the U.S. Navy performing 16.1%, the U.S. Marine Corps 10.3%, and 4.3% by other allied air forces.<ref name="airforcemag1april20"/>
-As well as conventional bombing, the Communist side [[Germ warfare in the Korean War|claimed that the U.S. used biological weapons]].<ref name="Hogan1994" /> These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the US worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the US military "possessed neither the ability, nor the will", to use them in combat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Crane |first1=Conrad |title="No Practical Capabilities": American Biological and Chemical Warfare Programs During the Korean War |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |date=Spring 2002 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=241–49 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2002.0024 |pmid=11919382 |s2cid=23091486 }}</ref>
-===US threat of atomic warfare===
-[[File:Mk4 Fat Man bomb.jpg|thumb|Mark 4 bomb, seen on display, transferred to the [[9th Bombardment Wing, Heavy]]]]
-On 5 November 1950, the US Joint Chiefs of Staff issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. President Truman ordered the transfer of nine [[Mark 4 nuclear bomb]]s "to the Air Force's [[9th Bombardment Wing, Heavy|Ninth Bomb Group]], the designated carrier of the weapons ... [and] signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets", which he never transmitted.{{sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=289–92}}
-Many US officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the [[Berlin Blockade]] of 1948–1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their [[Pit (nuclear weapon)|cores]]), to remind the Soviets of US offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to [[Guam]] was leaked to ''The New York Times''. As UN forces retreated to Pusan, and the [[CIA]] reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.<ref name="jstor2538736">{{cite journal | last1 = Dingman | first1 = R. | year = 1988–1989 | title = Atomic Diplomacy during the Korean War | journal = International Security | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 50–91 | jstor = 2538736 | doi = 10.2307/2538736 | s2cid = 154823668 }}</ref>
-As PVA forces pushed back the UN forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always [under] active consideration", with control under the local military commander.{{r|jstor2538736}} The Indian ambassador, [[Kavalam Madhava Panikkar|K. Madhava Panikkar]], reports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat ... The PRC's propaganda against the US was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities."<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref name="Knightley1982" /><ref name="Panikkar1981" />
-After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December 1950 with UK prime minister and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] spokesman [[Clement Attlee]], French Premier [[René Pleven]], and French Foreign Minister [[Robert Schuman]] to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The US' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate [the Korean War]", but because UN allies—notably the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about a [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] imbalance rendering [[NATO]] defenseless while the US fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref name="Truman1955" /> The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the US would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster".{{r|jstor2538736}}
-On 6 December 1950, after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN armies from northern North Korea, General [[J. Lawton Collins]] (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral [[C. Turner Joy]], General George E. Stratemeyer and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General [[Charles A. Willoughby]] and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.<ref name="Schnabel" />
-* In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without Taiwanese reinforcements, and without an increase in US forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea.<ref name="Schnabel" />
-* In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the Taiwanese soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea.<ref name="Schnabel" />
-* In the third scenario: if China agreed to not cross the 38th Parallel border, General MacArthur recommended UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards. The US Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan. A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice.<ref name="Schnabel" />
-Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed, and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.{{r|jstor2538736}}
-In 1951, the US escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, ground crews at the [[Kadena Air Base]], [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]], assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores". In October 1951, the United States effected [[Operation Hudson Harbor]] to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B-29 bombers practiced individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from [[Yokota Air Base]] in east-central Japan. ''Hudson Harbor'' tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, [and] ground control of bomb aiming". The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare".<ref name="Hasbrouck1951" /><ref name="Chiefof Staff1951" /><ref name="Watson1998" /><ref name="CommandingGeneral1951" /><ref name="FarEastCommand" />
-General Matthew Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential US use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B-29s returned to the United States in June.{{r|jstor2538736}}
-Despite the greater destructive power that atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of PVA/KPA forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf, the threat of a possible nuclear exchange was unimportant in the decision to not deploy atomic bombs; their use offered little operational advantage, and would undesirably lower the "threshold" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/what-if-the-united-states-had-used-the-bomb-in-korea/|title=What If the United States had Used the Bomb in Korea? |last1=Farley |first1=Robert |date=5 January 2016 |website=[[The Diplomat]] |access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref>
-When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953 he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, the new president feared that doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without US nuclear weapons deployed near battle.{{r|jstor2538736}}
-===War crimes===
-====Civilian deaths and massacres====
-{{Further|Bodo League massacre|Seoul National University Hospital massacre|No Gun Ri Massacre|Sinchon Massacre|Ganghwa massacre|Sancheong-Hamyang massacre|Geochang massacre}}
-[[File:South Korean soldiers walk among dead political prisoners, Taejon, South Korea.jpg|thumb|South Korean soldiers walk among the bodies of political prisoners executed near Daejon, July 1950]]
-[[File:Korean civilians fleeing from the North Korean forces, killed when caught in the line of fire during night attack by guerrilla forces near Yongsan HD-SN-99-03166.jpg|thumb|Civilians killed during a night battle near Yongsan, August 1950]]
-There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean War committed by both sides, starting in the war's first days. On 28 June 1950, North Korean troops committed the [[Seoul National University Hospital massacre]].<ref name=SNUH20100604>{{cite web
- |url         = http://www.snuh.org/pub/snuh/sub02/sub01/1179268_3957.jsp
- |title       = 서울대병원, 6.25전쟁 참전 용사들을 위한 추모제 가져
- |publisher   = [[Seoul National University Hospital]]
- |date        = 4 June 2010
- |access-date  = 19 July 2012
- |url-status     = dead
- |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130120040603/http://www.snuh.org/pub/snuh/sub02/sub01/1179268_3957.jsp
- |archive-date = 20 January 2013
- |df          = dmy-all
-}}</ref> On the same day, South Korean President Syngman Rhee ordered the [[Bodo League massacre]],<ref name="Edwards32"/><ref name="HankyorehJune2010" /><ref name="OhMyNews2007" /> beginning mass killings of suspected leftist sympathizers and their families by South Korean officials and right-wing groups.<ref name=bbc080818>{{cite news
- |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7567936.stm
- |title=Unearthing proof of Korea killings
- |newspaper=[[BBC]]
- |date=18 August 2008
- |access-date=5 April 2013
- |url-status=live
- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901133448/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7567936.stm
- |archive-date=1 September 2013
-}}</ref><ref name=cbs090211>{{cite news
- |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-201_162-4234885.html
- |title=U.S. Allowed Korean Massacre in 1950
- |agency=Associated Press
- |newspaper=[[CBS News]]
- |date=11 February 2009
- |access-date=5 April 2013
- |url-status=live
- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512171017/http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-201_162-4234885.html
- |archive-date=12 May 2013
-}}</ref> Estimates of those killed during the Bodo League massacre range from at least 60,000–110,000 (Kim Dong-choon) to 200,000 (Park Myung-lim).<ref name="bloodbath">{{cite news
- |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-korea-bloodbath-probe-ends-us-escapes-much-blame-2010jul10-story.html
- |title=Korea bloodbath probe ends; US escapes much blame
- |newspaper=The San Diego Union Tribune
- |date=10 July 2010
- |access-date=11 June 2019
- |quote=Last November, after investigating petitions from surviving relatives, the commission announced it had verified and identified 4,934 execution victims. But historian Kim Dong-choon, the former commissioner who led that investigation, estimates at least 60,000 to 110,000 died, and similar numbers were summarily executed when northern troops were driven from South Korea later in 1950 and alleged southern collaborators were rounded up. 'I am estimating conservatively,' he said. Korean War historian Park Myung-lim, methodically reviewing prison records, said he believes perhaps 200,000 were slaughtered in mid-1950 alone.
- }}</ref> The British protested to their allies about later South Korean mass executions and saved some citizens.<ref name=bbc080818/><ref name=cbs090211/>
-In 2005–2010, a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Korea)|South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] investigated atrocities and other human rights violations through much of the 20th century, from the Japanese colonial period through the Korean War and beyond. It excavated some mass graves from the Bodo League massacres and confirmed the general outlines of those political executions. Of the Korean War-era massacres the commission was petitioned to investigate, 82% were perpetrated by South Korean forces, with 18% perpetrated by North Korean forces.<ref>{{cite web|title=Truth Commission: South Korea 2005 |url=http://www.usip.org/publications/truth-commission-south-korea-2005 |publisher=[[United States Institute of Peace]] |access-date=23 December 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610224046/http://www.usip.org/publications/truth-commission-south-korea-2005 |archive-date=10 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>cf. the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's preliminary March 2009 report: {{cite web|url=http://jinsil.go.kr/pdf/%EC%98%81%EB%AC%B8%EB%B0%B1%EC%84%9C_20MS%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%BC_0205.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171441/http://jinsil.go.kr/pdf/%EC%98%81%EB%AC%B8%EB%B0%B1%EC%84%9C_20MS%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%BC_0205.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 March 2016|title=Truth and Reconciliation: Activities of the Past Three Years|publisher=[[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Korea)]]|date=March 2009|page=39|quote=Out of those 9,600 petitions, South Korean forces conducted 7,922 individual massacres and North Korean forces conducted 1,687 individual massacres.}}</ref><ref name="bloodbath"/>
-The commission also received petitions alleging more than 200 large-scale killings of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military during the war, mostly air attacks. It confirmed several such cases, including refugees crowded into a cave attacked with napalm bombs, which survivors said killed 360 people, and an air attack that killed 197 refugees gathered in a field in the far south. It recommended South Korea seek reparations from the United States, but in 2010 a reorganized commission under a new, conservative government concluded that most U.S. mass killings resulted from "military necessity", while in a small number of cases, they concluded, the U.S. military had acted with "low levels of unlawfulness" but the commission recommended against seeking reparations.<ref name="bloodbath"/>
-In the most notorious U.S. massacre, investigated separately, not by the commission, American troops killed an estimated 250–300 refugees, mostly women and children, at [[No Gun Ri massacre|No Gun Ri]] in central South Korea (26–29 July 1950).<ref>{{cite news |last=Lee |first=B-C |url=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=102&oid=003&aid=0004768541 |title=노근리재단, 과거사 특별법 제정 세미나 개최 |language=ko |trans-title=No Gun Ri Foundation held special law seminar |work=Newsis (online news agency) |location=Seoul |date=2012-10-15 |access-date=2015-06-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=In the Face of American Amnesia, The Grim Truths of No Gun Ri Find a Home |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal/Japan Focus |date=2015-03-09 |last=Hanley |first=Charles J. |volume=13 |issue=10 |url=https://apjjf.org/2015/13/9/Charles-J.-Hanley/4294.html |access-date=2020-06-06 }}</ref> U.S. commanders, fearing enemy infiltrators among refugee columns, had adopted a policy of stopping civilian groups approaching U.S. lines, including by gunfire.<ref name="HanleyMendoza2006" /> After years of rejecting survivors’ accounts, the U.S. Army investigated and in 2001 acknowledged the No Gun Ri killings, but claimed they were not ordered and "not a deliberate killing".<ref>Office of the Inspector General, Department of the Army. [[s:U.S. Department of the Army No Gun Ri Review Report|''No Gun Ri Review'']]. Washington, D.C. January 2001</ref>{{rp|x}} South Korean officials, after a parallel investigation, said they believed there were orders to shoot. The survivors’ representatives denounced what they described as a U.S. "whitewash".<ref>{{cite news | first = Don | last = Kirk | title = Korean Group Rejects U.S. Regret for War Incident | date = 13 January 2001 | url = https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-39368119.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140611071017/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-39368119.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 11 June 2014 | work = International Herald Tribune | access-date = 6 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Army confirms G.I.'s in Korea killed civilians | date = 12 January 2001 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/12/world/army-confirms-gi-s-in-korea-killed-civilians.html?scp=1&sq=%22army%22+%2B%22korea%22&st=nyt | work = The New York Times | access-date = 17 February 2012}}</ref>
-The US bombing of North Korea has been condemned as a war crime by some authors, because it often included bombing civilian targets and caused many civilians casualties. According to Bruce Cumings, "What hardly any Americans know or remember is that we carpet-bombed the north for three years with next to no concern for civilian casualties.” Author [[Blaine Harden]] has called the bombing campaign a "major war crime“ and described it as "long, leisurely and merciless”. He says it's "perhaps the most forgotten part of a forgotten war".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=2015-08-03|title=Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/8/3/9089913/north-korea-us-war-crime|access-date=2021-10-19|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tokyo|first=David McNeill in|title=Unknown to most Americans, the US 'totally destroyed' North Korea once before|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/asia-pacific/unknown-to-most-americans-the-us-totally-destroyed-north-korea-once-before-1.3227633|access-date=2021-10-18|website=The Irish Times|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hasan|first=Mehdi|date=2017-05-03|title=Why Do North Koreans Hate Us? One Reason — They Remember the Korean War.|url=https://theintercept.com/2017/05/03/why-do-north-koreans-hate-us-one-reason-they-remember-the-korean-war/|access-date=2021-10-18|website=The Intercept|language=en-US}}</ref>
-====Prisoners of War (POWs)====
-{{See also|Korean War POWs detained in North Korea|Hill 303 massacre|List of American and British defectors in the Korean War}}
-[[File:KoreanWar NKPA POW.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A US Marine guards North Korean prisoners of war aboard an American warship in 1951.]]
-====Chinese POWs====
-At [[Geoje prison camp]] on [[Geoje Island]], Chinese POWs experienced anti-communist lecturing and missionary work from secret agents from the US and Taiwan in No. 71, 72 and 86 camps.<ref>Hsiu-Huan Chou, A Study on the Transport of Anti-communist Fighters to Taiwan during the Korean War (1950–1954), pp. 126–29, Academia Historica of Republic of China, June 2011 [http://www.drnh.gov.tw/ImagesPost/d147d0a3-d728-4bad-ae99-4324bfba420b/8b6845bf-dd1e-44a7-8c1d-4f70e207f015_cFILES.pdf weblink] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923220827/http://www.drnh.gov.tw/ImagesPost/d147d0a3-d728-4bad-ae99-4324bfba420b/8b6845bf-dd1e-44a7-8c1d-4f70e207f015_cFILES.pdf |date=23 September 2015 }}, (in Chinese)</ref> Pro-Communist POWs experienced torture, cutting off of limbs, or were executed in public.<ref>Xiaobing Li, Soldiers from four countries discuss about Korean War, Vol 1. (四国士兵话朝战(之一)), 《冷战国际史研究》第6辑, 2008年第2期 (in Chinese)</ref><ref name="milsohu">[http://mil.sohu.com/20130729/n382803693.shtml Decrypt the truth that ten thousands pow went to Taiwan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415021221/http://mil.sohu.com/20130729/n382803693.shtml |date=15 April 2015 }} 2013-07-29, retrieved on 18 June 2017 (in Chinese)</ref> Being forced to write confession letters and receiving tattoos of an anti-Communism slogan and [[Flag of the Republic of China]] were also commonly seen, in case any wanted to go back to mainland China.<ref>王二根, 李文林. 一个被俘志愿军战士的自述. 《炎黄春秋杂志》2011年第1期 (in Chinese)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.people.com.cn/GB/205396/17369323.html |title=1954年14000名志愿军战俘去台湾的真相 |work=www.people.com.cn |date=13 March 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040005/http://history.people.com.cn/GB/205396/17369323.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>
-Pro-Communist POWs who could not endure the torture formed an underground group to fight the pro-Nationalist POWs secretly by assassination<ref name="jptimes">[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2000/06/28/national/history/chinas-korean-war-pows-find-you-cant-go-home-again/ China's Korean War POWs find you can't go home again | The Japan Times] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217014644/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2000/06/28/national/history/chinas-korean-war-pows-find-you-cant-go-home-again |date=17 December 2016 }} 2000-06-28, retrieved on 18 June 2017</ref> which led to the [[Geoje POW camp#Geoje Uprising (February–June 1952)|Geoje uprising]]. The rebellion captured [[Francis Dodd (general)|Francis Dodd]], and was suppressed by the 187th Infantry Regiment.
-In the end, 14,235 Chinese POWs went to Taiwan and fewer than 6,000 POWs returned to mainland China.{{sfn|Hermes|1992a}} Those who went to Taiwan are called "righteous men" and experienced brainwashing again and were sent to the army or were arrested;<ref name="cuhk">[http://mjlsh.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/Book.aspx?cid=4&tid=1401 POW of PVA in Taiwan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806162946/http://mjlsh.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/Book.aspx?cid=4&tid=1401 |date=6 August 2016 }}, 谌旭彬, Hong Kong Chinese University</ref> while the survivors who returned to mainland China were welcomed as a "hero" first, but experienced anti-brainwashing, strict interrogation, and house arrest eventually, after the tattoos were discovered.<ref name="jptimes" /> After 1988, the Taiwanese government allowed POWs to go back to mainland China, and helped remove anti-communist tattoos; while the mainland Chinese government started to allow mainland Chinese prisoners of war to return from Taiwan.<ref name="cuhk" />
-=====UN Command POWs=====
-The United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, starved, put to [[unfree labour|forced labor]], [[death march|marched to death]], and [[summary execution|summarily executed]].<ref name="Potter1953" /><ref name="Carlson2003" />
-The KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, [[Hill 303]], the Pusan Perimeter, Daejeon and [[UN offensive into North Korea#KPA massacre at Sunchon|Sunchon]]; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a US Congress [[war crime]]s investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that "two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes".<ref name="Lakshmanan1999" /><ref name="Van Zandt2003" /><ref name="Skelton2002" />
-Although the Chinese rarely executed prisoners like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43 percent of US POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases due to logistical difficulties. The UN POWs said that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino-Korean border and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs.<ref name="Lech2000" /> According to Chinese reports, over a thousand US POWs died by the end of June 1951, while a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POW survived.<ref>中国人民解放军总政治部联络部编. 敌军工作史料·第6册(1949年–1955年). 1989</ref> According to Hastings, wounded US POWs died for lack of medical attention and were fed a diet of corn and millet "devoid of vegetables, almost barren of proteins, minerals, or vitamins" with only 1/3 the calories of their usual diet. Especially in early 1951, thousands of prisoners lost the will to live and "declined to eat the mess of sorghum and rice they were provided".<ref>Hastings. The Korean War. Guild Publishing London. 1987. 29092</ref>
-[[File:Hill 303 Survivors.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men without shirts on sit surrounded by soldiers|Two Hill 303 survivors after being rescued by US units, 17 August 1950]]
-The unpreparedness of US POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the [[Code of the United States Fighting Force]] which governs how US military personnel in [[combat]] should act when they must "evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pacaf.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123241828|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216042546/http://www.pacaf.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123241828|url-status=dead|title=The military Code of Conduct: a brief history|archive-date=16 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usmcpress.com/heritage/code_conduct.htm |title=Code of Conduct |work=usmcpress.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927020541/http://www.usmcpress.com/heritage/code_conduct.htm |archive-date=27 September 2014 }}</ref>
-North Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire.<ref name="Rummel1997" /><ref name="Heo2002">{{cite journal
- |last=Heo
- |first=Man-ho
- |title=North Korea's Continued Detention of South Korean POWs since the Korean and Vietnam Wars
- |journal=The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis
- |year=2002
- |volume=14
- |issue=2
- |pages=141–65
- |url=http://www.kida.re.kr/data/2006/04/14/08-heo.pdf
- |url-status=dead
- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108084151/http://www.kida.re.kr/data/2006/04/14/08-heo.pdf
- |archive-date=8 January 2016
-|doi=10.1080/10163270209464030
- }}</ref>{{rp|141}} Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the KPA claimed they captured 70,000 South Koreans.<ref name="Heo2002" />{{rp|142}} However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the KPA reported they held only 8,000 South Koreans.<ref name="Lee2007" /> The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the KPA were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA.{{sfn|Hermes|1992|p=136}}
-The KPA denied such allegations. They claimed their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA.{{sfn|Hermes|1992|p=143}}<ref name="Heo2002" />{{rp|143}} By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans.{{sfn|Hermes|1992|p=149}} The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs who were not on the PVA/KPA rosters.{{sfn|Hermes|1992|p=514}}
-North Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity.<ref name="BBC2004" /><ref name="BBC2007"/> {{As of|2010}}, the South Korean [[Ministry of Unification]] reported that 79 ROK POWs escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 [[Korean POWs detained in North Korea|South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Republic of Korea Ministry of Unification Initiatives on South Korean Prisoners of War and Abductees|url=http://eng.unikorea.go.kr/CmsWeb/viewPage.req?idx=PG0000000581#nohref|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102130459/http://eng.unikorea.go.kr/CmsWeb/viewPage.req?idx=PG0000000581|archive-date=2 November 2013}}</ref>
-The escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea.<ref name="Yoo2012">{{cite book
- |last=Yoo
- |first=Young-Bok
- |title=Tears of Blood: A Korean POW's Fight for Freedom, Family and Justice
- |publisher=Korean War POW Affairs-USA
- |year=2012
- |url=http://tearsofbloodbook.blogspot.com/
- |isbn=978-1479383856
- |url-status=live
- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517152742/http://tearsofbloodbook.blogspot.com/
- |archive-date=17 May 2013
-}}</ref> They report they were not told about the POW exchange procedures, and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border.<ref name="Yoo2012" />{{rp|31}} Declassified [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Soviet Foreign Ministry]] documents corroborate such testimony.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Volokhova |first=Alena |title=Armistice Talks in Korea (1951–1953): Based on Documents from the Russian Foreign Policy Archives |journal=Far Eastern Affairs |issue=2 |year=2000 |pages=74, 86, 89–90 |url=http://dlib.eastview.com/browse/doc/2798784 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103121238/http://dlib.eastview.com/browse/doc/2798784 |archive-date=3 November 2013 }}</ref>
-In 1997, the Geoje POW Camp in South Korea was turned into a memorial.
-====Starvation====
-{{See also|National Defense Corps Incident}}
-In December 1950, the South Korean National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens.<ref name="HankyorehSept2010" />
-In the winter of 1951, 50,000<ref name="NAK" /><ref name="NYTimes12June1951" /> to 90,000<ref name="Newsis2007" /><ref name="Roehrig2001" /> South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the PVA offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food.<ref name="NAK" /><ref name="Newsis2007" /><ref name="Sandler1999" /><ref name="NYTimes4June1951" /> This event is called the [[National Defense Corps Incident]].<ref name="NAK" /><ref name="Newsis2007" /> There is no evidence that Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption.<ref name=roehrig>{{cite book|author=Terence Roehrig |title=Prosecution of Former Military Leaders in Newly Democratic Nations: The Cases of Argentina, Greece, and South Korea |year=2001 |publisher=McFarland & Company |page=139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfQggLWwyi4C&pg=PA139 |isbn=978-0786410910 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921221320/https://books.google.com/books?id=zfQggLWwyi4C&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139 |archive-date=21 September 2015 }}</ref>
-===Recreation===
-{{Further|United Service Organizations}}
-[[File:BobHopeKoreanWar3.jpg|thumb|[[Bob Hope]] entertained [[X Corps (United States)|X Corps]] in Korea on 26 October 1950.]]
-In 1950, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall and [[Secretary of the Navy]] [[Francis P. Matthews]] called on the [[United Service Organizations]] (USO) which was disbanded by 1947 to provide support for US servicemen.<ref name=pmedwards123124/> By the end of the war, more than 113,000 USO volunteers from the US were working at the home front and abroad.<ref name=pmedwards123124/> Many stars came to Korea to give their performances.<ref name=pmedwards123124>{{cite book|author=Paul M. Edwards|title=Prosecution of Former Military Leaders in Newly Democratic Nations: The Cases of Argentina, Greece, and South Korea|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood|pages=123–24| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xA34hGXAjlIC&q=korean%20war%20USO&pg=PA123 |isbn=978-0313332487}}</ref> Throughout the Korean War, "[[Prostitutes in South Korea for the U.S. military|comfort stations]]" were operated by South Korean officials for UN soldiers.<ref name="Höhn5152">{{cite book |last= Höhn |first= Maria |title= Over There: Living with the U.S. Military Empire from World War Two to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvwcGFI0C9sC&q=Yanggongju%20prostitute&pg=PA46 |publisher= [[Duke University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn= 978-0822348276  |pages= 51–52}}</ref>
-==Aftermath==
-{{Main|Aftermath of the Korean War}}
-Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea, which started from a far lower industrial base than North Korea (the latter contained 80% of Korea's heavy industry in 1945),<ref name="Robinson 119-120"/> stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed a [[Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea|Mutual Defense Treaty]]. In 1960, the [[April Revolution]] occurred and students joined an anti-Syngman Rhee demonstration; 142 were killed by police; in consequence Syngman Rhee resigned and left for exile in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Savada |editor1-first=Andrea |title=South Korea: A Country Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_adMWevoEq0C&q=korea%20april%20revolution%20Rhee&pg=PA34 |access-date=5 April 2013 |year=1997 |publisher=Diane Pub Co |isbn=978-0788146190 |page=34}}</ref> [[Park Chung-hee]]'s [[May 16 coup]] enabled social stability. From 1965 to 1973, South Korea [[South Korea in the Vietnam War|dispatched troops to South Vietnam]] and received $235,560,000 in allowance and [[military procurement]] from the United States.<ref name=DI080702/> GNP increased fivefold during the Vietnam War.<ref name=DI080702>{{cite web|url=http://news.donga.com/3/all/20080702/8597259/1 |access-date=24 September 2011 |script-title=ko:1965년 전투병 베트남 파병 의결 |language=ko |work=[[Dong-a Ilbo]] |date=2 July 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616085410/http://news.donga.com/3/all/20080702/8597259/1 |archive-date=16 June 2013 }}</ref> South Korea industrialized and modernized. South Korea had one of the world's [[Miracle on the Han River|fastest-growing economies]] from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957, South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than [[Ghana]],<ref name="Independent2006" /> and by 2010, it was a [[developed country]] and ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th).<ref name="CIA2011" />
-As a result of the war, "North Korea had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society". After the armistice, Kim Il-Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all ... outstanding debts", and promised to grant North Korea one billion [[rubles]] in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the [[Soviet Bloc]] also contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, [and] medical supplies". China canceled North Korea's war debts, provided 800&nbsp;million [[Chinese yuan|yuan]], promised trade cooperation and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.<ref name="japanfocus.org"/> Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped.<ref>[http://view.koreaherald.com/kh/view.php?ud=20100818000783&cpv=0 North Korea cornered with snowballing debts-The Korea Herald]. View.koreaherald.com (18 August 2010). Retrieved on 12 July 2013.</ref>
-North Korea has continued to be a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] [[dictatorship]] since the end of the war, with an elaborate [[North Korean cult of personality|cult of personality]] around the [[Kim dynasty (North Korea)|Kim dynasty]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15256929|title=North Korea country profile|date=9 April 2018|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2017/world/north-korea-defectors/|title=Kim Jong Un's North Korea: Life inside the totalitarian state|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref name="britannica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism|title=Totalitarianism|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2018}}</ref>
-The [[means of production]] are owned by the state through [[state-run enterprise]]s and [[Collective farming|collectivized farms]]. Most services—such as healthcare, education, housing and food production—are subsidized or state-funded. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s [[North Korean famine]] and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008.<ref name="Spoorenberg, Thomas pp. 133-158">{{cite journal|last1=Spoorenberg |first1=Thomas |last2=Schwekendiek |first2=Daniel |year= 2012|title=Demographic Changes in North Korea: 1993–2008 |journal=[[Population and Development Review]] |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=133–58 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00475.x }}</ref> A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18-year-old males were {{convert|13|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/8809102/The-unpalatable-appetites-of-Kim-Jong-il.html |title=The unpalatable appetites of Kim Jong-il |date=8 October 2011 |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009210703/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/8809102/The-unpalatable-appetites-of-Kim-Jong-il.html |archive-date=9 October 2011 |last1=Demick |first1=Barbara }}</ref>
-[[File:Korean Peninsula at night - 2012 - NASA.png|thumb|left|upright|The [[Korean Peninsula]] at night, shown in a 2012 composite photograph from [[NASA]]]]
-Present-day North Korea follows ''[[Songun]]'', or "military-first" policy. It is the [[List of countries by number of troops|country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel]], with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve and paramilitary personnel, or approximately {{Percentage|9495000|{{UN_Population|Dem. People's Republic of Korea}}}} of its population. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the fourth-largest in the world, after China, the United States and India; consisting of {{Percentage|1210000|{{UN_Population|Dem. People's Republic of Korea}}|1}} of its population. North Korea [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|possesses nuclear weapons]]. A 2014 UN inquiry into abuses of [[human rights in North Korea]] concluded that, "the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world," with [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] holding similar views.<ref name="Amnesty International 2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/north_korea/index.do |title=Our Issues, North Korea |access-date=1 August 2007 |author=Amnesty International |year=2007 |work=Human Rights Concerns |author-link=Amnesty International |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329050950/http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/north_korea/index.do |archive-date=29 March 2007}}</ref><ref name="ohchr.org">{{citation|title=Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Chapter VII. Conclusions and recommendations|date=17 February 2014|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIDPRK/Report/A.HRC.25.CRP.1_ENG.doc|work=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights|page=346|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227104633/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIDPRK/Report/A.HRC.25.CRP.1_ENG.doc|access-date=1 November 2014|archive-date=27 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hrw1">{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/05/16/nkorea15944.htm |title=Grotesque indifference |access-date=1 August 2007 |author=Kay Seok |date=15 May 2007 |work=[[Human Rights Watch]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929174709/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/05/16/nkorea15944.htm |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}</ref><ref name="hrw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/02/17/human-rights-north-korea |title=Human Rights in North Korea |work=hrw.org |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=17 February 2009 |access-date=13 December 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429044053/http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/02/17/human-rights-north-korea |archive-date=29 April 2011 }}</ref>
-South Korean [[Anti-American sentiment in Korea|anti-Americanism]] after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of US military personnel ([[USFK]]) and US support for Park's authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s.<ref name="NYTimes12July1987" /> However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011,<ref>[http://www.pewglobal.org/2007/06/27/chapter-1-views-of-the-u-s-and-american-foreign-policy/ "Global Unease With Major World Powers"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310043046/http://www.pewglobal.org/2007/06/27/chapter-1-views-of-the-u-s-and-american-foreign-policy/ |date=10 March 2013 }}. Pew Research Center. 27 June 2007.</ref> making South Korea one of the most pro-US countries in the world.<ref>[http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/mar11/BBCEvalsUS_Mar11_rpt.pdf Views of US Continue to Improve in 2011 BBC Country Rating Poll] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123070720/http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/mar11/BBCEvalsUS_Mar11_rpt.pdf |date=23 November 2012 }}, 7 March 2011.</ref>
-A large number of [[Amerasian|mixed-race]] "GI babies" (offspring of US and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954.<ref name="Jang1998" /> The US [[Immigration Act of 1952]] legalized the [[naturalization]] of non-blacks and non-whites as US citizens and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the [[Immigration Act of 1965]], which substantially changed US immigration policy toward non-Europeans, [[Korean American|Koreans]] became one of the fastest-growing [[Asian American|Asian]] groups in the United States.<ref name="Choe2005" />
-[[Mao Zedong]]'s decision to take on the [[United States]] in the Korean War was a direct attempt to confront what the Communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-Communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese Communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the [[Chinese Civil War]]. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the US was inevitable after the US entered the war, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years, Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-Communist dissent.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=150}}
-[[File:NKmuseum.jpg|thumb|North Koreans touring the [[Sinchon Museum of American War Atrocities|Museum of American War Atrocities]] in 2009]]
-The Chinese government has encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under-equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the PLA and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai-shek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day.{{sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=150}} Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large-scale [[mass movement]]s in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC.<ref>沈志华、李丹慧．《战后中苏关系若干问题研究》(Research into Some Issues of Sino-USSR Relationship After WWII)人民出版社，2006年：p. 115</ref> Finally, [[Anti-Americanism|anti-U.S. sentiments]], which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, were ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War.<ref>{{citation | last = Zhang | first = Hong | title = The Making of Urban Chinese Images of the United States, 1945–1953 | location = Westport, CT | publisher = Greenwood Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0313310010 | pages = 164–67}}</ref>
-The Korean War affected other participant combatants. [[Turkey]], for example, entered NATO in 1952,<ref name="StateDept" /> and the foundation was laid for [[South Korea–Turkey relations|bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea]].<ref name="Turquie2010" />
-==See also==
-{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
-* [[1st Commonwealth Division]]
-* [[Australia in the Korean War]]
-* [[Canada in the Korean War]]
-* [[Colombian Battalion]]
-* [[Joint Advisory Commission, Korea]]
-* [[Korean DMZ Conflict (1966–1969)]]
-* [[Korean reunification]]
-* [[Korean War in popular culture]]
-* [[List of books about the Korean War]]
-* [[List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients]]
-* [[List of Korean War weapons]]
-* [[List of military equipment used in the Korean War]]
-* [[List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll]]
-* [[MASH (film)|''MASH'']]&nbsp;– film
-* [[M*A*S*H (TV series)|''M*A*S*H'']]&nbsp;– TV series
-* [[New Zealand in the Korean War]]
-* [[North Korea in the Korean War]]
-* [[Operation Big Switch]]
-* [[Operation Little Switch]]
-* [[Operation Moolah]]
-* [[Partisans in Korean War]], Partisan Movement
-* [[Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea]]
-* [[Pyongyang Sally]]
-* [[Transfer of People's Volunteer Army soldiers' remains from South Korea to China]]
-* [[UNCMAC]]&nbsp;– the UN Command Military Armistice Commission operating from 1953 to the present
-* [[UNCURK]]&nbsp;– the 1951 UN Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea
-* [[UNTCOK]]&nbsp;– the 1950 United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea
-{{div col end}}
-===War memorials===
-* [[Korean War Memorial Wall (Canada)|Korean War Memorial Wall]],{{Ref|25|map}} [[Brampton]], Ontario
-* [[Korean War Veterans Memorial]], Washington, D.C.
-* [[Memorial of the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea]], Dandong, Liaoning, China
-* [[National War Memorial (New Zealand)]]
-* [[Philadelphia Korean War Memorial]]
-* [[United Nations Memorial Cemetery]], [[Busan]], [[Republic of Korea]]
-* [[Victorious War Museum]], Pyongyang, North Korea
-* [[War Memorial of Korea]] [[Yongsan-dong, Seoul|Yongsan-dong]], Yongsan-gu, Seoul, South Korea
-==Notes==
-{{notelist}}
-==References==
-===Citations===
-{{reflist|refs =
-<ref name="rozhlas cz">
-{{cite web |title=Českoslovenští lékaři stáli v korejské válce na straně KLDR. Jejich mise stále vyvolává otazníky |publisher=[[Czech Radio]] |date=11 April 2013 |language=cs |url=http://www.rozhlas.cz/zpravy/historie/_zprava/ceskoslovensti-lekari-stali-v-korejske-valce-na-strane-kldr-jejich-mise-stale-vyvolava-otazniky--1198828 |access-date=25 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002041301/http://www.rozhlas.cz/zpravy/historie/_zprava/ceskoslovensti-lekari-stali-v-korejske-valce-na-strane-kldr-jejich-mise-stale-vyvolava-otazniky--1198828 |archive-date=2 October 2016}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="ROK Web">
-{{cite web |title=Casualties of Korean War |publisher=Ministry of National Defense of Republic of Korea |url=http://www.imhc.mil.kr/imhcroot/data/korea_view.jsp?seq=4&page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120040603/http://www.imhc.mil.kr/imhcroot/data/korea_view.jsp?seq=4&page=1 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |access-date=14 February 2007 |language=ko}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Hickey">
-{{cite web |last=Hickey |first=Michael |title=The Korean War: An Overview |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/korea_hickey_04.shtml |access-date=31 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205152624/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/korea_hickey_04.shtml |archive-date=5 February 2009}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Li111">
-{{cite book |last=Li |first=Xiaobing |year=2007 |title=A History of the Modern Chinese Army |url=https://archive.org/details/historymodernchi00lixi| url-access = limited |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |location=Lexington, KY |isbn=978-0813124384 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historymodernchi00lixi/page/n127 111]}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Krivosheev1997">
-{{cite book |last=Krivošeev |first=Grigorij F. |title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century |year=1997 |publisher=Greenhill |location=London |isbn=978-1853672804}}
-</ref>
-<!-- Not in use
-<ref name="Armistice Agreement">{{cite web |title=Text of the Korean War Armistice Agreement |work=[[FindLaw]] |date=27 July 1953 |url=http://news.findlaw.com/wp/docs/korea/kwarmagr072753.html |access-date=26 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706062917/http://news.findlaw.com/wp/docs/korea/kwarmagr072753.html |archive-date=6 July 2008}}
-</ref>
-Not in use-->
-<ref name="US neutral commission">
-{{cite web |title=US State Department statement regarding 'Korea: Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission' and the Armistice Agreement 'which ended the Korean War' |publisher=FAS |url=https://fas.org/news/dprk/1995/950313-dprk-usia.htm |access-date=4 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427205513/http://www.fas.org/news/dprk/1995/950313-dprk-usia.htm |archive-date=27 April 2011 }}
-</ref>
-<!--<ref name="Boose1995">
-{{cite journal |last=Boose |first=Donald W. |date=Winter 1995–1996 |contribution=Portentous Sideshow: The Korean Occupation Decision |journal=Parameters: US Army War College Quarterly |publisher=US Army War College |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=112–29 |oclc=227845188}}
-</ref> -->
-<ref name="Devine 2007 819-821">
-{{cite book |last1=Devine |first1=Robert A. |last2=Breen |first2=T.H. |last3=Frederickson |first3=George M. |last4=Williams |first4=R. Hal |last5=Gross |first5=Adriela J. |last6=Brands |first6=H.W. |year=2007 |pages=819–21 |title=America Past and Present |edition=8th |volume=II: Since 1865 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson Longman]] |isbn=978-0321446619}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Hermes2002">
-{{cite book |last=Hermes |first=Walter, Jr. |year=2002 |title=Truce Tent and Fighting Front |publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]] |series=United States Army in the Korean War |orig-year=1966 |pages=2, 6–9 |url=https://history.army.mil/books/korea/truce/fm.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025203053/https://history.army.mil/books/korea/truce/fm.htm |archive-date=25 October 2021}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Truman1950">{{cite web |last=Truman |first=Harry S. |date=29 June 1950 |title=The President's News Conference of June 29, 1950 |publisher=Teachingamericanhistory.org |url=http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=594 |access-date=4 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226063925/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=594 |archive-date=26 December 2010}}</ref>
-<ref name="Naval Historical Center">
-{{cite web |title=Remembering the Forgotten War: Korea, 1950–1953 |publisher=Naval Historical Center |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/korea/korea1.htm |access-date=16 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819014820/http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/korea/korea1.htm |archive-date=19 August 2007}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Hoare1999">
-{{cite book |last1=Pratt |first1=Keith L. |last2=Rutt |first2=Richard |last3=Hoare |first3=James |year=1999 |title=Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary |publisher=Curzon |location=Richmond, Surrey |page=239 |isbn=978-0700704644}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Kim2003">
-{{cite book |last=Kim |first=Ilpyong J. |year=2003 |page=79 |title=Historical Dictionary of North Korea |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=978-0810843318}}
-</ref>
-<!-- Not in use
-<ref name="CRI2008">
-{{cite news |title=War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea Commemorated in Henan |publisher=China Radio International |date=25 October 2008 |url=http://english.cri.cn/2946/2008/10/25/195s417906.htm |access-date=16 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120202855/http://english.cri.cn/2946/2008/10/25/195s417906.htm |archive-date=20 January 2012}}
-</ref>
-Not in use-->
-<!-- Not in use
-<ref name="Xinhua2000">
-{{cite news |title=War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea Marked in DPRK |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=26 October 2000 |url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-America/actives/dprk.htm |access-date=16 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501075600/http://www.china.org.cn/e-America/actives/dprk.htm |archive-date=1 May 2011}}
-</ref>
-Not in use-->
-<ref name="Schnabel1972">
-{{cite book |last=Schnabel |first=James F. |year=1972 |title=Policy and Direction: The First Year |series=United States Army in the Korean War |volume=3 |pages=3, 18, 22 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0160359552 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/P&D.HTM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517132751/http://www.history.army.mil/books/P%26D.HTM |archive-date=17 May 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Early1943">
-{{cite web |last=Early |first=Stephen |year=1943 |title=Cairo Communiqué |publisher=National Diet Library |location=Japan |url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/01/002_46/002_46tx.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206020831/http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/01/002_46/002_46tx.html |archive-date=6 December 2010}}
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-{{cite book |last=Whelan |first=Richard |year=1991 |title=Drawing the Line: the Korean War 1950–53 |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |location=Boston |page=[https://archive.org/details/drawinglinekorea00whel/page/22 22] |isbn=978-0316934039 |url=https://archive.org/details/drawinglinekorea00whel/page/22}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="McCullough1992">
-{{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |author-link=David McCullough |year=1992 |title=''Truman'' |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperbacks |pages=[https://archive.org/details/truman00mccu_0/page/785 785–86] |isbn=978-0671869205| title-link = Truman (book)}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="McCune1946">
-{{cite journal |last=McCune |first=Shannon Boyd Bailey |year=1946 |title=Physical Basis for Korean Boundaries |journal=Far Eastern Quarterly |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=286–87 |oclc=32463018 |doi=10.2307/2049050 |jstor=2049050}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Grajdanzev1945">
-{{cite journal |last=Grajdanzev |first=Andrew J |title=Korea Divided |journal=Far Eastern Survey |year=1945 |volume=14 |issue=20 |pages=281–83 |issn=0362-8949 |oclc=482287795 |doi=10.2307/3022068 |jstor=3022068}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Time1946">
-{{cite news |title=Korea: For Freedom |magazine=Time |date=20 May 1946 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,792877-1,00.html |access-date=16 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106193407/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C792877-1%2C00.html |archive-date=6 January 2012}}
-</ref>
-<!--<ref name="Stueck2004">
-{{cite book |last=Stueck |first=William |title=The Korean War in World History |year=2004 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |location=Lexington, KY |page=38 |isbn=0813123062}}
-</ref> -->
-<ref name="AMH">
-{{cite book |editor=Stewart, Richard W. |title=American Military History, Volume 2 |chapter=The Korean War, 1950–1953 |year=2005 |publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]] |id=CMH Pub 30-22 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/index.htm#cont |chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/chapter8.htm |access-date=20 August 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518095626/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/index.htm |archive-date=18 May 2015}}
-</ref>
-<!--<ref name="VoA2010">
-{{cite web |last=白桦| script-title=zh:韩战无赢家 中苏北韩领袖策划战争|trans-title= No winner in the Korean War, Soviet war plans North Korea leader |date=26 June 2010 |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |language=zh |url=http://www1.voanews.com/chinese/news/20100626-Korean-war-97220239.html |access-date=27 June 2010}}
-</ref> -->
-<!--<ref name="Wainstock1999">
-{{cite book |last=Wainstock |first=Dennis |year=1999 |title=Truman, MacArthur, and the Korean War |page=137}}
-</ref> -->
-<!--<ref name="HankyorehJanuary2009">
-{{cite news |title=439 civilians confirmed dead in Yeosu-Suncheon Uprising of 1948 New report by the Truth Commission places blame on Syngman Rhee and the Defense Ministry, advises government apology |newspaper=[[Hankyoreh]] |date=8 January 2009 |url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/332032.html |access-date=16 July 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511184103/http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/332032.html |archive-date=11 May 2011}}
-</ref> -->
-<!--<ref name="Chosun2009">{{cite news|script-title=ko:'문경학살사건' 유족 항소심도 패소 |newspaper=[[Chosun Ilbo]] |date=6 August 2009 |language=ko |url=http://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2009/08/06/2009080600689.html |access-date=16 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501014757/http://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2009/08/06/2009080600689.html |archive-date=1 May 2011}}
-</ref> -->
-<!--ref name="OhMyNews2009">{{cite news |url=http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/view/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0001070694| script-title=ko:두 민간인 학살 사건, 상반된 판결 왜 나왔나?'울산보도연맹'&nbsp;– ' 문경학살사건' 판결문 비교분석해 봤더니... |newspaper=[[OhmyNews]] |language=ko |date=17 February 2009 |access-date=16 July 2010}}</ref-->
-<ref name="Chosun2010">
-{{cite news |script-title=ko:만물상 6•25 한강다리 폭파의 희생자들 |newspaper=[[Chosun Ilbo]] |date=29 June 2010 |language=ko |url=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/06/29/2010062902370.html |access-date=15 July 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501063615/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/06/29/2010062902370.html |archive-date=1 May 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="HankyorehJune2010">{{cite news |script-title=ko:60년 만에 만나는 한국의 신들러들 |newspaper=[[Hankyoreh]] |date=25 June 2010 |language=ko |url=http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/special/special_general/27607.html |access-date=15 July 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427181702/http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/special/special_general/27607.html |archive-date=27 April 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="OhMyNews2007">
-{{cite news |script-title=ko:"보도연맹 학살은 이승만 특명에 의한 것" 민간인 처형 집행했던 헌병대 간부 최초증언 출처 : "보도연맹 학살은 이승만 특명에 의한 것"&nbsp;– 오 마이뉴스 |newspaper=[[Ohmynews]] |date=4 July 2007 |language=ko |url=http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0000420451 |access-date=15 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503211221/http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0000420451 |archive-date=3 May 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Webb">
-{{cite web |last=Webb |first=William J. |title=The Korean War: The Outbreak |publisher=United States Army Center for Military History |url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/KW-Outbreak/outbreak.htm |access-date=16 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612073344/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/KW-Outbreak/outbreak.htm |archive-date=12 June 2010}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Gromyko1950">
-{{cite web |last=Gromyko |first=Andrei A. |title=On American Intervention in Korea, 1950 |date=4 July 1950 |work=Modern History Sourcebook |publisher=Fordham University |location=New York |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1950-gromyko-korea.html |access-date=16 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206141853/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1950-gromyko-korea.html |archive-date=6 February 2012}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Gross1951">
-{{cite journal |last=Gross |first=Leo |title=Voting in the Security Council: Abstention from Voting and Absence from Meetings |journal=The Yale Law Journal |volume=60 |issue=2 |date=February 1951 |pages=209–57 |jstor=793412 |doi=10.2307/793412 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5390&context=ylj}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Schick1950">
-{{cite journal |last=Schick |first=F. B |title=Videant Consules |journal=The Western Political Quarterly |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=311–25 |date=September 1950 |jstor=443348 |doi=10.2307/443348}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Hess2001">
-{{cite book |last=Hess |first=Gary R. |title=Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf |year=2001 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn=978-0801865152}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Graebner1979">
-{{cite book |last1=Graebner |first1=Norman A. |last2=Trani |first2=Eugene P. |author-link2=Eugene P. Trani |year=1979 |volume=V3641 |title=The Age of Global Power: The United States Since 1939 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |oclc=477631060}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Truman1980">
-{{cite book |last1=Truman |first1=Harry S. |author-link1=Harry S. Truman |last2=Ferrell |first2=Robert H. |author-link2=Robert H. Ferrell |title=The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman |year=1980 |publisher=University Press of Colorado |location=Boulder, CO |isbn=978-0870810909}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Cavalry Outpost Publications">
-{{cite web |title=History of the 1st Cavalry Division and Its Subordinate Commands |publisher=Cavalry Outpost Publications |url=http://www.first-team.us/tableaux/ |access-date=27 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308064029/http://www.first-team.us/tableaux/ |archive-date=8 March 2010}}<!--Reliable?-->
-</ref>
-<ref name="Schnabel">
-{{cite book |last=Schnabel |first=James F |title=United States Army in the Korean War: Policy And Direction: The First Year |publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]] |year=1992 |orig-year=1972 |id=CMH Pub 20-1-1 |pages=155–92, 212, 283–84, 288–89, 304 |isbn=978-0160359552 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/P&D.HTM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517132751/http://www.history.army.mil/books/P%26D.HTM |archive-date=17 May 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="KIMH">
-{{cite book |author=Korea Institute of Military History |title=The Korean War: Korea Institute of Military History |year=2000 |series=3-volume set |volume=1, 2 |publisher=Bison Books, University of Nebraska Press |pages=512–29, 730 |isbn=978-0803277946}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Weintraub2000">
-{{cite book |last=Weintraub |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Weintraub |title=MacArthur's War: Korea and the Undoing of an American Hero |year=2000 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0684834191 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/macarthurswarkor00wein/page/157 157–58] |url=https://archive.org/details/macarthurswarkor00wein/page/157}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Offner2002">
-{{cite book |last=Offner |first=Arnold A. |title=Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 |year=2002 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |isbn=978-0804747745 |page=390}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Weng1966">
-{{cite journal |last=Weng |first=Byron |title=Communist China's Changing Attitudes Toward the United Nations |journal=International Organization |date=Autumn 1966 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=677–704 |oclc=480093623 |doi=10.1017/S0020818300012935}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Academy2000">
-{{cite book |author=Chinese Military Science Academy| trans-title = History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea| script-title=zh:抗美援朝战争史 |volume=I |page=160 |date=September 2000 |publisher=Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House |location=Beijing |isbn=978-7801373908 |language=zh}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="AcademyB2000">
-{{cite book |author=Chinese Military Science Academy| trans-title = History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea| script-title = zh:抗美援朝战争史 |volume=I |pages=86–89 |date=September 2000 |publisher=Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House |location=Beijing |isbn=978-7801373908 |language=zh}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="AcademyC2000">
-{{cite book |author=Chinese Military Science Academy| trans-title = History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea| script-title = zh:抗美援朝战争史 |volume=I |pages=35–36 |date=September 2000 |publisher=Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House |location=Beijing |isbn=978-7801373908 |language=zh}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Donovan1996">
-{{cite book |last=Donovan |first=Robert J |title=Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman 1949–1953 |year=1996 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/tumultuousyearsp0000dono/page/285 285] |isbn=978-0826210852 |url=https://archive.org/details/tumultuousyearsp0000dono/page/285}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Stewart">
-{{cite web |editor-last=Stewart |editor-first=Richard W |title=The Korean War: The Chinese Intervention |work=history.army.mil |publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History |url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/kw-chinter/chinter.htm |access-date=17 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203234437/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/kw-chinter/chinter.htm |archive-date=3 December 2011}}
-</ref>
-<!-- not used<ref name="CohenGooch2006">
-{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Eliot A. |last2=Gooch |first2=John |title=Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War |publisher=Free Press |location=New York |year=2006 |pages=165–95 |isbn=978-0743280822}}
-</ref>-->
-<!--<ref name="Hopkins1986">
-{{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=William B. |title=One Bugle No Drums: The Marines at Chosin Reservoir |year=1986 |publisher=Algonquin |location=Chapel Hill, NC |isbn=978-0912697451}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Roe1996">
-{{cite web |last=Roe |first=Patrick C. |title=The Chinese Failure at Chosin |date=August 1996 |publisher=Korean War Project |location=Dallas, TX |url=http://www.koreanwar.org/html/units/frontline/chosin.htm |access-date=17 December 2011}}
-</ref>-->
-<ref name="DoyleMayer1979">
-{{cite journal |last1=Doyle |first1=James H |last2=Mayer |first2=Arthur J |title=December 1950 at Hungnam |journal=U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings |date=April 1979 |volume=105 |issue=4 |pages=44–65}}
-</ref>
-<!-- Not in use
-<ref name="Espinoza2001">
-{{cite court |litigants=Espinoza-Castro v. I.N.S. |year=2001 |vol=242 |reporter=F.3d |opinion=1181 |pinpoint=30 |url=http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/242/242.F3d.1181.99-70588.html}}
-</ref>
-Not in use-->
-<ref name="MacArthur">''Reminiscences'', MacArthur, Douglas.</ref><!unacceptable as-is; data will have to be confirmed or removed-->
-<ref name="Timmons">{{cite web |last=Timmons |first=Robert |title=Allies mark 60th anniversary of Chipyong-ni victory |publisher=US Eighth Army |work=8tharmy.korea.army.mil |url=http://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/20110222chipyongni-timmons.asp |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113141628/http://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/20110222chipyongni-timmons.asp |archive-date=13 January 2012}}</ref>
-<ref name="Boose2000">
-{{cite web |last=Boose |first=Donald W., Jr. |title=Fighting While Talking: The Korean War Truce Talks |work=OAH Magazine of History |date=Spring 2000 |publisher=Organization of American Historians |url=http://www.oah.org/pubs/magazine/korea/boose.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712210732/http://www.oah.org/pubs/magazine/korea/boose.html |archive-date=12 July 2007 |access-date=7 November 2009 |quote=... the UNC advised that only 70,000 out of over 170,000 North Korean and Chinese prisoners desired repatriation.}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Ho1993">
-{{cite book |last=Ho |first=Jong Ho |title=The US Imperialists started the Korean War |year=1993 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Pyongyang, N. Korea |asin=B0000CP2AZ |page=230}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="KCNA2011">
-{{cite web |title=War Victory Day of DPRK Marked in Different Countries |publisher=KCNA |date=1 August 2011 |url=http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2011/201108/news01/20110801-02ee.html |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529130625/http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2011/201108/news01/20110801-02ee.html |archive-date=29 May 2012 }}
-</ref>
-<ref name="OperationGlory">
-{{cite web |title=Operation Glory |publisher=Army Quartermaster Museum, US Army |location=Fort Lee, VA |url=http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/korea/op_glory.htm |access-date=16 December 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228095437/http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/korea/op_glory.htm |archive-date=28 December 2007}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="DPMO">{{cite web |author=US Department of Defense |title=DPMO White Paper: Punch Bowl 239 |url=http://www.dtic.mil/dpmo/news/special_reports/documents/010228_punch_bowl_239.pdf |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106054156/http://www.dtic.mil/dpmo/news/special_reports/documents/010228_punch_bowl_239.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2012}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Army Times">
-{{cite news |title=Remains from Korea identified as Ind. soldier |publisher=Army News |date=1 March 2008 |url=http://www.armytimes.com/news/2008/03/ap_korea_remains_022908/ |access-date=25 December 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="SwissArmy">
-{{cite web |title=NNSC in Korea |publisher=Swiss Armed Forces, International Command |url=http://www.vtg.admin.ch/internet/vtg/en/home/themen/einsaetze/peace/korea.parsys.0003.downloadList.53335.DownloadFile.tmp/nnsc2011e.pdf |access-date=22 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825200823/http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/Forces-abroad/Korea-/ |archive-date=25 August 2010}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="SwedishArmy">
-{{cite web |title=Korea&nbsp;– NSCC |publisher=Swedish Armed Forces |work=Forsvarsmakten.se |date=1 November 2007 |url=http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/Forces-abroad/Korea-/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825200823/http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/Forces-abroad/Korea-/ |archive-date=25 August 2010 |access-date=22 December 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="BBC2010">
-{{cite news |title='North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship&nbsp;– report |date=20 May 2010 |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10129703 |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210225444/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10129703 |archive-date=10 December 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Reuters2010">
-{{cite news |last1=Kim |first1=Jack |last2=Lee |first2=Jae-won |title=North Korea shells South in fiercest attack in decades |date=23 November 2010 |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-artillery-idUSTRE6AM0YS20101123 |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104032417/http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/11/23/us-korea-north-artillery-idUSTRE6AM0YS20101123 |archive-date=4 January 2012}}
-</ref>
-<!--
-<ref name="CNN2000">
-{{cite news |title=U.S. death toll from Korean War revised downward, Time reports |publisher=CNN |date=4 June 2000 |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/06/04/korea.deaths/ |access-date=22 December 2011}}{{failed verification|date=December 2011}}
-</ref>
--->
-<ref name="xu">
-{{cite web |last=Xu |first=Yan |title=Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness |date=29 July 2003 |publisher=Consulate General of the People's Republic of China in New York |url=http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm |access-date=12 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715215412/http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm |archive-date=15 July 2011}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Sherman2000">
-{{cite web |last=Sherman |first=Stephen |date=March 2000 |title=Korean War Aces: USAF F-86 Sabre jet pilots |work=acepilots.com |url=http://www.acepilots.com/korea_aces.html |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819121425/http://www.acepilots.com/korea_aces.html |archive-date=19 August 2007}}<!--reliable?-->
-</ref>
-<ref name="DavisThyng">
-{{cite web |last1=Davis |first1=Larry |last2=Thyng |first2=Harrison R. |author-link2=Harrison Thyng |title=The Bloody Great Wheel: Harrison R. Thyng |publisher=Sabre Pilots Association |url=http://sabre-pilots.org/classics/v101thyng.htm |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206011922/http://sabre-pilots.org/classics/v101thyng.htm |archive-date=6 February 2012}}<!--reliable?-->
-</ref>
-<ref name="Puckett2005">{{cite web |last=Puckett |first=Allen L. |title=Say 'hello' to the bad guy |date=1 April 2005 |work=af.mil |publisher=US Air Force |url=http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123010176 |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119204158/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123010176 |archive-date=19 January 2012}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Kreisher2007">
-{{cite web |last=Kreisher |first=Otto |date=16 January 2007 |title=The Rise of the Helicopter During the Korean War |work=historynet.com |publisher=Weider History Group |url=http://www.historynet.com/the-rise-of-the-helicopter-during-the-korean-war.htm |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106153420/http://www.historynet.com/the-rise-of-the-helicopter-during-the-korean-war.htm |archive-date=6 January 2012}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="OliveDrab">
-{{cite web |title=WW II Helicopter Evacuation |publisher=Olive Drab |url=http://www.olive-drab.com/od_medical_evac_helio_ww2.php |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113060208/http://olive-drab.com/od_medical_evac_helio_ww2.php |archive-date=13 January 2012}}<!--reliable?-->
-</ref>
-<ref name="Day">
-{{cite web |last=Day |first=Dwayne A. |title=M.A.S.H./Medevac Helicopters |work=CentennialOfFlight.gov |publisher=US Centennial of Flight Commission |url=http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Rotary/MASH/HE12.htm |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119001032/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Rotary/MASH/HE12.htm |archive-date=19 January 2012}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Cumings2006">
-{{cite book |last=Cumings |first=Bruce |year=2006| editor-last = Constantino| editor-first = Renato Redentor |chapter=Korea: Forgotten Nuclear Threats |title=The Poverty of Memory: Essays on History and Empire |page=63 |publisher=Foundation for Nationalist Studies |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-9718741252 |oclc=74818792| chapter-url = http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/0503A_Cumings.html |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070922135710/http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/0503A_Cumings.html |archive-date=22 September 2007}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Walkom2010">
-{{cite web |last=Walkom |first=Thomas |date=25 November 2010 |title=Walkom: North Korea's unending war rages on |work=Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/896502--walkom-north-korea-s-unending-war-rages-on |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501192619/http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/896502--walkom-north-korea-s-unending-war-rages-on |archive-date=1 May 2011}}
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-</ref>
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-{{cite book |last=Panikkar |first=Kavalam Madhava |author-link=Kavalam Madhava Panikkar |title=In Two Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat |publisher=Hyperion Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0830500130}}
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-{{cite book |last=Truman |first=Harry S |author-link=Harry S. Truman |title=Memoirs (2 volumes) |publisher=Doubleday |date=1955–1956 |volume=II |pages=394–95 |isbn=978-1568520629 |no-pp=true}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Hasbrouck1951">
-{{cite journal |last=Hasbrouck |first=S. V |year=1951 |title=memo to file (November 7, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A |publisher=Library of Congress}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="Chiefof Staff1951">
-{{cite journal |last=Army Chief of Staff |title=memo to file (November 20, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A |publisher=Library of Congress |year=1951}}
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-<ref name="Watson1998">
-{{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Robert J |last2=Schnabel |first2=James F. |title=The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, 1950–1951, The Korean War and 1951–1953, The Korean War |series=History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Volume III, Parts I and II |publisher=Office of Joint History, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff |year=1998 |pages=part 1, p. v; part 2, p. 614 |no-pp=true}}
-</ref>
-<ref name="CommandingGeneral1951">
-{{cite journal |author=Commanding General, Far East Air Force |title=Memo to 98th Bomb Wing Commander, Okinawa |year=1951}}<!--WTF? unverifiable as is-->
-</ref>
-<ref name="FarEastCommand">
-{{cite journal |author=Far East Command G-2 Theater Intelligence |title=Résumé of Operation, Record Group 349, box 752 |year=1951}}<!--unverifiable as is-->
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-{{cite web |author=Kim Dong‐choon |title=The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Korea: Uncovering the Hidden Korean War |date=5 March 2010 |work=jinsil.go.kr |url=http://www.jinsil.go.kr/English/Information/notice/read.asp?num=500 |access-date=24 December 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131101112431/http://www.jinsil.go.kr/English/Information/notice/read.asp?num=500| archive-date = 1 November 2013| url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}
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--->
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-{{cite web |url=http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200003/news03/22.htm#14 |title=DPRK Foreign Ministry memorandum on GI mass killings |work=Kcna.co.jp |publisher=KCNA |access-date=22 December 2011}}
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-{{cite book |last=Sandler |first=Stanley |title=The Korean War: No Victors, No Vanquished |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0813109671 |page=[https://archive.org/details/koreanwarnovicto0000sand/page/224 224] |date=1 October 1999 |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanwarnovicto0000sand/page/224}}
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-<ref name="Independent2006">
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--->
-<ref name="CIA2011">
-{{cite web |publisher=CIA |work=The World Factbook |year=2011 |title=Country Comparison: GDP (purchasing power parity) |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html?countryName=Ghana&countryCode=gh&regionCode=afr&rank=86#gh |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118194700/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html?countryName=Ghana&countryCode=gh&regionCode=afr&rank=86 |archive-date=18 November 2011}}
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-</ref>-->
-<ref name="Independent2006">
-{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=13 July 2006 |title=Leading article: Africa has to spend carefully |publisher=[[Independent News & Media|INM]] |location=London |issn=0951-9467 |oclc=185201487 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/leading-article-africa-has-to-spend-carefully-407666.html |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124072325/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/leading-article-africa-has-to-spend-carefully-407666.html |archive-date=24 January 2012}}
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-</ref>
-}}
-===Bibliography===
-{{See also|Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union|Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union}}
-{{refbegin|30em}}
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-* {{cite book |last1=Kraus |first1=Daniel |title=The Korean War |date=2013 |publisher=Booklist}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Warner, G. |title=The Korean War |date=1980 |publisher=International Affairs}}
-* {{cite book |last=Appleman |first=Roy E |title=South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu |publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]] |year=1998 |orig-year=1961 |pages=3, 15, 381, 545, 771, 719 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/20-2-1/toc.htm |isbn=978-0160019180 }} {{PD-notice}}
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-* {{cite book |last=Becker |first=Jasper |title=Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0195170443 |url=https://archive.org/details/rogueregimekimjo00beck}}
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-* {{cite book |last=Blair |first=Clay |author-link=Clay Blair |title=The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=2003 }}
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-* {{cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=Micheal |title=A Statistical History of the Korean War: 1950-1953 |year=1989 |publisher=Merriam Press |location=Bennington, Vermont }}
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-* {{cite book |last=Goulden |first=Joseph C |title=Korea: The Untold Story of the War |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |location=New York |year=1983 |page=17 |isbn=978-0070235809 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Halberstam |first=David |author-link=David Halberstam |year=2007 |title=The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War |publisher=Hyperion |location=New York |isbn=978-1401300524 | title-link = The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War}}
-* {{cite book|title=[[Ghost Flames|Ghost Flames: Life and Death in a Hidden War, Korea 1950-1953]]|last=Hanley|first=Charles J.|author-link = Charles J. Hanley|year=2020|publisher=Public Affairs|location=New York, New York|isbn=9781541768154}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Hanley|first1=Charles J.|author-link = Charles J. Hanley|last2=Choe |first2=Sang-Hun |last3=Mendoza |first3=Martha |title=[[The Bridge at No Gun Ri|The Bridge at No Gun Ri: A Hidden Nightmare from the Korean War]] |year=2001 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=0-8050-6658-6}}
-* Hermes, Walter G. ''Truce Tent and Fighting Front''. [Multiple editions]:
-** {{citation |last=Hermes |first=Walter G. |year=1992 |title=Truce Tent and Fighting Front |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/truce/fm.htm |isbn=978-0160359576}} {{PD-notice}}
-** {{cite book
- |first=Walter G
- |last=Hermes
- |chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/truce/ch7.htm
- |series=United States Army in the Korean War
- |title=Truce Tent and Fighting Front
- |chapter=VII. Prisoners of War
- |pages=135–144
- |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army
- |isbn=978-1410224842
- |location=Washington, DC
- |year=1992a
- |url-status=live
- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106070252/http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/truce/ch7.htm
- |archive-date=6 January 2010
-}} [http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/truce/appb.htm Appendix B-2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505200529/http://www.history.army.mil///books/korea/truce/appb.htm |date=5 May 2017 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Jager |first=Sheila Miyoshi |author-link=Sheila Miyoshi Jager |title=Brothers at War&nbsp;– The Unending Conflict in Korea |year=2013 |publisher=Profile Books |location=London |isbn=978-1846680670 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Kim |first=Yǒng-jin |title=Major Powers and Korea |year=1973 |publisher=Research Institute on Korean Affairs |location=Silver Spring, MD |oclc=251811671 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Malkasian |first=Carter |title=The Korean War, 1950–1953 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |series=Essential Histories |location=London; Chicago |year=2001 |isbn=978-1579583644 }}
-* Lin, L., et al. "Whose history? An analysis of the Korean war in history textbooks from the United States, South Korea, Japan, and China". ''Social Studies'' 100.5 (2009): 222–232. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Hoge/publication/249038081_Whose_History_An_Analysis_of_the_Korean_War_in_History_Textbooks_from_the_United_States_South_Korea_Japan_and_China/links/55108ab00cf20352196c0c69/Whose-History-An-Analysis-of-the-Korean-War-in-History-Textbooks-from-the-United-States-South-Korea-Japan-and-China.pdf online]
-* Matray, James I., and Donald W. Boose Jr, eds. ''The Ashgate research companion to the Korean War'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Ashgate-Research-Companion-Korean-War/dp/0367669382/ excerpt]; covers historiography
-* Matray, James I. "Conflicts in Korea" in Daniel S. Margolies, ed. ''A Companion to Harry S. Truman'' (2012) pp  498-531; emphasis on historiography.
-* {{cite book |last=Millett |first=Allan R. |series=The Essential Bibliography Series |title=The Korean War: The Essential Bibliography |year=2007 |publisher=Potomac Books Inc. |location=Dulles, VA |isbn=978-1574889765 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Mossman |first=Billy C. |series=United States Army in the Korean War |title=Ebb and Flow, November 1950&nbsp;– July 1951 |volume=5 |year=1990 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington, DC |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/ebb/fm.htm |oclc=16764325 }} {{PD-notice}}
-* {{cite book |last=Perrett |first=Bryan |year=1987 |title=Soviet Armour Since 1945 |location=London |publisher=Blandford |isbn=978-0713717358 |url=https://archive.org/details/sovietarmoursinc0000perr}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Ravino |first1=Jerry |last2=Carty |first2=Jack |title=Flame Dragons of the Korean War |location=Paducah, KY |publisher=Turner |year=2003 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Rees |first=David |year=1964 |title=Korea: The Limited War |publisher=St Martin's |location=New York |oclc=1078693 }}
-* {{cite book |last1=Rivera |first1=Gilberto |title=Puerto Rican Bloodshed on The 38th Parallel: U.S. Army Against Puerto Ricans Inside the Korean War |date=3 May 2016 |isbn=978-1539098942 |page=24 |url=http://a.co/7rnKNnB}}
-* {{cite book |last=Stein |first=R. Conrad |title=The Korean War: "The Forgotten War" |year=1994 |publisher=Enslow Publishers |location=Hillside, NJ |isbn=978-0894905261 |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanwarthefor00stei}}
-* {{cite book |last=Stokesbury |first=James L |year=1990 |title=A Short History of the Korean War |publisher=Harper Perennial |location=New York |isbn=978-0688095130 }}
-* {{citation |last=Stueck |first=William W. |year=1995 |title=The Korean War: An International History |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-0691037677 |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanwarinterna0000stue}}
-* {{citation |last=Stueck |first=William W. |year=2002 |title=Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-0691118475}}
-* {{citation |last=Weathersby |first=Kathryn |year=1993 |title=Soviet Aims in Korea and the Origins of the Korean War, 1945–50: New Evidence From the Russian Archives |publisher=Cold War International History Project: Working Paper No. 8 |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/soviet-aims-korea-and-the-origins-the-korean-war-1945-50-new-evidence-the-russian}}
-* {{citation |last=Weathersby |first=Kathryn |year=2002 |title="Should We Fear This?" Stalin and the Danger of War with America |publisher=Cold War International History Project: Working Paper No. 39 |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/should-we-fear-stalin-and-the-danger-war-america}}
-* {{cite book |last=Werrell |first=Kenneth P. |title=Sabres Over MiG Alley |publisher=[[Naval Institute Press]] |location=Annapolis, MD |year=2005 |isbn=978-1591149330 }}
-* {{wikicite | id = Zaloga-1997 | reference = Zaloga, Steven J., Jim Kinnear, Andrey Aksenov & Aleksandr Koshchavtsev (1997). ''Soviet Tanks in Combat 1941–45: The T-28, T-34, T-34-85, and T-44 Medium Tanks'', Hong Kong: Concord Publication. {{ISBN|9623616155}}}}
-* {{citation |first=Shu Guang |last=Zhang |year=1995 |title=Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, KS |isbn=978-0700607235}}
-{{refend}}
-==External links==
-{{Sister project links|Korean War|voy=Korean War}}
-* Records of [https://search.archives.un.org/united-nations-commission-for-unification-and-rehabilitation-of-korea-uncurk-1950-1973 the United Nations Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea (UNCURK) (1950–1973)] at the United Nations Archives
-===Historical===
-* [http://www.shapell.org/btl.aspx?60th-anniversary-of-the-korean-war-armistice Anniversary of the Korean War Armistice: Truman on Acheson's Crucial Role in Going to War] Shapell Manuscript Foundation
-* [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/korean_war.html Korean War resources, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]
-* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/program/north-korea-international-documentation-project North Korea International Documentation Project]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120421181722/http://gvsu.cdmhost.com/cdm/search/collection/p4103coll2/searchterm/Korean%20War,%201950-1953/field/all/mode/exact/conn/and/cosuppress/ Grand Valley State University Veteran's History Project digital collection]
-* [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/25/opinion/25KoreaIntro.html The Forgotten War, Remembered]&nbsp;– four testimonials in ''[[The New York Times]]''
-* [http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/KW.html Collection of Books and Research Materials on the Korean War] an online collection of the [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140405233626/http://cdm16635.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/search/collection/p16635coll27 Korean War, US Army Signal Corps Photograph Collection] US Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
-* [http://www.history.com/topics/korean-war The Korean War at History.com]
-* [http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/home.htm Koreanwar-educator.org]
-* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.li.263.927|name=Film No. 927}}
-===Media===
-* [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/korean-war West Point Atlas of the Korean War]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111228082712/http://www.life.com/gallery/43961/the-korean-war-you-never-knew The Korean War You Never Knew]&nbsp;– slideshows by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine
-* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/imcomkorea/sets/72157607808414225/ US Army Korea Media Center official Korean War online image archive]
-* [http://www.awesomestories.com/history/korean-war/war-pictures Rare pictures of the Korean War from the U.S. Library of Congress and National Archives]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130910141733/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/content/collections/korea/flash/index_en.html ''Land of the Morning Calm Canadians in Korea''&nbsp;– multimedia project including veteran interviews]
-* [http://www.britishpathe.com/workspace.php?id=32&display=listBritish Pathé] Online newsreel archive featuring films on the war
-* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/korean-war/forgotten-heroes-canada-and-the-korean-war/canadas-troops-head-to-korea.html CBC Digital Archives&nbsp;– Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean War]
-* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26287786 Uncertain Enemies: Soviet Pilots in the Korean War]. ''Air Power History.'' (Spring 1997). '''44''', 1, 32-45.
-===Organizations===
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131102121134/http://kdvamerica.org/About.html Korea Defense Veterans of America]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080422040026/http://www.koreanwarexpow.org/info/jpac.html Korean War Ex-POW Association]
-* [http://www.kwva.org/pow_mia/index.htm Korean War Veterans Association]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804200943/http://www.koreanwararchives.com/index.html The Center for the Study of the Korean War]
-===Memorials===
-* [http://www.koreanchildren.org/ Korean Children's War Memorial]
-* [http://www.china.org.cn/e-America/index.htm Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial]
-{{Korean War}}
-{{Cold War}}
-{{American conflicts}}
-{{Russian Conflicts}}
-{{PRC conflicts}}
-{{Philippines conflicts}}
-{{Philippine involvement in Korean War}}
-{{Portal bar|North Korea|South Korea|War|1950s}}
-{{Authority control}}
+== External links ==
+* [http://www.korean-war.com/ A Korean War timeline of events]
+* [http://www.koreanwar.org/ Search list of names of the dead]
+* [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Korean_War Korean War] – [[Citizendium]]
+{{authority control}}
 [[Category:Korean War| ]]
-[[Category:Revolution-based civil wars]]
+[[Category:Cold War]]
-[[Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia]]
-[[Category:History of Korea]]
-[[Category:United Nations operations in Asia|Korea]]
 [[Category:Wars involving Australia]]
+[[Category:Wars involving Belgium]]
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-[[Category:Conflicts in 1950]]
+[[Category:1950 in Asia]]
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+[[Category:1951 in Asia]]
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+[[Category:1952 in Asia]]
-[[Category:Conflicts in 1953]]
+[[Category:1953 in Asia]]
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+[[Category:1950s conflicts]]
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-[[Category:Aftermath of World War II]]
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-[[Category:1950s in North Korea]]
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-[[Category:Wars involving Korea]]