Culture of India: Difference between revisions

'''Indian culture''' is the [[cultural heritage|heritage]] of [[social norms]], [[ethical value]]s, [[tradition]]al customs, [[belief systems]], [[political system]]s, [[Cultural artifact|artifacts]] and [[technology|technologies]] that originated in or are associated with the ethno-linguistically diverse [[Indian subcontinent]]. The term also applies beyond India to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to India by immigration, colonisation, or influence, particularly in [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. India's [[Languages of India|languages]], [[Religion in India|religions]], [[Dance in India|dance]], [[Music of India|music]], [[Architecture of India|architecture]], [[Indian cuisine|food]] and customs differ from place to place within the country.

Indian culture, often labelled as a combination of several cultures, has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old, beginning with the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and other early cultural areas.<ref name="John Keay 2011">John Keay (2012), ''India: A History'', 2nd Ed – Revised and Updated, Grove Press / Harper Collins, {{ISBN|978-0-8021-4558-1}}, see Introduction and Chapters 3 through 11</ref><ref name="Mohammada, Malika 2007">Mohammada, Malika (2007), ''The foundations of the composite culture in India'', Aakar Books, {{ISBN|81-89833-18-9}}</ref> Many elements of Indian culture, such as [[Indian religions]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]], [[Indian cuisine|cuisine]], [[Languages of India|languages]], [[Dance in India|dance]], [[Music of India|music]] and [[Cinema of India|movies]] have had a profound impact across the [[Indosphere]], [[Greater India]] and the world. Specifically Southeast Asian and Himalayan influence on early India, had lasting impacts on the formation of Hinduism and Indian mythology. Hinduism itself formed from various distinct folk religions, which merged during the [[Vedic period]] and following periods.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|date=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|language=en}}</ref> Especially [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic groups]], such as early [[Munda languages|Munda]] and [[Mon Khmer]], but also [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]] and other [[Tibeto-Burmese]] groups, left noteworthy influence on local Indian peoples and culture. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early India, which can also be observed by Austroasiatic loanwords within Indo-Aryan languages and [[rice cultivation]], which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Asian Educational Services">{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|date=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|language=en|quote=It has been further proved that not only linguistic but also certain cultural and political facts of ancient India, can be explained by Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) elements.}}</ref><ref name="science.org">{{Cite web|title=How rice farming may have spread across the ancient world|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/how-rice-farming-may-have-spread-across-ancient-world|access-date=2021-10-26|website=www.science.org|language=en}}</ref> The [[British Raj]] further influenced Indian culture, such as through the widespread introduction of the [[English language]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-08-15 |title=British legacy alive and kicking in India |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-independence-legacy-idUSSP29531720070815 |access-date=2022-04-09}}</ref> and a local [[Indian English|dialect]] developed..

{{main|Indosphere|Greater India|Hinduism in Southeast Asia}}

India has 28 [[indian states|states]] and 8 [[Union territory|union territories]] with different culture and it is the second most populated country in the world.<ref name="asaw">{{cite book |last1=Kenoyer |first1=Jonathan Mark |author-link1=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer |last2=Heuston |first2=Kimberley |date=May 2005 |title=The Ancient South Asian World |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Ancient/Other/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE3NDIyOQ== |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517422-9 |oclc=56413341 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120093649/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Ancient/Other/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE3NDIyOQ%3D%3D |archive-date=20 November 2012  }}</ref> The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the [[Indian subcontinent]] and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years old.<ref name="John Keay 2011"/><ref name="Mohammada, Malika 2007"/> Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by [[Dharma|Dharmic]] religions.<ref name="Finding Lost">Nikki Stafford [https://archive.org/details/findinglostunoff0000staf/page/174 <!-- quote="dharmic religions" origin india. --> Finding Lost], ECW Press, 2006 {{ISBN|1-55022-743-2}} p. 174</ref> Influence from East/Southeast Asian cultures onto ancient India and early Hinduism, specifically [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic groups]], such as early [[Munda languages|Munda]] and [[Mon Khmer]], but also [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]] and other [[Tibeto-Burmese]] groups, had noteworthy impact on local Indian peoples and cultures. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early India, which can also be observed by Austroasiatic loanwords within Indo-Aryan languages and [[rice cultivation]], which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Asian Educational Services"/><ref name="science.org"/> They have been credited with shaping much of Indian [[philosophy]], [[literature]], [[architecture]], [[art]] and [[music]].<ref name="Om Prakash">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzpYb5UOeiwC|page=3 |chapter=1 |title=Cultural History of India |publisher=New Age International Limited Publications |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-224-1587-2}}</ref> [[Greater India]] was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the [[Indian subcontinent]]. This particularly concerns the spread of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[architecture]], [[Public administration|administration]] and [[writing system]] from India to other parts of [[Asia]] through the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Silk Road]] by the travelers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the [[Common Era]].<ref>''Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor'', by Keat Gin Ooi p.642</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia'' by Daigorō Chihara p.226</ref> To the west, [[Greater India]] overlaps with [[Greater Persia]] in the [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Pamir Mountains]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-1500/justice-punishment-and-medieval-muslim-imagination?format=HB |title=Justice, Punishment and the Medieval Muslim Imagination |series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization |last=Lange |first=Christian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88782-3 |date=10 July 2008 }} Lange: "Greater Persia (including Khwārazm, Transoxania, and Afghanistan)."</ref> Over the centuries, there has been a significant fusion of cultures between [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Hinduism|Hindus]], [[Islam|Muslim]]s, [[Jainism|Jains]], [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] and various tribal populations in India.<ref name="Dunn">{{cite book |last = E. Dunn |first = Ross |title = The adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveller of the fourteenth century |publisher = University of California Press, 1986 |isbn = 978-0-520-05771-5 |year = 1986 |url = https://archive.org/details/adventuresofibnb00ross_0 }}</ref><ref name="Tharoor">{{cite book |last = Tharoor |first = Shashi |title = India: From Midnight to the Millennium and Beyond |publisher=Arcade Publishing, 2006 |isbn = 978-1-55970-803-6 |year = 2006 }}</ref>

India is the birthplace of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism and Hinduism|Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]], and [[Religion in India|other religions]].  They are collectively known as Indian religions.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/findinglostunoff0000staf |url-access=registration |id=. |first=Nikki |last=Stafford |publisher=ECW Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55490-276-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/findinglostunoff0000staf/page/174 174] |title=Finding Lost: The Unofficial Guide |access-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> Indian religions are a major form of world religions along with [[Abrahamic]] ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether,<ref name="googleil">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XC9bwMMPcwC&q=hinduism%20one%20billion&pg=PA359 |page=359 |chapter=45 |title=What Is Hinduism?Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith |publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-934145-00-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrn.org.np/speeches/rmshakya.html |title=Non Resident Nepali – Speeches |publisher=Nrn.org.np |access-date=1 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225084929/http://www.nrn.org.np/speeches/rmshakya.html |archive-date=25 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/vietnamese/forum/story/2008/03/080323_tibet_analysis.shtml |title=BBCVietnamese.com |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |access-date=1 August 2010}}</ref> and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers.<ref name="googleil"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/worldrel.htm |title=Religions of the world: numbers of adherents; growth rates |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |access-date=1 August 2010}}</ref> Followers of Indian religions – Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists make up around 80–82% population of India.

[[India]] is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life of many of its people. Although India is a secular [[Hinduism|Hindu-majority]] country, it has a [[Islam in India|large Muslim]] population. Except for [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Nagaland]], [[Mizoram]] and [[Lakshadweep]], Hindus form the predominant population in all 27 states and 9 union territories. Muslims are present throughout India, with large populations in [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Kerala]], [[Telangana]], [[Andhra Muslims|Andhra Pradesh]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Assam]]; while only [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Lakshadweep]] have majority Muslim populations. [[Christians]] are other significant minorities of India.

 

Because of the diversity of religious groups in India, there has been a history of turmoil and violence between them. India has been a theatre for violent religious clashes between members of different religions such as [[Hindus]], [[Christians]], [[Muslims]], and [[Sikhs]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Migheli|first=Matteo|date=February 2016|title=Minority Religious Groups and Life Satisfaction in India|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8462.12143|journal=Australian Economic Review|volume=49|issue=2|pages=117–135|doi=10.1111/1467-8462.12143|s2cid=156206888|issn=0004-9018}}</ref> Several groups have founded various national-religious political parties, and in spite of government policies minority religious groups are being subjected to prejudice from more dominant groups in order to maintain and control resources in particular regions of India.<ref name=":0" />

[[Atheism]] and [[agnosticism]] have a long history in India and flourished within [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇa movement]]. The ''[[Cārvāka]]'' school originated in India around the 6th century BCE.<ref>Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Cārvāka/Lokāyata, Anthem Press, {{ISBN|978-0857284334}}, pages 26–29</ref><ref>Johannes Quack (2014), ''Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199812615}}, page 50 with footnote 3</ref> It is one of the earliest form of [[Materialism|materialistic]] and [[Atheism|atheistic]] movement in ancient India.<ref>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 67;<br />Roy W Perrett (1984), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398916 The problem of induction in Indian philosophy], Philosophy East and West, 34(2): 161–174;<br />{{harv|Bhattacharya|2011|pp=21–32}};<br />{{harv|Radhakrishnan|1957|pp=187, 227–234}};<br />Robert Flint, {{Google books|7es0AQAAIAAJ|Anti-theistic theories|page=463}}, Appendix Note VII – Hindu Materialism: The Charvaka System; William Blackwood, London;</ref><ref name=vvraman>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x | volume=47 | title=Hinduism and science: some reflections | year=2012 | journal=Zygon | pages=549–574 | last1 = Raman | first1 = Varadaraja V.| issue=3 }} Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the [[Samkhya]], there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school.",</ref> [[Sramana]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Ājīvika]] and some schools of [[Hinduism]] consider atheism to be valid and reject the concept of [[Creator deity#Buddhism|creator deity]], [[Vedas|ritualism]] and [[superstitions]].<ref name="wayoflife">{{Cite book | last = Chakravarti| first = Sitansu| title = Hinduism, a way of life| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.| year = 1991| page = 71| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71| isbn = 978-81-208-0899-7| access-date=9 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Joshi">{{cite journal |last=Joshi |first=L.R. |year=1966 |title= A New Interpretation of Indian Atheism |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=16 |issue=3/4 |pages=189–206|doi= 10.2307/1397540 |jstor=1397540}}</ref><ref name=moor>{{cite book|first1= Sarvepalli|last1= Radhakrishnan|first2= Charles A.|last2= Moore|title= A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy|publisher= Princeton University Press|year= 1957|edition= Twelfth Princeton Paperback printing 1989|pages= [https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh/page/227 227–249]|isbn= 978-0-691-01958-1|url= https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh/page/227}}</ref> India has produced some notable [[Irreligion in India|atheist politicians]] and [[Irreligion in India|social reformers]].<ref name="secularism">{{cite book|first=Phil|last=Zuckerman|title=Atheism and Secularity|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1hbaAHsAlUC&pg=RA1-PA139|access-date=7 September 2013|date=21 December 2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35182-2|chapter=Chapeter 7: Atheism and Secularity in India}}</ref> According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were convinced [[atheist]]s, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.<ref name=gallup2012>{{cite web|title=Global Index Of Religion And Atheism |url=http://redcresearch.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/RED-C-press-release-Religion-and-Atheism-25-7-12.pdf |publisher=WIN-Gallup |access-date=3 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016062403/http://redcresearch.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/RED-C-press-release-Religion-and-Atheism-25-7-12.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2012  }}</ref><ref name="World Religions p. 259">''Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', p. 259</ref>

The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalized chiefly between 1000 BCE to the early centuries of the [[Common Era]]. According to philosopher [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], the earliest of these, which date back to the composition of the [[Upanishads]] in the [[Vedic period#Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)|later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE)]], constitute "the earliest philosophical compositions of the world."<ref>p 22, ''The Principal Upanisads'', Harper Collins, 1994</ref> Competition and integration between the various schools were intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BCE and 200 CE. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Śaiva, and [[Advaita Vedanta]] survived, but others, like [[Samkhya]] and [[Ājīvika]], did not; they were either assimilated or became extinct. Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to as late as the 20th century. Authors who gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophies include [[Shrimad Rajchandra]], [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[Ram Mohan Roy]], and [[Swami Dayananda Saraswati]].{{Sfn|Clarke|2006|p=209}}

For generations, India has had a prevailing tradition of the [[joint family system]]. It is when extended members of a family – parents, children, the children's spouses, and their offspring, etc. – live together. Usually, the oldest male member is the head of the joint Indian family system. He mostly makes all important decisions and rules, and other family members are likely to abide by them. With the current economy, lifestyle, and cost of living in most of the metro cities are high, the population is leaving behind the joint family model and adapting to the nuclear family model. Earlier living in a joint family was with the purpose of creating love and concern for the family members. However, now it's a challenge to give time to each other as most of them are out for survival needs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Families |url=http://www.factsaboutindia.org/indian-families.html |publisher=Facts About India |access-date=11 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110730125635/http://www.factsaboutindia.org/indian-families.html |archive-date=30 July 2011 }}</ref> Rise in the trends of nuclear family settings has led to a change in the traditional family headship structure and older males are no longer the mandated heads of the family owing to the fact that they mostly live alone during old age and are far more vulnerable than before.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Srivastava |first=Shobhit |last2=Chauhan |first2=Shekhar |last3=Patel |first3=Ratna |last4=Kumar |first4=Pradeep |last5=Purkayastha |first5=Naina |last6=Singh |first6=S. K. |date=March 2022 |title=Does Change in Family Structure Affect the Household Headship among Older Adults in India? A Gendered Perspective |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12126-020-09401-x |journal=Ageing International |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1007/s12126-020-09401-x |issn=0163-5158}}</ref>

File: Shy smile of a bride in a Hindu wedding.jpg|Shy smile of a bride in a Hindu Indian wedding

Arranged marriages have long been the norm in Indian society. Even today, the majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family members. In the past, the age of marriage was young.<ref>{{cite web|last=Heitzman|first=James|title=India: A Country Study.|url=http://countrystudies.us/india/|publisher=US Library of Congress|access-date=26 December 2012}}</ref> The average age of marriage for women in India has increased to 21 years, according to the 2011 Census of India.<ref>[http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/women_men_2012_31oct12.pdf Women and men in India 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012024158/http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/women_men_2012_31oct12.pdf |date=12 October 2013 }} CSO/Census of India 2011, Government of India, pp xxi</ref> In 2009, about 7% of women got married before the age of 18.<ref>K. Sinha [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nearly-50-fall-in-brides-married-below-18/articleshow/11829410.cms Nearly 50% fall in brides married below 18] The Times of India (10 February 2012)</ref>

In most marriages, the bride's family provides a [[dowry]] to the bridegroom. Traditionally, the dowry was considered a woman's share of the family wealth, since a daughter had no legal claim on her natal family's real estate. It also typically included portable valuables such as jewelry and household goods that a bride could control throughout her life.<ref>{{cite web|last=Heitzman|first=James|title=India: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/india/86.htm|publisher=US Library of Congress|access-date=26 December 2012}}</ref> Historically, in most families the inheritance of family estates passed down the male line. Since 1956, Indian laws treat males and females as equal in matters of inheritance without a legal will.<ref>{{cite news|title=Landmark step to gender equality|first=Bina|last=Agarwal|date=25 September 2005|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/09/25/stories/2005092500050100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001005528/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/09/25/stories/2005092500050100.htm|url-status=dead|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=1 October 2007}}</ref> Indians are increasingly using a legal will for inheritance and property succession, with about 20 percent using a legal will by 2004.<ref>{{cite news|title=Avoid disputes, write a will|newspaper=The Times of India|date=4 August 2004|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Avoid-disputes-write-a-Will/articleshow/802650.cms}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Opinion is divided over what the phenomenon means: for traditionalists, the rising numbers portend the breakdown of society while, for some modernists, they speak of healthy new empowerment for women.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090204010909/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/1499679/Divorce-soars-in-India%27s-middle-class.html Divorce soars in India's middle class]</ref>}}

Recent studies suggest that Indian culture is trending away from traditional arranged marriages. [[Manjistha Banerji|Banerjee]] et al. surveyed 41,554 households across 33 [[States and territories of India|states and union territories in India]] in 2005. They find that the marriage trends in India are similar to trends observed over the last 40 years in China, Japan, and other nations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Is Education Associated with a Transition towards Autonomy in Partner Choice? A Case Study of India |first1=Manjistha |last1=Banerji |first2=Steven |last2=Martin |first3=Sonalde |last3=Desai |year=2008 |publisher=University of Maryland & NCAER |url=http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_papers/PartnerChoice.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214920/http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_papers/PartnerChoice.pdf |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref> The study found that fewer marriages are purely arranged without consent and that the majority of surveyed Indian marriages are arranged with consent. The percentage of self-arranged marriages (called love marriages in India) was also increasing, particularly in the urban parts of India.<ref>David Pilling (6 June 2014) [http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/beba2500-eb2c-11e3-bab6-00144feabdc0.html#axzz34JegEXnD Review – ‘India in Love’, by Ira Trivedi; ‘Leftover Women’, by Leta Hong] The Financial Times</ref>

[[File: Hindu marriage ceremony offering.jpg|thumb|A Hindu wedding ritual in progress. The bride and the groom are seated together, receiving instructions from the priest. The sacred square fire container (''[[yajna]] kund'') is behind the priest.]]

While there are many festival-related rituals in Hinduism, ''vivaha'' (wedding) is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life.<ref name="rjb1969">Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0396-1}}, pages&nbsp;153–233</ref><ref name="jgl2001">The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001), {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, Page 427</ref> Typical Hindu families spend significant effort and financial resources to prepare and celebrate weddings. The rituals and processes of a Hindu wedding vary depending on the region of India, local adaptations, resources of the family and preferences of the bride and the groom. Nevertheless, there are a few [[Hindu wedding#Key rituals|key rituals]] common in [[Hindu wedding]]s – ''[[Kanyadan|Kanyadaan]]'', ''Panigrahana'', and ''[[Saptapadi]]''; these are respectively, gifting away of daughter by the father, voluntarily holding hand near the fire to signify impending union, and taking seven circles before firing with each circle including a set of mutual vows. [[Mangala sutra|Mangalsutra]] necklace of bond that a Hindu groom ties with three knots around the bride's neck in a marriage ceremony. The practice is an integral part of a marriage ceremony as prescribed in [[Manusmriti]], the traditional law governing Hindu marriage. After the seventh circle and vows of ''[[Hindu wedding#Saptapadi – short form|Saptapadi]]'', the couple is legally husband and wife.<ref name="jgl2001" /><ref>History of Dharmasastra, Vaman Kane (1962)</ref><ref name="prabhu2011">P.H. Prabhu (2011), ''Hindu Social Organization'', {{ISBN|978-81-7154-206-2}}, see pages&nbsp;164–165</ref> Sikhs get married through a ceremony called [[Anand Karaj]]. The couple walks around the holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib four times. Indian Muslims celebrate a traditional [[Islamic marital practices#Indian subcontinent|Islamic wedding]] following customs similar to those practiced in the [[Middle East]]. The rituals include ''Nikah'', payment of financial dower called ''Mahr'' by the groom to the bride, signing of a marriage contract, and a reception.<ref name="Zawaj">[http://www.zawaj.com/weddingways/three_days.html Three Days of a Traditional Indian Muslim Wedding], zawaj.com</ref> Indian [[Wedding|Christian weddings]] follow customs similar to those practiced in the Christian countries in the West in states like Goa but have more Indian customs in other states.

<gallery widths="180" heights="200">

File:Deepawali-festival.jpg|Homes, buildings and temples are decorated with festive lights, [[Diya (lamp)|diya]], for [[Diwali]], the festival of lights.<ref>[http://www.ibtimes.com/diwali-2013-hindu-festival-lights-celebrated-all-over-world-photos-1450014 Diwali 2013: Hindu Festival Of Lights Celebrated All Over The World] Nadine DeNinno, International Business Times (November 02 2013)</ref>

File:Bihu dance Assam. jpg.jpg|The [[Bihu]] festival is an [[Assamese people|Assamese]] tradition; it coincides with [[Vaisakhi]] in north India, which is observed by Sikhs and Hindus.

File:Lalbaug cha raja.jpg|Procession  of the famous “Lalbaug cha Raja” [[Ganesha]] idol during the [[Ganesh Chaturthi]] festival in [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]

File:Kerala boatrace.jpg|[[Vallamkali]] snakeboat races are a part of [[Onam]] festival tradition.

File:Angami 1863b.jpg|The [[Hornbill Festival]], [[Kohima]], Nagaland. The festival involves colourful performances, crafts, sports, food fairs, games and ceremonies.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nagaland's Hornbill Festival|url=http://www.uniindia.com/~/nagaland-hornbill-festival-held-international-strongest-and-fittest-men/States/news/1429681.html|access-date=9 December 2018}}</ref>

Regional and community fairs are also a common festivals in India. For example, [[Pushkar Fair]] of Rajasthan is one of the world's largest markets of cattle and livestock.

| footer = '''Left''': Hindu god Kubera on the left with a person in Namaste pose (13th century [[Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura]], [[Karnataka, India]]). Namaste or [[Añjali Mudrā]] are common in historic Hindu temple reliefs.<br />'''Right''': Entrance pillar relief ([[Thrichittatt Maha Vishnu Temple]], [[Kerala, India]])

Greetings include ''Namaste (Hindi,Sanskrit and Kannada)'', ''Nômôskar'' in [[Odia language|Odia]], ''Khulumkha'' ([[Kokborok language|Tripuri]]), ''[[Namaskar]] ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]),'' ''Namaskara ''(Kannada and Sanskrit), ''Namaskaram'' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]), ''Vanakkam'' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]), ''Nômôshkar'' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]]), ''Nomoskar'' ([[Assamese language|Assamese]]), ''Aadab'' ([[Urdu]]), and ''Sat Shri Akal'' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]). All these are commonly spoken greetings or salutations when people meet and are forms of farewell when they depart. Namaskar is considered slightly more formal than Namaste but both express deep respect. Namaskar is commonly used in India and [[Nepal]] by [[Hindus]], Jains and Buddhists, and many continue to use this outside the [[Indian subcontinent]]. In Indian and Nepali culture, the word is spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication. However, the same hands folded gesture may be made wordlessly or said without the folded hand gesture. The word is derived from ''[[Sanskrit]]'' (''Namah''): to [[bowing (social)|bow]], reverential [[salutation (greeting)|salutation]], and [[respect]], and (te): "to you". Taken literally, it means "I bow to you".<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=namaste&searchmode=none Namaste] Douglas Harper, Etymology Dictionary</ref> In Hinduism it means "I bow to the divine in you."<ref>Ying, Y. W., Coombs, M., & Lee, P. A. (1999), the Family intergenerational relationship of Asian American adolescents, Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5(4), pp 350–363</ref><ref>Lawrence, J. D. (2007), The Boundaries of Faith: A Journey in India, Homily Service, 41(2), pp 1–3</ref> In most Indian families, younger men and women are taught to seek the blessing of their elders by reverentially bowing to their elders. This custom is known as [[Pranāma]].

In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), [[mother goddess]] and bringer of good fortune and wealth.<ref>{{cite book|title=South Asian folklore |first1=Peter J. |last1=Claus |first2=Sarah |last2=Diamond |author3=Margaret Ann Mills |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year= 2003|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5}}</ref> For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship. This is why beef remains a taboo food in mainstream Hindu and Jain society.<ref>Peter H. Marshall. ''[[Nature's Web: Rethinking Our Place on Earth]]''. M.E. Sharpe, 1996 {{ISBN|1-56324-864-6}} p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p5SRPcoelt4C&pg=PA26 26]</ref>

The Article 48 of the present Indian Constitution says that the state shall endeavor to prohibit slaughtering and smuggling of cows.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=3 August 2020 |archive-date=22 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422232838/https://www.india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> As of January 2012, cow remains a divisive and controversial topic in India. Several states of India have passed laws to protect cows, while many states have no restrictions on the production and consumption of beef. Some groups oppose the butchering of cows, while other secular groups argue that what kind of meat one eats ought to be a matter of personal choice in a democracy. [[Madhya Pradesh]] enacted a law in January 2012, namely the Gau-Vansh Vadh Pratishedh (Sanshodhan) Act, which makes cow slaughter a serious offence.

Gujarat, a western state of India, has the Animal Preservation Act, enacted in October 2011, that prohibits the killing of cows along with buying, selling and transport of beef. In contrast, Assam and Andhra Pradesh allow butchering of cattle with a fit-for-slaughter certificate. In the states of West Bengal and Kerala, consumption of beef is not deemed an offence. Contrary to stereotypes, a sizeable number of Hindus eat beef, and many argue that their scriptures, such as Vedic and Upanishadic texts do not prohibit its consumption. In southern Indian state Kerala, for instance, beef accounts for nearly half of all meat consumed by all communities, including Hindus. Sociologists theorise that the widespread consumption of cow meat in India is because it is a far cheaper source of animal protein for the poor than mutton or chicken, which retail at double the price. For these reasons, India's beef consumption post-independence in 1947 has witnessed a much faster growth than any other kind of meat; currently, India is one of the five largest producers and consumers of cattle livestock meat in the world. A beef ban has been made in Maharashtra and other states as of 2015. While states such as Madhya Pradesh are passing local laws to prevent cruelty to cows, other Indians are arguing "If the real objective is to prevent cruelty to animals, then why single out the cows when hundreds of other animals are maltreated?"<ref>{{cite web|title=Indians split over cow ban|publisher=Asia Times| date=6 January 2012| url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/NA06Df05.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105213257/http://atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/NA06Df05.html| url-status=unfit| archive-date=5 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Cow slaughter ban: Using sensitivities to politically polarising ends works against democracy|date=10 January 2012|newspaper=The Economic Times|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/editorial/cow-slaughter-ban-using-sensitivities-to-politically-polarising-ends-works-against-democracy/articleshow/11430557.cms}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Livestock and poultry: world markets and trade|date=October 2011|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf|access-date=10 January 2012|archive-date=3 October 2012|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6B8yrhk6H?url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

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[[File:New Punjab Club food spread.jpg|thumb|A typical varieties of North Indian dishes in a restaurant]]

 

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File:DWIJEN (43).jpg|An [[Assamese people|Assamese]] girl wearing [[mekhela sador]], 2010 and [[Bindi (decoration)|bindi]] on the centre of her forehead.

File:Subhas Chandra Bose in traditional formal clothing.jpg|Indian nationalist [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] wearing India's traditional costume [[Dhoti|dhuti]] and [[Kurta|panjabi]].

Another major Classical Dravidian language, [[Kannada]] is attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary [[Old Kannada literature|Old Kannada]] flourished in the 9th- to 10th-century [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty]]. Pre-old Kannada (or ''Purava Hazhe-Gannada'') was the language of [[Banavasi]] in the early Common Era, the [[Satavahana]] and [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadamba]] periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years.<ref>Kamath (2001), p. 5–6</ref><ref>(Wilks in Rice, B.L. (1897), p490)</ref><ref name="pai">Pai and Narasimhachar in Bhat (1993), p103</ref><ref name="Tamil_epigraphy1">{{cite web |title=Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century AD |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674012271 |first=Iravatham|last=Mahadevan|work=Harvard University Press |access-date= 4 December 2020}}</ref> The [[Ashoka rock edict]] found at [[Brahmagiri archaeological site|Brahmagiri]] (dated 230 BCE) has been suggested to contain a word in identifiable Kannada.<ref name="isila">The word ''Isila'' found in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to ''shoot an arrow'' is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language in the 3rd century BCE (Dr. D.L. Narasimhachar in Kamath 2001, p5)</ref> [[Odia language|Odia]] is India's 6th classical language in addition to Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/odia-gets-classical-language-status/article5709028.ece Odia gets classical language status] The Hindu</ref> It is also one of the 22 official languages in the 8th schedule of Indian constitution. Odia's importance to Indian culture, from ancient times, is evidenced by its presence in Ashoka's Rock Edict X, dated to be from 2nd century BC.<ref>Schwarzschild (1972), Some Unusual Sound-Changes in Prākrit, Journal of the American Oriental Society, pp 100–104</ref><ref>Dash (2012). Soma-vamsi yayati in tradition and medieval Oriya literature, Studies in History, 28(2), pp 151–177</ref>

In addition to Indo-European and Dravidian languages, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages are in use in India.<ref name="nature.com">{{cite journal|title=Reconstructing Indian population history|first1=David|last1=Reich|journal=Nature|volume=461|pages=489–494|date=24 September 2009| doi=10.1038/nature08365|pmid=19779445|issue=7263|pmc=2842210|display-authors=1|last2=Thangaraj|first2=Kumarasamy|last3=Patterson|first3=Nick|last4=Price|first4=Alkes L.|last5=Singh|first5=Lalji|bibcode=2009Natur.461..489R}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Northeast Indian Passageway: A Barrier or Corridor for Human Migrations?|author=Cordaux|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=21|year=2008|pages=1525–1533|doi=10.1093/molbev/msh151|display-authors=1|issue= 8|author2=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>|pmid=15128876|doi-access=free}}</ref> The 2011 Linguistic Survey of India states that India has over 780 languages and 66 different scripts, with its state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] with 90 languages.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/language-survey-reveals-diversity/article4938865.ece Language survey reveals diversity], The Hindu, Shiv Sahay Singh (22 July 2013)</ref>

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[[File:Bhangra-dance.jpg|alt=|thumb|right|250px|[[Bhangra (dance)|Bhangra]] dancers in [[Punjab, India]]]]

 

 

===Drama ===

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File:Bhavai Artist.jpg|thumb|[[Bhavai]] Artist, [[Gujarat]]

File:Akrura1.jpg|[[Yakshagana]] An Ancient dance drama of [[Tulunadu]].

File: Bharat-s-tiwari-photography-IMG 6635 June 11, 2017.jpg|thumb|[[Koodiyattam]] performer ''[[Kapila Venu]]''

File:A still from play 'Nati Binodoni'.jpg|A still from play 'Nati Binodoni', Bengali Jatra Theatre. [[Jatra (theatre)|Jatra]] is a popular folk-theatre form of [[Bengali theatre|Bengali]] and Odia Theatre.

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File: Elephanta Caves (27804449706) (cropped).jpg|The Colossal [[trimurti]] at the [[Elephanta Caves]]

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File:Cricket being played on a Summer Morning in India.jpg|[[Cricket]] was introduced to India by the British. Now it is the country's most popular sport.

[[association football|Football]] is popular in the Indian state of Kerala also considered as home of football in India.The city of [[Kolkata]] is the home to the largest stadium in [[India]], and the second [[List of stadiums by capacity|largest stadium in the world]] by capacity, [[Salt Lake Stadium]].National clubs such as [[Mohun Bagan A.C.]], [[Kingfisher East Bengal F.C.]], [[Prayag United S.C.]], and the [[Mohammedan Sporting Club (Kolkata)|Mohammedan Sporting Club]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mohun Bagan vs East Bengal: India's all-consuming rivalry |url=https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/stories/classicderby/news/newsid=1414458.html |publisher=[[FIFA]] |access-date=7 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122032920/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/stories/classicderby/news/newsid%3D1414458.html |archive-date=22 November 2011  }}</ref>

Among eastern states, ''[[Paika akhada]]'' is a martial art found in [[Odisha]]. ''Paika akhada'', or ''paika akhara'', roughly translates as "warrior gymnasium" or "warrior school".<ref name="iakoweb">{{cite web|title=Paika Akhada|url=http://www.iakoweb.com/pakhada.html|publisher=Indian Association of Kickboxing Organisations|access-date=9 February 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712234507/http://www.iakoweb.com/pakhada.html|archive-date=12 July 2011}}</ref> In ancient times, these were training schools of the peasant militia. Today's [[Paika akhada]] teach physical exercises and martial arts in addition to the Paika dance, performance art with rhythmic movements and weapons being hit in time to the drum. It incorporates acrobatic manoeuvres and use of the [[khanda (sword)|khanda (straight sword)]], [[pata (sword)|patta (guantlet-sword)]], sticks, and other weapons.

''[[Bollywood]]'' is the informal name given to the popular [[Mumbai]]-based [[film|film industry]] in India. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs (in [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali Cinema]], [[Oriya film industry]], Assamese, Kannada, [[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam]], Marathi, [[Tamil language|Tamil]], Punjabi and [[Telugu language|Telugu]]) constitute the broader [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]], whose output is considered to be the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced and number of tickets sold.

India has produced many cinema-makers like [[S.S.Rajamouli]], [[Satyajit Ray]], [[Mrinal Sen]], [[J. C. Daniel]], [[K. Viswanath]], [[Ram Gopal Varma]], [[Bapu (director)|Bapu]], [[Ritwik Ghatak]], [[Guru Dutt]], [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]], [[Shaji N. Karun]], [[Girish Kasaravalli]], [[Shekhar Kapoor]], [[Hrishikesh Mukherjee]], [[Nagraj Manjule]], [[Shyam Benegal]], [[Shankar Nag]], [[Girish Karnad]], [[G. V. Iyer]], [[Mani Ratnam]], and [[K. Balachander]] (see also: [[List of Indian film directors|Indian film directors]]). With the opening up of the economy in recent years and consequent exposure to world cinema, audience tastes have been changing. In addition, multiplexes have mushroomed in most cities, changing the revenue patterns.

[[File:Naga Girl.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An [[Ao Naga]] girl in her traditional attire in [[Nagaland]], [[Northeast India]].]]

[[File:SHAD SUK MYNSIEM.jpg|thumb|[[Khasi people|Khasi]] women in ''Shad suk Mynsiem'' festival, [[Meghalaya]]]]

India's diversity has inspired many writers to pen their perceptions of the country's culture. These writings paint a complex and often conflicting picture of the culture of India. India is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse countries in the world. The concept of "Indian culture" is a very complex and complicated matter. Indian citizens are divided into various ethnic, religious, caste, linguistic and regional groups, making the realities of "Indianness" extremely complicated. This is why the conception of Indian identity poses certain difficulties and presupposes a series of assumptions about what concisely the expression "Indian" means. However, despite this vast and heterogeneous composition, the creation of some sort of typical or shared Indian culture results from some inherent internal forces (such as a robust Constitution, universal adult franchise, flexible federal structure, secular educational policy, etc.) and from certain historical events (such as Indian Independence Movement, Partition, wars against Pakistan, etc.) [[Hindu Sanskriti Ankh]] is an ancient series of books originally from northern part of India highlighting the Bharatiya sanskriti, that is, the culture of India.

Tanisha Rathore from ''Thousand Miles Online Magazine'' wrote, "Our Prime Minister Narendra Modi (since his government 2014) has taken many initiatives for a better environment, like to throw the trash in dustbins. I don't understand how graduates, post-graduates and sometimes doctorates fail to understand this; Trash should be thrown in bins which a toddler easily understands. Is this the successive evolution of the human brain in its educational years?"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thousandmilessite.in/coexistence-with-nature/|title=Coexistence With Nature {{!}} Articles|date=25 February 2019|website=Thousand Miles|language=en-GB|access-date=3 March 2019}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[North Indian culture]]

* [[Customs and etiquette in Indian dining]]

* [[Lists of Indian people]]

* [[Atithi Devo Bhava]]

{{Refbegin|40em}}

*{{cite book|first=Natalia|last=Lidova|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 |title= Natyashastra }}

*{{cite book |first=Natalia |last=Lidova |title=Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TKarwqJJP0C |date=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1234-5 }}

* {{cite journal|last=Williams|first=Drid|title=In the Shadow of Hollywood Orientalism: Authentic East Indian Dancing|url=http://jashm.press.illinois.edu/12.3/12-3IntheShadow_Williams78-99.pdf|journal=Visual Anthropology|volume=17|issue=1|year=2004|pages=69–98|doi=10.1080/08949460490274013|s2cid=29065670|access-date=1 August 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121105/http://jashm.press.illinois.edu/12.3/12-3IntheShadow_Williams78-99.pdf|url-status=dead}}

* {{cite book |first=Tarla |last=Mehta |title=Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7naMj1UxIkC |year=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1057-0 }}

*{{cite book |author=Emmie Te Nijenhuis |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-03978-0 }}

*{{cite book |first=Kapila |last=Vatsyayan |title=Bharata, the Nāṭyaśāstra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKW1PAAACAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1220-6 }}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140304205437/http://www.indiaculture.nic.in/indiaculture/ Ministry of Culture], Government of India, Links to some cultural sites and available grants for understanding the cultural diversity and society of India