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The Central Sikh League demanded the administration of the [[Golden Temple]] to be transferred from the government to an elected representative body of Sikhs answerable to the ''[[panth]]'', and in October 1919 took control of the Golden Temple and [[Akal Takht]].{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}} | The Central Sikh League demanded the administration of the [[Golden Temple]] to be transferred from the government to an elected representative body of Sikhs answerable to the ''[[panth]]'', and in October 1919 took control of the Golden Temple and [[Akal Takht]].{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}} | ||
The [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] in April 1919 during the course of the national independence movement, subsequent words of support from Arur Singh, the head priest of the [[Golden Temple]], to [[General Dyer]], and the general disturbances in Punjab in 1919 provoked an outcry among [[Singh Sabha]] circles, and increased Sikh urgency to reclaim control of the [[gurdwara]]s.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} | The [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] in April 1919 during the course of the national independence movement, subsequent words of support from Arur Singh, the head priest of the [[Golden Temple]], to [[Reginald Dyer|General Dyer]], and the general disturbances in Punjab in 1919 provoked an outcry among [[Singh Sabha]] circles, and increased Sikh urgency to reclaim control of the [[gurdwara]]s.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} | ||
To pacify these sentiments, the colonial Punjab Government appointed a provisional committee of 36 members, entirely from Sikh landed aristocrat families, to formulate proposals regarding the operation of the Golden Temple.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}}{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}} Following the Central Sikh League's disapproval of the committee's composition, expressed in a large gathering at the Golden Temple on 16 November 1920{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} attended by over 10,000 Sikhs,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}} the committee in charge of the Golden Temple was reformulated with 175 members to form a managing committee for all gurdwaras.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}}{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} The government, publicly pursuing a policy of neutral non-interference though still managing to have some appointees on the committee, allowed the new committee, and in December 1920 the committee was named the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, or SGPC, which coordinated the activities of Akali ''jathas'', or volunteer groups, to liberate all gurdwaras from the corrupt mahants.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} | To pacify these sentiments, the colonial Punjab Government appointed a provisional committee of 36 members, entirely from Sikh landed aristocrat families, to formulate proposals regarding the operation of the Golden Temple.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}}{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}} Following the Central Sikh League's disapproval of the committee's composition, expressed in a large gathering at the Golden Temple on 16 November 1920{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} attended by over 10,000 Sikhs,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}} the committee in charge of the Golden Temple was reformulated with 175 members to form a managing committee for all gurdwaras.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=158}}{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} The government, publicly pursuing a policy of neutral non-interference though still managing to have some appointees on the committee, allowed the new committee, and in December 1920 the committee was named the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, or SGPC, which coordinated the activities of Akali ''jathas'', or volunteer groups, to liberate all gurdwaras from the corrupt mahants.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=78}} | ||
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== Initial agitations == | == Initial agitations == | ||
By the early 20th century, a number of Sikh gurdwaras in British India were under the control of the [[Udasi]] ''[[mahant]]''s (clergymen) or managers appointed by the Governors.<ref name="HSSingha2000">{{cite book | author = H. S Singha|title=The encyclopedia of Sikhism|year=2000|publisher=Hemkunt Press|isbn=978-81-7010-301-1|page=13}}</ref> The Udasis had come to control Sikh shrines in the eighteenth century during the period of increased persecution of the [[Khalsa]] by the [[Mughal Empire]] during that time forced them to yield control of Sikh institutions to those without external identifiers; the Khalsa would subsequently focus on political power resulting in the Sikh Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mandair |first1=Arvind-Pal Singh |title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 | By the early 20th century, a number of Sikh gurdwaras in British India were under the control of the [[Udasi]] ''[[mahant]]''s (clergymen) or managers appointed by the Governors.<ref name="HSSingha2000">{{cite book | author = H. S Singha|title=The encyclopedia of Sikhism|year=2000|publisher=Hemkunt Press|isbn=978-81-7010-301-1|page=13}}</ref> The Udasis had come to control Sikh shrines in the eighteenth century during the period of increased persecution of the [[Khalsa]] by the [[Mughal Empire]] during that time forced them to yield control of Sikh institutions to those without external identifiers; the Khalsa would subsequently focus on political power resulting in the Sikh Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mandair |first1=Arvind-Pal Singh |title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|year= 2013|publisher= Bloomsburg Academic|isbn=978-1-4411-0231-7|page=86}}</ref>{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=86}} The main aim of the Akali movement was to have the Sikh gurdwaras released from the control of the traditional clergy, which had become powerful and ritualized.<ref name="Rajit2003">{{cite book | author=Rajit K. Mazumder | title=The Indian army and the making of Punjab | year=2003 | publisher = Orient Blackswan | isbn=978-81-7824-059-6 | pages=213–218}}</ref> | ||
The non-violent movement began in 1920,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} with the [[jatha]]s, led by [[Kartar Singh Jhabbar]], playing a major role. The first shrine chosen for reform was the ''Babe di Ber'' gurdwara in [[Sialkot]]. It was under the control of the widow of the [[mahant]] Harnam Singh. She initially resisted the takeover of the gurdwara by the Akalis, as it was her only source of income, but relented after she was offered a pension.<ref name="Mohinder1988">{{cite book|author=Mohinder Singh|title=The Akali struggle: a retrospect (Volume 1) |year=1988|publisher=Atlantic | page = 20 | oclc = 59911558 }}</ref> The control of the gurdwara was then transferred to an elected committee headed by [[Baba Kharak Singh]]. | The non-violent movement began in 1920,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} with the [[jatha]]s, led by [[Kartar Singh Jhabbar]], playing a major role. The first shrine chosen for reform was the ''Babe di Ber'' gurdwara in [[Sialkot]]. It was under the control of the widow of the [[mahant]] Harnam Singh. She initially resisted the takeover of the gurdwara by the Akalis, as it was her only source of income, but relented after she was offered a pension.<ref name="Mohinder1988">{{cite book|author=Mohinder Singh|title=The Akali struggle: a retrospect (Volume 1) |year=1988|publisher=Atlantic | page = 20 | oclc = 59911558 }}</ref> The control of the gurdwara was then transferred to an elected committee headed by [[Baba Kharak Singh]]. | ||
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[[File:PanjaSahibExterior1.JPG|thumb|left|[[Gurdwara Panja Sahib]] at Hasan Abdal]] | [[File:PanjaSahibExterior1.JPG|thumb|left|[[Gurdwara Panja Sahib]] at Hasan Abdal]] | ||
Next, the Akalis headed to [[Hasan Abdal]], where [[Gurdwara Panja Sahib]] was under the control of Mahant Mitha Singh. Singh allowed sale of cigarettes inside the gurdwara, and was disliked by the Sikhs. The Akalis led by Kartar Singh Jhabbar took control of the gurdwara on 20 November 1920. However, the local Hindus, who also frequented the gurdwara for worship, opposed this takeover. Around 5–6 thousand of them surrounded the gurdwara on the night of the Akali takeover, but were dispersed by the police | Next, the Akalis headed to [[Hasan Abdal]], where [[Gurdwara Panja Sahib]] was under the control of Mahant Mitha Singh. Singh allowed sale of cigarettes inside the gurdwara, and was disliked by the Sikhs. The Akalis led by Kartar Singh Jhabbar took control of the gurdwara on 20 November 1920. However, the local Hindus, who also frequented the gurdwara for worship, opposed this takeover. Around 5–6 thousand of them surrounded the gurdwara on the night of the Akali takeover, but were dispersed by the police. Nevertheless, the gurdwara was later successfully brought under the authority of the SGPC.<ref name="Tan2005">{{cite book|author=Tai Yong Tan|title=The garrison state: the military, government and society in colonial Punjab 1849–1947|year=2005|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-0-7619-3336-6|page=1935}}</ref> | ||
The Akalis then took control of the Gurdwara Sacha Sauda at Chuhar Kana (in present-day Pakistan). They then turned their attention to the [[Gurdwara Sri Tarn Taran Sahib]], whose clergymen were accused of allowing dancing girls, smoking and drinking inside the shrine's premises. The clergymen were also accused of spreading the teachings of [[Arya Samaj]], a Hindu reform movement some of whose leaders had criticized Sikhism.<ref name="Shashi1996"/> A group of 40 Akalis,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} led by Kartar Singh, arrived at the gurdwara on 25 January 1921, performed ''[[ardas]]'' (Sikh prayer) and declared that the gurdwara was now under their control. Henchmen employed by the mahants{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} attacked the Akalis with crude bombs and bricks while the latter were sleeping.<ref name="Shashi1996">{{cite book|author=S. S. Shashi|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-7041-859-7}}</ref> Two Akalis were killed and several wounded, and a ''jatha'' two weeks prior had also been beaten.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} The next day, the Sikhs from the surrounding villages took control of the Gurdwara, and a managing committee appointed by the SGPC.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} Following this, the Akalis led by Kartar Singh then took control of five more gurdwaras, including the Gurdwara Guru ka Bagh near [[Amritsar]]. The British, believing that gurdwara control could be contested in court, did not like the control of gurdwaras passing under the control of committees appointed by the SGPC.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} | The Akalis then took control of the Gurdwara Sacha Sauda at Chuhar Kana (in present-day Pakistan). They then turned their attention to the [[Gurdwara Sri Tarn Taran Sahib]], whose clergymen were accused of allowing dancing girls, smoking and drinking inside the shrine's premises. The clergymen were also accused of spreading the teachings of [[Arya Samaj]], a Hindu reform movement some of whose leaders had criticized Sikhism.<ref name="Shashi1996"/> A group of 40 Akalis,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} led by Kartar Singh, arrived at the gurdwara on 25 January 1921, performed ''[[ardas]]'' (Sikh prayer) and declared that the gurdwara was now under their control. Henchmen employed by the mahants{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} attacked the Akalis with crude bombs and bricks while the latter were sleeping.<ref name="Shashi1996">{{cite book|author=S. S. Shashi|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-7041-859-7}}</ref> Two Akalis were killed and several wounded, and a ''jatha'' two weeks prior had also been beaten.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} The next day, the Sikhs from the surrounding villages took control of the Gurdwara, and a managing committee appointed by the SGPC.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} Following this, the Akalis led by Kartar Singh then took control of five more gurdwaras, including the Gurdwara Guru ka Bagh near [[Amritsar]]. The British, believing that gurdwara control could be contested in court, did not like the control of gurdwaras passing under the control of committees appointed by the SGPC.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=159}} | ||
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===''Morcha Chabian'' ("Keys Campaign")=== | ===''Morcha Chabian'' ("Keys Campaign")=== | ||
In October 1921, the SGPC executive committee passed a resolution asking Sunder Singh Ramgharia, a mahant previously appointed by the government{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} who subsequently assumed a position as an SGPC secretary,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} to relinquish the keys of the Golden Temple's ''[[toshakhana]]'', or vault, to the committee, as he represented government control over the temple's treasures and artifacts.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=79}} The government would take possession of the keys in November, when Sunder Singh would seek the advice of the Deputy Commissioner, who sent his subordinate Lala Amar Nath to take the keys.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} which prompted the SGPC to accuse the government of meddling in Sikh affairs, and appeal to Akali ''jathas'' to meet at Amritsar | In October 1921, the SGPC executive committee passed a resolution asking Sunder Singh Ramgharia, a mahant previously appointed by the government{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} who subsequently assumed a position as an SGPC secretary,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} to relinquish the keys of the Golden Temple's ''[[toshakhana]]'', or vault, to the committee, as he represented government control over the temple's treasures and artifacts.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=79}} The government would take possession of the keys in November, when Sunder Singh would seek the advice of the Deputy Commissioner, who sent his subordinate Lala Amar Nath to take the keys.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} which prompted the SGPC to accuse the government of meddling in Sikh affairs, and appeal to Akali ''jathas'' to meet at Amritsar and organize protest meetings. The government would in response affix their own locks to the ''toshakhana'' in defiance, escalating the situation,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} and Akali protestors were arrested and given punishments.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} | ||
The conflict between the Sikhs and the government also lead to the consolidation of ties between the Akalis and noncooperation leaders, and the allegations of government interference in religious affairs began to affect the public opinion of Sikh soldiers, disbanded soldiers, and peasantry, on which colonial stability depended,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} and the threat of a major civil disobedience at the beginning of 1922.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} To prevent unrest, the government relented, handing over the ''toshakhana'' keys to the [[Baba Kharak Singh]] of the SGPC on 17 January 1922, and agreed to the unconditional release of all Sikhs arrested, the number of whom had been increasing up to that point.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} As Sikh concerns were now linked with the wider non-cooperation movement, Gandhi would telegraph the SGPC in January 1922 with "Congratulations, first decisive battle for India's freedom won."{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}}{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} The government's attitude toward the Akalis would grow more contentious by midyear however, as the Akalis would begin to consider independence as their best option.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} | The conflict between the Sikhs and the government also lead to the consolidation of ties between the Akalis and noncooperation leaders, and the allegations of government interference in religious affairs began to affect the public opinion of Sikh soldiers, disbanded soldiers, and peasantry, on which colonial stability depended,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} and the threat of a major civil disobedience at the beginning of 1922.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} To prevent unrest, the government relented, handing over the ''toshakhana'' keys to the [[Baba Kharak Singh]] of the SGPC on 17 January 1922, and agreed to the unconditional release of all Sikhs arrested, the number of whom had been increasing up to that point.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} As Sikh concerns were now linked with the wider non-cooperation movement, Gandhi would telegraph the SGPC in January 1922 with "Congratulations, first decisive battle for India's freedom won."{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}}{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} The government's attitude toward the Akalis would grow more contentious by midyear however, as the Akalis would begin to consider independence as their best option.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} | ||
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Ajnala]], built to mark a visit from [[Guru Arjan]]. The struggle between the Akalis and the ''mahant'' Sunder Das over the control of the site had resulted in the mahant keeping his position, though as part of a managing committee that would supervise him, similar to the ''toshakhana'' arrangement. However, in March 1921, the mahant reneged on the agreement, forcibly occupying the committee's office and destroying its records.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} A year later in August 1922, Akali volunteers chopped wood on land to fuel the fires of the gurdwara's [[Langar (Sikhism)|free community kitchen]], for which the ''mahant'' had them arrested for theft at the encouragement of the authorities,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} provoking a major struggle with the Akalis, who contended that the mahant could not claim private possession of the property, as it belonged to the Sikh [[panth]], or congregation.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} | Ajnala]], built to mark a visit from [[Guru Arjan]]. The struggle between the Akalis and the ''mahant'' Sunder Das over the control of the site had resulted in the mahant keeping his position, though as part of a managing committee that would supervise him, similar to the ''toshakhana'' arrangement. However, in March 1921, the mahant reneged on the agreement, forcibly occupying the committee's office and destroying its records.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} A year later in August 1922, Akali volunteers chopped wood on land to fuel the fires of the gurdwara's [[Langar (Sikhism)|free community kitchen]], for which the ''mahant'' had them arrested for theft at the encouragement of the authorities,{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} provoking a major struggle with the Akalis, who contended that the mahant could not claim private possession of the property, as it belonged to the Sikh [[panth]], or congregation.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} | ||
The Akalis warned the government that denying Sikhs the right to gather fuel for the community kitchen was to deliberately undermine their faith, and the arrests drew more Akali volunteers to the site, with the SGPC launching a campaign to send non-violent Akali ''jathas'' to the gurdwara daily. Over 200 volunteers were arrested by August 25, and by October 19 over 2,450 would be arrested by authorities.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}}{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} As continuous waves of Akalis kept arriving, the authorities began to use violent methods,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} being declared an unlawful assembly, as bands of 50 to 100, and sometimes over 200 | The Akalis warned the government that denying Sikhs the right to gather fuel for the community kitchen was to deliberately undermine their faith, and the arrests drew more Akali volunteers to the site, with the SGPC launching a campaign to send non-violent Akali ''jathas'' to the gurdwara daily. Over 200 volunteers were arrested by August 25, and by October 19 over 2,450 would be arrested by authorities.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}}{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} As continuous waves of Akalis kept arriving, the authorities began to use violent methods,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=80}} being declared an unlawful assembly, as bands of 50 to 100, and sometimes over 200 Akalis would take blows in non-violent resistance.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=161}} On October 25, a ''jatha'' of retired soldiers reached the site, which was deemed by the government to be potentially destabilizing.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=161}} | ||
National | National Non-cooperation leaders rallied to the cause by making speeches at the site, though support from [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] would wane after Gandhi's release in February 1924 as he wanted to separate the political issue of independence from religion.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=162}} Christian missionary [[C.F. Andrews]], visiting the site in September 1922, was shocked at the administration's brutality, describing Akali tactics as "a new lesson in moral warfare."{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=81}}{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} He protested to [[Edward MacLagan]], the Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, and the conflict was settled by having the ''mahant'' sell the land to Sir [[Ganga Ram]], a private Hindu philanthropist,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=81}} who handed it over to the Akalis on 17 November 1922. Over 5,000 volunteers were released in March 1923.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=160}} | ||
===Gurdwara Bill=== | ===Gurdwara Bill=== | ||
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* {{cite book|author=M. L. Ahluwalia|title=Gurdwara Reform Movement, 1919–1925, an era of Congress-Akali collaboration | year=1985|publisher=Ashoka International Publishers | oclc = 17772948 }} | * {{cite book|author=M. L. Ahluwalia|title=Gurdwara Reform Movement, 1919–1925, an era of Congress-Akali collaboration | year=1985|publisher=Ashoka International Publishers | oclc = 17772948 }} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |author-link=J. S. Grewal |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab (The New Cambridge History of India II.3) |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |isbn=9781316025338 |pages=157–166 |edition=Revised |url=https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew}} | * {{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |author-link=J. S. Grewal |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab (The New Cambridge History of India II.3) |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |isbn=9781316025338 |pages=157–166 |edition=Revised |url=https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew}} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Deol |first1=Harnik |title=Religion and Nationalism in India: The Case of the Punjab (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia) |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York City, U.S.A. |isbn=978-0-415-20108-7 |pages=78–81 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books | * {{cite book |last1=Deol |first1=Harnik |title=Religion and Nationalism in India: The Case of the Punjab (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia) |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York City, U.S.A. |isbn=978-0-415-20108-7 |pages=78–81 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_AMX5RI_YUC |access-date=17 June 2020}} | ||
{{Sikh politics}} | {{Sikh politics}} | ||