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[[File:Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_(1st_C),_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg|thumb|260px|Gandhara birchbark scroll fragments (c. 1st century) from the British Library Collection]] | [[File:Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_(1st_C),_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg|thumb|260px|Gandhara birchbark scroll fragments (c. 1st century) from the British Library Collection]] | ||
{{EarlyBuddhism}} | {{EarlyBuddhism}} | ||
The '''Gandhāran Buddhist texts''' are the oldest [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] manuscripts yet discovered, dating from about the 1st century | The '''Gandhāran Buddhist texts''' are the oldest [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] manuscripts yet discovered, dating from about the 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE,<ref>[[Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|Salomon, Richard]], (2018). [https://www.amazon.com/-/es/Richard-Salomon/dp/1614291683?asin=1614291683&revisionId=&format=4&depth=1 The Buddhist Literature of Ancient Gandhara: An Introduction with Selected Translations (Classics of Indian Buddhism) ], Wisdom Publications, '''p.1''': "...Subsequent studies have confirmed that these and other similar materials that were discovered in the following years date from between the first century BCE and the third century CE..."</ref><ref>University of Washington. [https://asian.washington.edu/early-buddhist-manuscripts-project "The Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project"]: "...These manuscripts date from the first century BCE to the third century CE, and as such are the oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts as well as the oldest manuscripts from South Asia..." Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref><ref>Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen. [https://www.en.gandhara.indologie.uni-muenchen.de/index.html "Buddhist Manuscripts from Gandhara"]: "...The discovery of the earliest Buddhist manuscripts – written in Gāndhārī language and Kharoṣṭhī script and dating from the 1st c. BCE to the 4th c. CE – has revolutionized our understanding of this formative phase of Buddhism..." Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> and are also the oldest Indian manuscripts.{{sfn|Salomon|2018|p=1}} They represent the literature of [[Gandharan Buddhism]] from present-day northwestern [[Pakistan]] and eastern [[Afghanistan]], and are written in [[Gāndhārī language|Gāndhārī]]. | ||
They were sold to European and Japanese institutions and individuals, and are currently being recovered and studied by several universities. The Gandhāran texts are in a considerably deteriorated form (their survival alone is extraordinary), but educated guesses about reconstruction have been possible in several cases using both modern preservation techniques and more traditional textual scholarship, comparing previously known [[Pāli]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] versions of texts. Other Gandhāran Buddhist texts—"several and perhaps many"—have been found over the last two centuries but lost or destroyed.{{sfn|Olivelle|2006|p=357}} | They were sold to European and Japanese institutions and individuals, and are currently being recovered and studied by several universities. The Gandhāran texts are in a considerably deteriorated form (their survival alone is extraordinary), but educated guesses about reconstruction have been possible in several cases using both modern preservation techniques and more traditional textual scholarship, comparing previously known [[Pāli]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] versions of texts. Other Gandhāran Buddhist texts—"several and perhaps many"—have been found over the last two centuries but lost or destroyed.{{sfn|Olivelle|2006|p=357}} | ||
The texts are attributed to the [[Dharmaguptaka]] sect by [[Richard G. Salomon ( | The texts are attributed to the [[Dharmaguptaka]] sect by [[Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|Richard Salomon]], the leading scholar in the field,{{sfn|Fumio|2000|p=160}} and the [[British Library]] scrolls "represent a random but reasonably representative fraction of what was probably a much larger set of texts preserved in the library of a monastery of the Dharmaguptaka sect in [[Nagarāhāra]]."{{sfn|Salomon|1999|p=181}} | ||
==Collections== | ==Collections== | ||
===The British Library Collection=== | ===The British Library Collection=== | ||
In 1994, the [[British Library]] acquired a group of some eighty Gandharan manuscript fragments from the first half of the 1st century CE. These [[birch bark manuscript]]s were stored in clay jars, which preserved them. They are thought to have been found in western [[Pakistan]], the location of [[Gandhara]], buried in ancient [[vihara|monasteries]]. A team has been at work, trying to decipher the manuscripts: several volumes have appeared to date (see below). The manuscripts were written in the [[Gāndhārī language]] using the [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī script]] and are therefore sometimes also called the ''Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts''. | In 1994, the [[British Library]] acquired a group of some eighty Gandharan manuscript fragments from the first half of the 1st century CE, encompassing twenty‐seven birch‐bark scrolls.<ref>University of Washington. [https://asian.washington.edu/early-buddhist-manuscripts-project "The Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project"]: "...twenty‐seven unique birch‐bark scrolls, written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language, that had been acquired by the British Library in 1994..." Retrieved 23 September 2021.</ref> These [[birch bark manuscript]]s were stored in clay jars, which preserved them. They are thought to have been found in western [[Pakistan]], the location of [[Gandhara]], buried in ancient [[vihara|monasteries]]. A team has been at work, trying to decipher the manuscripts: several volumes have appeared to date (see below). The manuscripts were written in the [[Gāndhārī language]] using the [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī script]] and are therefore sometimes also called the ''Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts''. | ||
The collection is composed of a diversity of texts: a ''[[Dhammapada]]'', discourses of the Buddha such as the ''[[Rhinoceros Sutra]]'', [[avadana]]s and [[Purvayoga]]s, commentaries and [[abhidharma]] texts. | The collection is composed of a diversity of texts: a ''[[Dhammapada]]'', discourses of the Buddha such as the ''[[Rhinoceros Sutra]]'', [[avadana]]s and [[Purvayoga]]s, commentaries and [[abhidharma]] texts. | ||
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===The Schøyen collection=== | ===The Schøyen collection=== | ||
The Buddhist works within the [[Schoyen Collection|Schøyen collection]] consist of [[birch bark]], [[Palm leaf manuscript|palm leaf]] and [[vellum]] manuscripts. They are thought to have been found in the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan|Bamiyan caves]] of | The Buddhist works within the [[Schoyen Collection|Schøyen collection]] consist of [[birch bark]], [[Palm leaf manuscript|palm leaf]] and [[vellum]] manuscripts. They are thought to have been found in the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan|Bamiyan caves]] of Afghanistan, where refugees were seeking shelter. Most of these manuscripts were bought by a Norwegian collector, named [[Martin Schøyen]], while smaller quantities are in possession of Japanese collectors.{{sfn|Melzer|2014|p=227}} These manuscripts date from the second to the 8th century CE. In addition to texts in Gandhāri, the Schøyen collection also contains important early sutric material in Sanskrit.{{sfn|Olivelle|2006|p=356}} | ||
The Buddhist texts within the Schøyen collection include fragments of [[Suttapitaka|canonical Suttas]], Abhidharma, Vinaya, and Mahāyāna texts. Most of these manuscripts are written in the [[Brahmani|Brahmi]] scripts, while a small portion is written in Gandhāri/[[Kharoṣṭhī]] script. | The Buddhist texts within the Schøyen collection include fragments of [[Suttapitaka|canonical Suttas]], Abhidharma, Vinaya, and Mahāyāna texts. Most of these manuscripts are written in the [[Brahmani|Brahmi]] scripts, while a small portion is written in Gandhāri/[[Kharoṣṭhī]] script. | ||
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===Library of Congress=== | ===Library of Congress=== | ||
In 2003,<ref name="kim">{{cite web|last=Kim|first=Allen|title=A rare 2,000-year-old scroll about the early years of Buddhism is made public|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/29/world/gandhara-scroll-buddhism-trnd/index.html|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=July 29, 2019|access-date=August 22, 2019}}</ref> the [[Library of Congress]] purchased a scroll from a British antiquities dealer.<ref name="cannady">{{cite web|last=Cannady|first=Sheryl|title=Rare 2,000-Year-Old Text of Early Buddhism Now Online |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/prn-19-073/?loclr=ealn|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|date=July 29, 2019|access-date=August 22, 2019}}</ref> Called the "Bahubuddha Sutra", or "The Many Buddhas Sutra", the scroll arrived in pieces in a pen case<ref name="tucker">{{cite web|last=Tucker|first=Neely|title=Now Online! The Gandhara Scroll, a Rare 2,000-Year-Old Text of Early Buddhism|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/07/now-online-the-gandhara-scroll-a-rare-2000-year-old-text-of-early-buddhism/|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|date=July 29, 2019|access-date=August 22, 2019}}</ref> but retains 80% of the text with the beginning and ending missing due to age.<ref name="kim"/> The content is similar to the "[[Mahāvastu]]."<ref name="tucker"/> The text is narrated by [[Gautama Buddha]] and "tells the story of the 13 Buddhas who preceded him, his own emergence and the prediction of a future Buddha."<ref name="kim"/> | In 2003,<ref name="kim">{{cite web|last=Kim|first=Allen|title=A rare 2,000-year-old scroll about the early years of Buddhism is made public|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/29/world/gandhara-scroll-buddhism-trnd/index.html|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=July 29, 2019|access-date=August 22, 2019}}</ref> the [[Library of Congress]] purchased a scroll from a British antiquities dealer.<ref name="cannady">{{cite web|last=Cannady|first=Sheryl|title=Rare 2,000-Year-Old Text of Early Buddhism Now Online |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/prn-19-073/?loclr=ealn|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|date=July 29, 2019|access-date=August 22, 2019}}</ref> Called the "Bahubuddha Sutra", or "The Many Buddhas Sutra", the scroll arrived in pieces in a pen case<ref name="tucker">{{cite web|last=Tucker|first=Neely|title=Now Online! The Gandhara Scroll, a Rare 2,000-Year-Old Text of Early Buddhism|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/07/now-online-the-gandhara-scroll-a-rare-2000-year-old-text-of-early-buddhism/|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|date=July 29, 2019|access-date=August 22, 2019}}</ref> but retains 80% of the text with the beginning and ending missing due to age.<ref name="kim"/> The content is similar to the "[[Mahāvastu]]."<ref name="tucker"/> They mostly contain educational content.The text is narrated by [[Gautama Buddha]] and "tells the story of the 13 Buddhas who preceded him, his own emergence and the prediction of a future Buddha."<ref name="kim"/> | ||
===The Khotan Dharmapada=== | ===The Khotan Dharmapada=== | ||
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About the "Split" collection, Harry Falk writes: | About the "Split" collection, Harry Falk writes: | ||
{{quote|The local origins of the present collection are not clear. Several part[s] of it were seen in Peshawar in 2004. According to usually reliable informants the collection of birch-barks was found in a stone case in the Pakistan-Afghanistan border area, comprising the Mohmand Agency and Bajaur. It was split on arrival and some parts are now in a Western collection, while others went to a Government agency and yet other parts may still be with the private owner.<ref>"The ‘Split’ Collection of Kharoṣṭhī | {{quote|The local origins of the present collection are not clear. Several part[s] of it were seen in Peshawar in 2004. According to usually reliable informants the collection of birch-barks was found in a stone case in the Pakistan-Afghanistan border area, comprising the Mohmand Agency and Bajaur. It was split on arrival and some parts are now in a Western collection, while others went to a Government agency and yet other parts may still be with the private owner.<ref name="Falk">Falk, Harry, (2011). [https://www.academia.edu/3561702/split_collection " The ‘Split’ Collection of Kharoṣṭhī Texts"], in ''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'', ARIRIAB XIV (2011), pp. 13–23.</ref>}} | ||
The earliest manuscript from Split collection is the one that contains a series of [[Avadana]] tales, mentioning a king and Ajivikas, and Buddhist sects like Dharmaguptakas, Mahasamghikas and Seriyaputras, as well as persons like Upatisya and the thief [[Aṅgulimāla]] who gets advice from his wife in Pataliputra. This manuscript is currently held in three glass frames covering around 300 fragments, and the style of handwriting has affinities to Ashokan period. A small fragment was subjected to radiocarbon analysis at the Leibnitz Labor in Kiel, Germany, in 2007, the result was that it is from sometime between 184 BCE and 46 BCE (95.4% probability, two sigma range), and the youngest peak is around 70 BCE, so this reconsideration puts this manuscript, that Harry Falk calls "''An Avadana collection''", into the first century BCE.<ref name="Falk" />{{rp|p.19}} | |||
In 2012, Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima published a damaged and partial Kharoṣṭhī manuscript of the Mahāyāna ''[[Prajñāpāramitā|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]''.<ref>"A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra - parivarta 1" (Texts from the Split Collection 1) Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima. ''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'' XV (2012), 19–61.</ref> It is [[radiocarbon dating|carbon dated]] to ca. 75 CE, making it one of the oldest Buddhist texts in existence. It is very similar to the first Chinese translation of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' by [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokakṣema]] (ca. 179 CE) whose source text is assumed to be in the Gāndhārī language. Comparison with the standard Sanskrit text shows that it is also likely to be a translation from Gāndhāri as it expands on many phrases and provides glosses for words that are not present in the Gāndhārī. This points to the text being composed in Gāndhārī, the language of Gandhāra (in what is now the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan, including [[Peshawar]], [[Taxila (modern)|Taxila]] and the [[Swat Valley]]). The "Split" ms. is evidently a copy of an earlier text, confirming that the text may date before the first century of the common era. | In 2012, Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima published a damaged and partial Kharoṣṭhī manuscript of the Mahāyāna ''[[Prajñāpāramitā|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]''.<ref>"A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra - parivarta 1" (Texts from the Split Collection 1) Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima. ''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'' XV (2012), 19–61.</ref> It is [[radiocarbon dating|carbon dated]] to ca. 75 CE, making it one of the oldest Buddhist texts in existence. It is very similar to the first Chinese translation of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' by [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokakṣema]] (ca. 179 CE) whose source text is assumed to be in the Gāndhārī language. Comparison with the standard Sanskrit text shows that it is also likely to be a translation from Gāndhāri as it expands on many phrases and provides glosses for words that are not present in the Gāndhārī. This points to the text being composed in Gāndhārī, the language of Gandhāra (in what is now the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan, including [[Peshawar]], [[Taxila (modern)|Taxila]] and the [[Swat Valley]]). The "Split" ms. is evidently a copy of an earlier text, confirming that the text may date before the first century of the common era. | ||
===The Bajaur Collection=== | ===The Bajaur Collection=== | ||
The Bajaur Collection was discovered in 1999, and is believed to be from the ruins of a Buddhist monastery in the [[Dir District]] of Pakistan.<ref name=f&s>Falk, Harry, and Ingo Strauch. “The Bajaur and Split Collections of Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts within the Context of Buddhist Gāndhārī Literature.” From Birch Bark to Digital Data: Recent Advances in Buddhist Manuscript Research: Papers Presented at the Conference Indic Buddhist Manuscripts: The State of the Field. Stanford, June 15–19, 2009, edited by Paul Harrison and Jens-Uwe Hartmann, 1st ed., Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Wien, 2014, pp. 51–78. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1vw0q4q.7. Accessed 9 May 2020.</ref> The name derives from the [[Bajaur District|Bajaur district]], whose boundary with the Dir district is marked by the banks of the where the monastery was situated.<ref name=f&s/> | The Bajaur Collection was discovered in 1999, and is believed to be from the ruins of a Buddhist monastery in the [[Dir District]] of Pakistan.<ref name=f&s>Falk, Harry, and Ingo Strauch. “The Bajaur and Split Collections of Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts within the Context of Buddhist Gāndhārī Literature.” From Birch Bark to Digital Data: Recent Advances in Buddhist Manuscript Research: Papers Presented at the Conference Indic Buddhist Manuscripts: The State of the Field. Stanford, June 15–19, 2009, edited by Paul Harrison and Jens-Uwe Hartmann, 1st ed., Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Wien, 2014, pp. 51–78. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1vw0q4q.7. Accessed 9 May 2020.</ref> The name derives from the [[Bajaur District|Bajaur district]], whose boundary with the Dir district is marked by the banks of the river where the monastery was situated.<ref name=f&s/> | ||
The collection comprises fragments of 19 birch-bark scrolls and contains approximately 22 different texts. Most of the texts are not the work of the same scribe, with as many as 18 different hands identified.<ref name=f&s/> The fragments range from small sections only a few centimeters in length to a nearly complete scroll nearly 2m long.<ref name=f&s/> It is dated to the 1st-2nd Century CE, and written using the Kharosthi script.<ref name=f&s/> The fragments were fixed in frames and used to produce high-quality digital images at the [[University of Peshawar]], with collaboration with the [[Freie Universität Berlin|Freie University of Berlin]].<ref name=f&s/> | The collection comprises fragments of 19 birch-bark scrolls and contains approximately 22 different texts. Most of the texts are not the work of the same scribe, with as many as 18 different hands identified.<ref name=f&s/> The fragments range from small sections only a few centimeters in length to a nearly complete scroll nearly 2m long.<ref name=f&s/> It is dated to the 1st-2nd Century CE, and written using the Kharosthi script.<ref name=f&s/> The fragments were fixed in frames and used to produce high-quality digital images at the [[University of Peshawar]], with collaboration with the [[Freie Universität Berlin|Freie University of Berlin]].<ref name=f&s/> | ||
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Scholarly critical editions of the texts of the University of Washington and the British Library are being printed by the University of Washington Press in the "Gandhāran Buddhist Texts" series,<ref name="uw">{{cite web|url=http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/books/series/Seriesbuddhist.html|title=UW Press: Book in Series, Gandharan Buddhist Texts|access-date=2008-09-04}}</ref> beginning with a detailed analysis of the Gāndhārī [[Rhinoceros Sutra]] including [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[orthography]], [[paleography]], etc. Material from the Schøyen Collection is published by Hermes Publishing, Oslo, Norway. | Scholarly critical editions of the texts of the University of Washington and the British Library are being printed by the University of Washington Press in the "Gandhāran Buddhist Texts" series,<ref name="uw">{{cite web|url=http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/books/series/Seriesbuddhist.html|title=UW Press: Book in Series, Gandharan Buddhist Texts|access-date=2008-09-04}}</ref> beginning with a detailed analysis of the Gāndhārī [[Rhinoceros Sutra]] including [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[orthography]], [[paleography]], etc. Material from the Schøyen Collection is published by Hermes Publishing, Oslo, Norway. | ||
The following scholars have published fragments of the Gandhāran manuscripts: [[Raymond Allchin]], Mark Allon, Mark Barnard, Stefan Baums, John Brough, [[Harry Falk]], Andrew Glass, Mei‐huang Lee, Timothy Lenz, [[Sergey Oldenburg]], Richard Salomon and [[Émile Senart]]. Some of the published material is listed below: | The following scholars have published fragments of the Gandhāran manuscripts: [[Raymond Allchin]], Mark Allon, Mark Barnard, Stefan Baums, John Brough, [[Harry Falk (Indologist)|Harry Falk]], Andrew Glass, Mei‐huang Lee, Timothy Lenz, [[Sergey Oldenburg]], Richard Salomon and [[Émile Senart]]. Some of the published material is listed below: | ||
===General Overviews=== | ===General Overviews=== | ||
* ''Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhāra'' (1999) by | * ''Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhāra'' (1999) by Richard Salomon, with Raymond Allchin and Mark Barnard. An early description of the finds. | ||
* ''The Buddhist Literature of Ancient Gandhāra: An Introduction with Selected Translations'' (2018) by Richard Salomon. A modern update. | * ''The Buddhist Literature of Ancient Gandhāra: An Introduction with Selected Translations'' (2018) by Richard Salomon. A modern update. | ||
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* "The ‘Split’ Collection of Kharoṣṭhī Text" (2011) by Harry Falk (Berlin) [http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XIV%20(2011).pdf ''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'' XIV] (2011), 13–23. [https://www.academia.edu/3561702/split_collection Online] | * "The ‘Split’ Collection of Kharoṣṭhī Text" (2011) by Harry Falk (Berlin) [http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XIV%20(2011).pdf ''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'' XIV] (2011), 13–23. [https://www.academia.edu/3561702/split_collection Online] | ||
*"A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra - parivarta 1 (Texts from the Split Collection 1)" (2012) by Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima. [http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XV%20(2012).pdf ''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'' XV] (2012), 19–61. [https://www.academia.edu/3561115/prajnaparamita-5 Online] | *"A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra - parivarta 1 (Texts from the Split Collection 1)" (2012) by Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima. [http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XV%20(2012).pdf ''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'' XV] (2012), 19–61. [https://www.academia.edu/3561115/prajnaparamita-5 Online] | ||
==Analysis of the Manuscripts Contents== | |||
First studies of these Gandharan manuscripts in 1990’s seemed to show that Sūtra texts were prominent in these collections, but subsequent research showed that such a situation was not evident. Now researchers, like [[Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|Richard Salomon]], consider that Buddhist discourses ( sūtras) are actually a small portion of the whole Gandharan texts, especially in the oldest period. These early sūtras tend to be only a few common and popular texts, mostly belonging to [[Ksudraka Agama|Kṣudraka]]/[[ Khuddaka Nikaya|Khuddaka]] type of material. Richard Salomon, quoting [[Anne Blackburn]], considers them to be part of a limited “practical canon” used in Gandharan monasteries, he concludes that by comparing them to Sanskrit manuscripts from [[Xinjiang]] and katikāvatas instructions from Sri Lankan material.<ref>Salomon, Richard, (2020).[https://www.academia.edu/39171328/Research_on_the_Sa%E1%B9%83yukta_%C4%81gama_in_press_august_2020_?auto=download "Where are the Gandharan Sūtras?: Some Reflections on the Contents"], in (ed.) Dhammadinnā, Research on the Saṃyukta-āgama, Dharma Drum Corporation, Taipei, pp. 173-210.</ref> | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Early Buddhist schools]] | * [[Early Buddhist schools]] | ||
* [[Early Buddhist Texts]] | * [[Early Buddhist Texts]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Gandharan Buddhism]] | ||
* [[Greco-Buddhism]] | |||
* [[Pali Canon]] | |||
* [[Pre-Islamic scripts in Afghanistan]] | * [[Pre-Islamic scripts in Afghanistan]] | ||
* [[Schools of Buddhism]] | * [[Schools of Buddhism]] | ||
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*{{citation|last=Melzer|first=Gudrun| editor-last =Quenzer|editor-first =Jörg | editor2-last =Bondarev | editor2-first =Dmitry |editor3-last=Sobisch|editor3-first=Jan-Ulrich| article=A Paleographic Study of a Buddhist Manuscript from the Gilgit Region|year=2014|title=Manuscript Cultures: Mapping the Field|isbn=9783110225631}} | *{{citation|last=Melzer|first=Gudrun| editor-last =Quenzer|editor-first =Jörg | editor2-last =Bondarev | editor2-first =Dmitry |editor3-last=Sobisch|editor3-first=Jan-Ulrich| article=A Paleographic Study of a Buddhist Manuscript from the Gilgit Region|year=2014|title=Manuscript Cultures: Mapping the Field|isbn=9783110225631}} | ||
*{{citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|title=Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&q=substantial|year=2006|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-530532-9}} | *{{citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|title=Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&q=substantial|year=2006|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-530532-9}} | ||
*{{citation|last=Salomon|first=Richard|author-link=Richard G. Salomon ( | *{{citation|last=Salomon|first=Richard|author-link=Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|title=Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhāra: The British Library Kharosthī Fragments|year=1999|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|isbn=978-0295977690}} | ||
*{{citation|last=Salomon|first=Richard|author-link=Richard G. Salomon ( | *{{citation|last=Salomon|first=Richard|author-link=Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|title=The Senior Manuscripts: Another Collection of Gandhāran Buddhist Scrolls|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=123|issue=1|year=2003|doi=10.2307/3217845|jstor=3217845|url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The%20Senior%20Manuscripts_Another%20Collection%20of%20Gandharan%20Buddhist%20Scrolls_JAOS_2003.pdf}} | ||
*{{citation|last=Allon|first=Mark|title=Wrestling with Kharosthi Manuscripts|journal=BDK Fellowship Newsletter|volume=7|year=2004}} | *{{citation|last=Allon|first=Mark|title=Wrestling with Kharosthi Manuscripts|journal=BDK Fellowship Newsletter|volume=7|year=2004}} | ||
*{{citation|last=Salomon|first=Richard|author-link=Richard G. Salomon ( | *{{citation|last=Salomon|first=Richard|author-link=Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|title=The Buddhist Literature of Ancient Gandhāra: An Introduction with Selected Translations|year=2018|publisher=[[Wisdom Publications]]|isbn=978-1-61429-168-8}} | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||