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{{Human history and prehistory}} | {{Human history and prehistory}} | ||
The '''Chalcolithic''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˌ|k|æ|l|k|ə|ˈ|l|ɪ|θ|ᵻ|k}}),<ref name="OED-Chalcolithic">The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}, p. 301: "'''Chalcolithic''' /,kælkəl'lɪθɪk/ '''adjective''' ''Archaeology'' of, relating to, or denoting a period in the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, chiefly in the Near East and SE Europe, during which some weapons and tools were made of copper. This period was still largely Neolithic in character. Also called '''Eneolithic'''... Also called '''Copper Age''' – ''Origin'' early 20th cent.: from Greek ''khalkos'' 'copper' + ''lithos'' 'stone' + '''-ic'''".</ref> a name derived from the {{lang-grc-gre|χαλκός}} ''khalkós'', "[[copper]]" and from {{lang|grc| λίθος}} ''líthos'', "[[Rock (geology)|stone]]"<ref name = "OED-Chalcolithic"/> or '''Copper Age''',<ref name = "OED-Chalcolithic"/> also known as the '''Eneolithic'''<ref name = "OED-Chalcolithic"/> or '''Aeneolithic'''<ref>''Aeneolothic'' was once fairly often spelled ''Æneolithic'', but the habit of using a [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] in ''ae'' and ''oe'' words of Greek and Latin derivation (''fœtid'', etc.) largely died out by the mid-20th century.</ref> (from [[Latin]] ''[[wikt:aeneus|aeneus]]'' "of copper") is an [[ | The '''Chalcolithic''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˌ|k|æ|l|k|ə|ˈ|l|ɪ|θ|ᵻ|k}}),<ref name="OED-Chalcolithic">The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}, p. 301: "'''Chalcolithic''' /,kælkəl'lɪθɪk/ '''adjective''' ''Archaeology'' of, relating to, or denoting a period in the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, chiefly in the Near East and SE Europe, during which some weapons and tools were made of copper. This period was still largely Neolithic in character. Also called '''Eneolithic'''... Also called '''Copper Age''' – ''Origin'' early 20th cent.: from Greek ''khalkos'' 'copper' + ''lithos'' 'stone' + '''-ic'''".</ref> a name derived from the {{lang-grc-gre|χαλκός}} ''khalkós'', "[[copper]]" and from {{lang|grc| λίθος}} ''líthos'', "[[Rock (geology)|stone]]"<ref name = "OED-Chalcolithic"/> or '''Copper Age''',<ref name = "OED-Chalcolithic"/> also known as the '''Eneolithic'''<ref name = "OED-Chalcolithic"/> or '''Aeneolithic'''<ref>''Aeneolothic'' was once fairly often spelled ''Æneolithic'', but the habit of using a [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] in ''ae'' and ''oe'' words of Greek and Latin derivation (''fœtid'', etc.) largely died out by the mid-20th century.</ref> (from [[Latin]] ''[[wikt:aeneus|aeneus]]'' "of copper"), is an [[list of archaeological periods|archaeological period]] that researchers now regard as part of the broader [[Neolithic]]. Earlier scholars defined it as a transitional period between the Neolithic and the [[Bronze Age]]. In the context of [[Eastern Europe]], archaeologists often prefer the term "Eneolithic" to "Chalcolithic" or other alternatives. | ||
In the Chalcolithic period, copper predominated in [[metalworking]] technology. Hence it was the period before it was discovered that by adding [[tin]] to copper one could create [[bronze]], a metal [[alloy]] [[Hardness|harder]] and stronger than either component. | In the Chalcolithic period, copper predominated in [[metalworking]] technology. Hence it was the period before it was discovered that by adding [[tin]] to copper one could create [[bronze]], a metal [[alloy]] [[Hardness|harder]] and stronger than either component. | ||
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[[File:Los Millares recreacion cuadro.jpg|thumb|Painting of a Copper Age walled settlement, [[Los Millares]], [[Spain]]]] | [[File:Los Millares recreacion cuadro.jpg|thumb|Painting of a Copper Age walled settlement, [[Los Millares]], [[Spain]]]] | ||
Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include [[Vila Nova de São Pedro]] and [[Los Millares]] on the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref>C.M.Hogan, 2007</ref> Pottery of the [[Beaker people]] has been found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] languages.<ref>D.W.Anthony, ''[[The Horse, the Wheel and Language]]: How Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world'' (2007).</ref> In Britain, copper was used between the 25th and 22nd centuries BC, but some archaeologists do not recognise a British Chalcolithic because production and use was on a small scale.<ref>Miles, ''The Tale of the Axe'', pp. 363, 423, n. 15</ref> | Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include [[Vila Nova de São Pedro]] and [[Los Millares]] on the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref>C.M. Hogan, 2007</ref> Pottery of the [[Beaker people]] has been found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] languages.<ref>D.W. Anthony, ''[[The Horse, the Wheel and Language]]: How Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world'' (2007).</ref> In Britain, copper was used between the 25th and 22nd centuries BC, but some archaeologists do not recognise a British Chalcolithic because production and use was on a small scale.<ref>Miles, ''The Tale of the Axe'', pp. 363, 423, n. 15</ref> | ||
== South Asia== | == South Asia== | ||
According to Parpola (2005),<ref>A.Parpola, 2005</ref> ceramic similarities between the [[Indus Valley | According to Parpola (2005),<ref>A.Parpola, 2005</ref> ceramic similarities between the [[Indus Valley civilisation]], southern [[Turkmenistan]], and northern [[Iran]] during 4300–3300 BC of the Chalcolithic period suggest considerable mobility and trade. | ||
The term "Chalcolithic" has also been used in the context of the [[South Asian Stone Age]].<ref>Vasant Shinde and Shweta Sinha Deshpande, "Crafts and Technologies of the Chalcolithic People of South Asia: An Overview" Indian Journal of History of Science, 50.1 (2015) 42–54</ref> | The term "Chalcolithic" has also been used in the context of the [[South Asian Stone Age]].<ref>Vasant Shinde and Shweta Sinha Deshpande, "Crafts and Technologies of the Chalcolithic People of South Asia: An Overview" Indian Journal of History of Science, 50.1 (2015) 42–54</ref> | ||
In [[Bhirrana]], the earliest Indus civilization site, copper [[bangle]]s and [[arrowhead]]s were found. The inhabitants of [[Mehrgarh]] in present-day [[Pakistan]] fashioned tools with local copper ore between 7000 and 3300 BC.<ref name=Possehl>Possehl, Gregory L. (1996)</ref> | In [[Bhirrana]], the earliest Indus civilization site, copper [[bangle]]s and [[arrowhead]]s were found. The inhabitants of [[Mehrgarh]] in present-day [[Pakistan]] fashioned tools with local copper ore between 7000 and 3300 BC.<ref name=Possehl>Possehl, Gregory L. (1996)</ref> | ||
At the [[Nausharo]] site dated to 4500 years ago, a pottery workshop in province of [[Balochistan]], Pakistan, were unearthed 12 blades or blade fragments. These blades are {{convert|12|-|18|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|1.2|-|2.0|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} wide, and relatively thin. Archaeological experiments show that these blades were made with a copper indenter and functioned as a potter's tool to trim and shape unfired pottery. Petrographic analysis indicates local pottery manufacturing, but also reveals the existence of a few exotic black-slipped pottery items from the [[Indus Valley]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Méry|first1=S|last2=Anderson|first2=P|last3=Inizan|first3=M.L.|last4=Lechavallier|first4=M|last5=Pelegrin|first5=J|title=A pottery workshop with flint tools on blades knapper with copper at Nausharo (Indus civilisation ca. 2500 BC)|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=2007|volume=34|issue=7|pages=1098–1116|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.002}}</ref> | At the [[Nausharo]] site dated to 4500 years ago, a pottery workshop in province of [[Balochistan]], Pakistan, were unearthed 12 blades or blade fragments. These blades are {{convert|12|-|18|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|1.2|-|2.0|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} wide, and relatively thin. Archaeological experiments show that these blades were made with a copper indenter and functioned as a potter's tool to trim and shape unfired pottery. Petrographic analysis indicates local pottery manufacturing, but also reveals the existence of a few exotic black-slipped pottery items from the [[Indus Valley]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Méry|first1=S|last2=Anderson|first2=P|last3=Inizan|first3=M.L.|last4=Lechavallier|first4=M|last5=Pelegrin|first5=J|title=A pottery workshop with flint tools on blades knapper with copper at Nausharo (Indus civilisation ca. 2500 BC)|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=2007|volume=34|issue=7|pages=1098–1116|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.002}}</ref> | ||
In India, Chalcolithic culture flourished in mainly four farming communities – [[Ahar–Banas culture|Ahar]] or [[Ahar–Banas culture|Banas]], [[Kaytha|Kayatha]], [[Malwa culture|Malwa]], and [[Jorwe culture|Jorwe]]. These communities had some common traits like painted pottery and use of copper, but they had a distinct ceramic design tradition. Banas culture (2000-1600 BC) had ceramics with red, white, and black design. Kayatha culture (2450-1700 BC) had ceramics painted with brown colored design. Malwa culture (1900-1400 BC) had profusely decorated pottery with red or black colored design. Jorwe culture (1500-900 BC) had ceramics with matte surface and black-on-red design.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wsiXwh_tIGkC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA48&dq=Chalcolithic+india&hl=en |title=The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1753-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Peregrine |first=Peter N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-TQpUtI-dgC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA34&dq=Chalcolithic+india&hl=en |title=Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia |last2=Ember |first2=Melvin |date=2003-03-31 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-306-46262-7 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
In June 2022, a large collection of copper weapons was found by a farmer under the ground on his land in Mainpuri's Ganeshpur village, Uttar Pradesh, India. Using carbon dating test, archaeologists determined that this collection was from Chalcolithic period around 2000 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Anuja Jaiswal|date=Jun 24, 2022 |title=Mainpuri News: 4,000-year-old copper weapons found under a field in Uttar Pradesh’s Mainpuri {{!}} Agra News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/agra/4k-year-old-copper-weapons-found-under-a-field-in-ups-mainpuri/articleshow/92423442.cms |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> In March 2018, archaeologists had also discovered three chariots and copper artifacts including weapons dating 2000 BC in Sanauli village of Uttar Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanaul|date=June 6, 2018 |title=Indians used chariots 4,000 years ago, ASI unearths evidence in UP |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/indians-used-chariots-4-000-years-ago-asi-unearths-evidence-in-up-1251650-2018-06-06 |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> | |||
==Pre-Columbian Americas== | ==Pre-Columbian Americas== | ||
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{{more citations needed section|reason=establish use of the term "Chalcolithic", not just of the presence of copper|date=October 2018}} | {{more citations needed section|reason=establish use of the term "Chalcolithic", not just of the presence of copper|date=October 2018}} | ||
{{main|History of metallurgy in China#Copper}} | {{main|History of metallurgy in China#Copper}} | ||
In the 5th millennium BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as in the [[Jiangzhai, Xi'an|Jiangzhai]] and [[Hongshan culture]]s, but those metal artifacts were not widely used.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Christian E. |last1=Peterson |first2=Gideon |last2=Shelach |title=Jiangzhai: Social and economic organization of a Middle Neolithic Chinese village |journal=[[Journal of Anthropological Archaeology]] |volume=31 |issue=3 |date=September 2012 |pages=241–422 |doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2012.01.007}}</ref> | [[File:Nine hole penannular ring, Neolithic period, Mongolia Culture, 多環獸型玉玦, 卑南型玉器, 新石器時代12cm, 游謙 博士 采集, collected by Dr. Jerome Yuchien PhD. archaeology.jpg|thumb|Hongshan culture, Nine hole penannular ring, Chalcolithic period, Mongolia]] | ||
In the 5th millennium BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as in the [[Jiangzhai, Xi'an|Jiangzhai]] and [[Hongshan culture]]s, but those metal artifacts were not widely used during this early stage.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Christian E. |last1=Peterson |first2=Gideon |last2=Shelach |title=Jiangzhai: Social and economic organization of a Middle Neolithic Chinese village |journal=[[Journal of Anthropological Archaeology]] |volume=31 |issue=3 |date=September 2012 |pages=241–422 |doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2012.01.007}}</ref> | |||
Copper manufacturing gradually appeared in the [[Yangshao]] period (5000–3000 BCE). [[Jiangzhai]] is the only site where copper artifacts were found in the [[Banpo]] culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BCE. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the [[Hongshan culture]] (4700–2900) and copper [[slag]] at the [[Yuanwozhen]] site. This indicates that inhabitants of the [[Yellow River]] valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by the later [[Yangshao culture|Yangshao]] period.<ref>''The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective'', Kwang-Chih Chang, Pingfang Xu, Liancheng Lu. Yale University Press (2005), p. 66</ref> | |||
==Sub-Saharan Africa== | ==Sub-Saharan Africa== | ||