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Architecture of India: Difference between revisions
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| caption2 = Dravidian style in form of Tamil architecture of [[Meenakshi Temple]] | | caption2 = Dravidian style in form of Tamil architecture of [[Meenakshi Temple]] | ||
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{{Indian art}} | {{Indian art}} | ||
'''Indian architecture''' is rooted in its [[History of India|history]], [[Culture of India|culture]] and [[Indian religions|religion]]. Among a number of architectural styles and traditions, the best-known include the many varieties of [[Hindu temple architecture]], [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], especially [[Mughal architecture]], [[Rajput architecture]] and [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]]. Much early Indian architecture was in wood, which has not survived. Instead the earliest survivals are from the many sites with [[Indian rock-cut architecture]], most Buddhist but some Hindu and Jain. | |||
Hindu temple architecture is mainly divided into the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style]] of the south and the [[Nagara architecture|Nagara]] style of the north, with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, partly depending on the different climates. | Hindu temple architecture is mainly divided into the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style]] of the south and the [[Nagara architecture|Nagara]] style of the north, with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, partly depending on the different climates. [[Haveli]] is a general term for a large townhouse. | ||
The first major [[Islam]]ic kingdom in India was the [[Delhi Sultanate]], which led to the development of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the [[Mughal Empire]], when [[Mughal architecture]] evolved, is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the [[Taj Mahal]] being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the [[Architecture of Rajasthan|Rajput]] and [[Sikh architecture|Sikh]] styles as well. | The first major [[Islam]]ic kingdom in India was the [[Delhi Sultanate]], which led to the development of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the [[Mughal Empire]], when [[Mughal architecture]] evolved, is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the [[Taj Mahal]] being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the [[Architecture of Rajasthan|Rajput]] and [[Sikh architecture|Sikh]] styles as well. | ||
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Architectural decoration is extremely minimal, though there are "narrow pointed niches" inside some buildings. Most of the art found is in miniature forms like seals, and mainly in [[terracotta]], but there are very few larger sculptures of figures. In most sites fired mud-brick (not sun-baked as in [[Mesopotamia]]) is used exclusively as the building material, but a few such as [[Dholavira]] are in stone. Most houses have two storeys, and very uniform sizes and plans. The large cities declined relatively quickly, for unknown reasons, leaving a less sophisticated village culture behind.<ref>Rowland, 31–34, 33 quoted; Harle, 15–18</ref> | Architectural decoration is extremely minimal, though there are "narrow pointed niches" inside some buildings. Most of the art found is in miniature forms like seals, and mainly in [[terracotta]], but there are very few larger sculptures of figures. In most sites fired mud-brick (not sun-baked as in [[Mesopotamia]]) is used exclusively as the building material, but a few such as [[Dholavira]] are in stone. Most houses have two storeys, and very uniform sizes and plans. The large cities declined relatively quickly, for unknown reasons, leaving a less sophisticated village culture behind.<ref>Rowland, 31–34, 33 quoted; Harle, 15–18</ref> | ||
After collapse of mature harappan urban period, some cities still remained urban and inhabited. sites like [[Bet Dwarka]] in Gujarat, Kudwala(38.1 ha) in Cholistan and [[Daimabad]] (20 Ha) in Maharashtra are considered urban. Daimabad (2000–1000 BC) developed a fortification wall with bastions in its jorwe culture period (1400–1000 BC) and had public buildings such as an elliptical temple, an apsidal temple and shows evidence of planning in the layout of rectangular houses and streets or lanes and planned streets. The area had | After collapse of mature harappan urban period, some cities still remained urban and inhabited. sites like [[Bet Dwarka]] in Gujarat, Kudwala(38.1 ha) in Cholistan and [[Daimabad]] (20 Ha) in Maharashtra are considered urban. Daimabad (2000–1000 BC) developed a fortification wall with bastions in its jorwe culture period (1400–1000 BC) and had public buildings such as an elliptical temple, an apsidal temple and shows evidence of planning in the layout of rectangular houses and streets or lanes and planned streets. The area had risen to 50 hectares in with a population of 10,000 people. A 580 meter long protection wall dated 1500 BC was found at Bet Dwarka which was believed to be damaged and submerged following sea storm.<ref>U. Singh (2008), pp. 181, 223</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOJ8aT3xYPoC&q=daimabad+elliptical+temple&pg=PA94|title=The City and the Country in Early India: A Study of Malwa|last=Basant|first=P. K.|date=2012|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=9789380607153|language=en}}</ref> | ||
==600 BCE—250 CE== | ==600 BCE—250 CE== | ||
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Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which consistently used [[chaitya]] arches, no doubt in wood, for roofs and upper structures above more solid storeys are important features of the architecture during this period. The reliefs of [[Sanchi]], dated to the 1st centuries BCE-CE, show cities such as [[Kushinagar]] or [[Rajagriha]] as splendid walled cities, as in the [[:File:Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha.jpg|''Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha'']] or [[:File:War over the Buddha%27s Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.jpg|''War over the Buddha's relics'']]. These views of ancient Indian cities have been relied on for the understanding of ancient Indian urban architecture.<ref>Rowland, 60</ref> | Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which consistently used [[chaitya]] arches, no doubt in wood, for roofs and upper structures above more solid storeys are important features of the architecture during this period. The reliefs of [[Sanchi]], dated to the 1st centuries BCE-CE, show cities such as [[Kushinagar]] or [[Rajagriha]] as splendid walled cities, as in the [[:File:Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha.jpg|''Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha'']] or [[:File:War over the Buddha%27s Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.jpg|''War over the Buddha's relics'']]. These views of ancient Indian cities have been relied on for the understanding of ancient Indian urban architecture.<ref>Rowland, 60</ref> | ||
In the case of the Mauryan capital [[Pataliputra]] (near [[Patna]]), we have Greek accounts, and that of [[Faxian]]; [[Megasthenes]] (a visitor around 300 BCE) mentions 564 towers and 64 gates in the city walls. Modern excavations have uncovered a "massive palisade of teak beams held together with iron [[dowel]]s".<ref>Rowland, 60–63 60 quoted | In the case of the Mauryan capital [[Pataliputra]] (near [[Patna]]), we have Greek accounts, and that of [[Faxian]]; [[Megasthenes]] (a visitor around 300 BCE) mentions 564 towers and 64 gates in the city walls. Modern excavations have uncovered a "massive palisade of teak beams held together with iron [[dowel]]s".<ref>Rowland, 60–63 60 quoted</ref> A huge ''[[apadana]]''-like hall with eighty sandstone columns shows clear influence from contemporary [[Achaemenid]] Persia.<ref>Rowland, 63–65</ref> The single massive sandstone [[Pataliputra capital]] shows clear [[Hellenistic]] features, reaching India via Persia.<ref>Rowland, 72; Harle 22–24</ref> The famous [[Ashoka column]]s show great sophistication, and a variety of influences in their details. In both these cases a now-vanished Indian predecessor tradition in wood is likely.<ref>Rowland, 65–72; Harle 24</ref> | ||
{{multiple image | {{multiple image | ||
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Such a tradition is extremely clear in the case of the earliest-known examples of [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut architecture]], the state-sponsored [[Barabar caves]] in [[Bihar]], personally dedicated by [[Ashoka]] circa 250 BCE. The entrance of the [[Lomas Rishi Cave]] there has a sculpted doorway that clearly copies a wooden style in stone, which is a recurrent feature of rock-cut caves for some time. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency, the extremely hard [[granite]] rock being cut in geometrical fashion and given the [[Mauryan polish]], also found on sculpture.<ref>Harle, 24; Rowland, 64–65</ref><ref name="BA97">Buddhist Architecture, Le Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, pp. 97–99</ref> Later rock-cut [[vihara]]s, occupied by monastic communities, survive, mostly in Western India, and in [[Bengal]] the floor-plans of brick-built equivalents survive. The elaborately decorated facades and "chaitya halls" of many rock-cut sites are believed to reflect vanished free-standing buildings elsewhere. | Such a tradition is extremely clear in the case of the earliest-known examples of [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut architecture]], the state-sponsored [[Barabar caves]] in [[Bihar]], personally dedicated by [[Ashoka]] circa 250 BCE. The entrance of the [[Lomas Rishi Cave]] there has a sculpted doorway that clearly copies a wooden style in stone, which is a recurrent feature of rock-cut caves for some time. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency, the extremely hard [[granite]] rock being cut in geometrical fashion and given the [[Mauryan polish]], also found on sculpture.<ref>Harle, 24; Rowland, 64–65</ref><ref name="BA97">Buddhist Architecture, Le Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, pp. 97–99</ref> Later rock-cut [[vihara]]s, occupied by monastic communities, survive, mostly in Western India, and in [[Bengal]] the floor-plans of brick-built equivalents survive. The elaborately decorated facades and "chaitya halls" of many rock-cut sites are believed to reflect vanished free-standing buildings elsewhere. | ||
The Buddhist [[stupa]], a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Pagoda''.</ref> The stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it became prominent as a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> [[Guard rail]]s—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.<ref name=Chandra>Chandra (2008)</ref> Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber.<ref name=Chandra/> The Indian gateway arches, the ''[[torana]]'', reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''torii''</ref> Some scholars hold that ''[[torii]]'' derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of [[Sanchi]] (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).<ref name=Jaanus> | The Buddhist [[stupa]], a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Pagoda''.</ref> The stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it became prominent as a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> [[Guard rail]]s—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.<ref name=Chandra>Chandra (2008)</ref> Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber.<ref name=Chandra/> The Indian gateway arches, the ''[[torana]]'', reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''torii''</ref> Some scholars hold that ''[[torii]]'' derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of [[Sanchi]] (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).<ref name=Jaanus>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/|title=:: JAANUS :: Terminology of Japanese Architecture & Art History|website=Aisf.or.jp|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref> | ||
Rock-cut [[stepwell]]s in India date from 200 to 400 CE.<ref name=L&B/> Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at [[Bhinmal]] (850–950 CE) took place.<ref name=L&B>Livingston & Beach, xxiii</ref> Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as [[Ajanta caves|Ajanta]] and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]].<ref name=Chandra/> | Rock-cut [[stepwell]]s in India date from 200 to 400 CE.<ref name=L&B/> Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at [[Bhinmal]] (850–950 CE) took place.<ref name=L&B>Livingston & Beach, xxiii</ref> Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as [[Ajanta caves|Ajanta]] and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]].<ref name=Chandra/> | ||
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File:Tigowa 1999 Kankali-Devi-Tempel.jpg|The Hindu [[Tigawa]] Temple, early 5th century. | File:Tigowa 1999 Kankali-Devi-Tempel.jpg|The Hindu [[Tigawa]] Temple, early 5th century. | ||
File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|The current structure of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. | File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|The current structure of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. | ||
File:Vishnu temple mandapa at Eran, Madhya Pradesh.jpg|Vishnu temple in [[Eran]], 5th-6th century | File:Vishnu temple mandapa at Eran, Madhya Pradesh.jpg|Vishnu temple in [[Eran]], 5th-6th century | ||
File:Eran Budhagupta pillar built circa 476–495 CE.jpg|The [[Buddhagupta]] pillar at Eran (c.476–495 CE) | File:Eran Budhagupta pillar built circa 476–495 CE.jpg|The [[Buddhagupta]] pillar at Eran (c.476–495 CE) | ||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
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By about the 7th century CE most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods.<ref name=michellharle335/> Already three styles of temple were identified in these: ''nagara'', ''dravida'' and ''vesara'', though these were not yet associated with regions of India, and the original meanings may not fully align with modern uses of the terms.<ref name="Rowland, 275-276"/> In [[Karnataka]], the group of 7th and 8th-century temples at [[Pattadakal]] famously mixes forms later associated with both north and south,<ref>Rowland, 277–280</ref> as does that at [[Aihole]], which still includes [[apse|apsidal]] [[chaitya hall]]-type plans.<ref>Rowland, 220–223</ref> | By about the 7th century CE most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods.<ref name=michellharle335/> Already three styles of temple were identified in these: ''nagara'', ''dravida'' and ''vesara'', though these were not yet associated with regions of India, and the original meanings may not fully align with modern uses of the terms.<ref name="Rowland, 275-276"/> In [[Karnataka]], the group of 7th and 8th-century temples at [[Pattadakal]] famously mixes forms later associated with both north and south,<ref>Rowland, 277–280</ref> as does that at [[Aihole]], which still includes [[apse|apsidal]] [[chaitya hall]]-type plans.<ref>Rowland, 220–223</ref> | ||
[[File:Hindu Temple Basic Floor Design.jpg|left|thumb|Hindu Temple basic floor design | [[File:Hindu Temple Basic Floor Design.jpg|left|thumb|Hindu Temple basic floor design]] | ||
For most modern writers, [[Hindu temple architecture#Nagara (नागर) architecture|''nagara'']] refers to north Indian styles, most easily recognised by a high and curving ''shikhara'' over the sanctuary, ''dravida'' or [[Dravidian architecture]] is the broad South Indian style, where the superstructure over the sanctuary is not usually extremely high, and has a straight profile, rising in series of terraces to form a sort of decorated pyramid (today often dwarfed in larger temples by the far larger [[gopuram]] outer gateways, a much later development).<ref>Rowland, 276</ref> The ancient term [[vesara]] is also used by some modern writers, to describe a temple style with characteristics of both the northern and southern traditions. These come from the [[Deccan]] and other fairly central parts of India. There is some disagreement among those who use the term, as to the exact period and styles it represents, and other writers prefer to avoid it; temples some describe as vesara are mostly assigned to the northern tradition by those, but are regarded as a kind of northern ''dravida'' by others.<ref>[[Adam Hardy]] for example uses "Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa" for styles others call "vesara". See his ''Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation: the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries'', 1995, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, {{ISBN|8170173124}}, 9788170173120, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA183 google books]</ref> | For most modern writers, [[Hindu temple architecture#Nagara (नागर) architecture|''nagara'']] refers to north Indian styles, most easily recognised by a high and curving ''shikhara'' over the sanctuary, ''dravida'' or [[Dravidian architecture]] is the broad South Indian style, where the superstructure over the sanctuary is not usually extremely high, and has a straight profile, rising in series of terraces to form a sort of decorated pyramid (today often dwarfed in larger temples by the far larger [[gopuram]] outer gateways, a much later development).<ref>Rowland, 276</ref> The ancient term [[vesara]] is also used by some modern writers, to describe a temple style with characteristics of both the northern and southern traditions. These come from the [[Deccan]] and other fairly central parts of India. There is some disagreement among those who use the term, as to the exact period and styles it represents, and other writers prefer to avoid it; temples some describe as vesara are mostly assigned to the northern tradition by those, but are regarded as a kind of northern ''dravida'' by others.<ref>[[Adam Hardy]] for example uses "Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa" for styles others call "vesara". See his ''Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation: the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries'', 1995, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, {{ISBN|8170173124}}, 9788170173120, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA183 google books]</ref> | ||
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}} | }} | ||
An important temple is Papnath temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple is one of the best early examples of the South Indian tradition. By contrast other eastern Chalukyan Temples, like the [[Mahakuta group of temples|Mahakuta]], five kilometres from [[Badami]], and the Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur show a greater assimilation of northern styles from Odisha and Rajasthan. At the same time the [[Durga temple, Aihole|Durga temple at Aihole]] is unique having an even earlier style of an apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of [[Chaitya|Buddhist chaitya halls]] and is surrounded by a veranda of a later kind, with a shikhara that is stylistically like a nagara one. Finally, mention must be made of the [[Chalukya Shiva Temple|Lad Khan temple]] at Aihole in Karnataka. This seems to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except that it is constructed out of stone.<ref>https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kefa106.pdf</ref> | An important temple is Papnath temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple is one of the best early examples of the South Indian tradition. By contrast other eastern Chalukyan Temples, like the [[Mahakuta group of temples|Mahakuta]], five kilometres from [[Badami]], and the Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur show a greater assimilation of northern styles from Odisha and Rajasthan. At the same time the [[Durga temple, Aihole|Durga temple at Aihole]] is unique having an even earlier style of an apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of [[Chaitya|Buddhist chaitya halls]] and is surrounded by a veranda of a later kind, with a shikhara that is stylistically like a nagara one. Finally, mention must be made of the [[Chalukya Shiva Temple|Lad Khan temple]] at Aihole in Karnataka. This seems to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except that it is constructed out of stone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kefa106.pdf|title=TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE|website=ncert.nic.in|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref> | ||
Historians agree that the ''vesara'' style originated in what is today Karnataka. According to some, the style was started by the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] of Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or [[Badami Chalukya architecture]] built temples in a style that mixed some features of the ''nagara'' and the ''dravida'' styles, for example using both the northern [[shikhara]] and southern [[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]] type of superstructure over the sanctum in different temples of similar date, as at [[Pattadakal]]. However, Adam Hardy and others regard this style as essentially a form of Dravida. This style was further refined by the [[Rashtrakutas]] of [[Manyakheta]] (750-983AD) in sites such as [[Ellora]]. | Historians agree that the ''vesara'' style originated in what is today Karnataka. According to some, the style was started by the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] of Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or [[Badami Chalukya architecture]] built temples in a style that mixed some features of the ''nagara'' and the ''dravida'' styles, for example using both the northern [[shikhara]] and southern [[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]] type of superstructure over the sanctum in different temples of similar date, as at [[Pattadakal]]. However, Adam Hardy and others regard this style as essentially a form of Dravida. This style was further refined by the [[Rashtrakutas]] of [[Manyakheta]] (750-983AD) in sites such as [[Ellora]]. | ||
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The Māru-Gurjara style did not represent a radical break with earlier styles. The previous styles in north-west India, and the group of Jain temples of Khajuraho, forming part of the famous Khajuraho Group of Monuments are very largely in the same style as their Hindu companions, which were mostly built between 950 and 1050. They share many features with the Māru-Gurjara style: high plinths with many decorated bands on the walls, lavish figurative and decorative carving, balconies looking out on multiple sides, ceiling rosettes, and others, but at Khajuraho the great height of the shikharas is given more emphasis. There are similarities with the contemporary Hoysala architecture from much further south. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally. | The Māru-Gurjara style did not represent a radical break with earlier styles. The previous styles in north-west India, and the group of Jain temples of Khajuraho, forming part of the famous Khajuraho Group of Monuments are very largely in the same style as their Hindu companions, which were mostly built between 950 and 1050. They share many features with the Māru-Gurjara style: high plinths with many decorated bands on the walls, lavish figurative and decorative carving, balconies looking out on multiple sides, ceiling rosettes, and others, but at Khajuraho the great height of the shikharas is given more emphasis. There are similarities with the contemporary Hoysala architecture from much further south. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally. | ||
<gallery widths="180" heights="200"> | <gallery widths="180" heights="200"> | ||
File:Ranakpur (2155232277).jpg|Detailed carving of elephant, [[Ranakpur Jain temple|Ranakpur Jain Temple]] | File:Ranakpur (2155232277).jpg|Detailed carving of elephant, [[Ranakpur Jain temple|Ranakpur Jain Temple]] | ||
File:RaniKiVav-Patan-Gujarat JM21.jpg|[[Rani ki vav|Rani Ki Vav, Gujrat]] | File:RaniKiVav-Patan-Gujarat JM21.jpg|[[Rani ki vav|Rani Ki Vav, Gujrat]] | ||
File:Somanath mandir.jpg|[[Somnath temple|Somanath Temple]] | File:Somanath mandir.jpg|[[Somnath temple|Somanath Temple]] | ||
File:Adalaj stepwell01.JPG|[[Adalaj Stepwell|Adalaj stepwell | File:Adalaj stepwell01.JPG|[[Adalaj Stepwell|Adalaj stepwell]] | ||
File:Taranga Temple 2017.jpg|[[Taranga Jain temple|Taranga Jain Temple, Gujrat]] | File:Taranga Temple 2017.jpg|[[Taranga Jain temple|Taranga Jain Temple, Gujrat]] | ||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
==Indo-Islamic architecture== | ==Indo-Islamic architecture== | ||
[[File:Charminar-Pride of Hyderabad.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Charminar]], built in the 16th century by the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Golconda Sultanate]] | [[File:Charminar-Pride of Hyderabad.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Charminar]], built in the 16th century by the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Golconda Sultanate]]]] | ||
{{Main|Indo-Islamic architecture}}The Indo-Islamic architecture began under [[Islam in India|influence of Islam]] in Indian subcontinent around the 7th century AD. Monuments and buildings reflecting native/regional Indic, Persian, central Asian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish architecture style were extensively built by patrons of art and architecture in Medieval Period. Many of these styles are also influence by regional Indian architecture. It also Replace Indian Trabeate style with Arcuate style. Turks and Persians, who inherited wealth of various design from [[Sasanian architecture|Sassanian]] and [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine empire]], shaped and influenced the architecture. | {{Main|Indo-Islamic architecture}}The Indo-Islamic architecture began under [[Islam in India|influence of Islam]] in Indian subcontinent around the 7th century AD. Monuments and buildings reflecting native/regional Indic, Persian, central Asian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish architecture style were extensively built by patrons of art and architecture in Medieval Period. Many of these styles are also influence by regional Indian architecture. It also Replace Indian Trabeate style with Arcuate style. Turks and Persians, who inherited wealth of various design from [[Sasanian architecture|Sassanian]] and [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine empire]], shaped and influenced the architecture. | ||
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Dawood Shah of Bahamani Sultanate ruled for very short amount of time in 1378 but invented a new style of tomb, comprising two similar, domed structures on a single basement, a style not seen anywhere outside [[Gulbarga|Kalaburagi]]. [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Firuz Shah]] who died in 1422 copied the double-chambered style but made his tomb much simpler. The black basalt door jambs reminiscent of temple pillars, the recessed arches bearing stucco floral work, arches bearing stucco floral work, and the [[Chhajja|chajjas]] borne on brackets that resemble those found in temples all become common features in later Bahmani architecture. Rangin Mahal in [[Bidar Fort]], built by [[Ali Barid Shah I|Ali Barid Shah]] in the 1500s. While the beautiful tile mosaics on some of its walls and the luminescent mother-of-pearl inlays on black basalt are Persian in style, its carved wooden pillars and brackets are clearly derived from local residential architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-27|title=Alluring Bahmani architecture|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/alluring-bahmani-architecture-749973.html|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref> | Dawood Shah of Bahamani Sultanate ruled for very short amount of time in 1378 but invented a new style of tomb, comprising two similar, domed structures on a single basement, a style not seen anywhere outside [[Gulbarga|Kalaburagi]]. [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Firuz Shah]] who died in 1422 copied the double-chambered style but made his tomb much simpler. The black basalt door jambs reminiscent of temple pillars, the recessed arches bearing stucco floral work, arches bearing stucco floral work, and the [[Chhajja|chajjas]] borne on brackets that resemble those found in temples all become common features in later Bahmani architecture. Rangin Mahal in [[Bidar Fort]], built by [[Ali Barid Shah I|Ali Barid Shah]] in the 1500s. While the beautiful tile mosaics on some of its walls and the luminescent mother-of-pearl inlays on black basalt are Persian in style, its carved wooden pillars and brackets are clearly derived from local residential architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-27|title=Alluring Bahmani architecture|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/alluring-bahmani-architecture-749973.html|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref> | ||
[[File:IBRAHIMROZA_FULL.jpg|left|thumb|Burial place of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]]] | [[File:IBRAHIMROZA_FULL.jpg|left|thumb|Burial place of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]]] | ||
The main architectural activities for the [[Barid Shahi dynasty|Barid Shahi]] rulers were building garden tombs. The tomb of Ali Barid Shah (1577) is the most notable monument in [[Bidar]].{{sfn|Yazdani|1947| | The main architectural activities for the [[Barid Shahi dynasty|Barid Shahi]] rulers were building garden tombs. The tomb of Ali Barid Shah (1577) is the most notable monument in [[Bidar]].{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=152}} The tomb consists of a lofty domed chamber, open on four sides, located in the middle of a Persian four-square garden. The ''Rangin Mahal'' in Bidar, built during the reign of Ali Barid Shah, is a complete and exquisitely decorated courtly structure. Other important monuments in Bidar from this period are the tomb of Qasim II and the Kali Masjid.<ref name="michell_77">Michell, George & Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, {{ISBN|0-521-56321-6}}, p. 14 & pp. 77–80.</ref> | ||
[[File:Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam 2.jpg|thumb|Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam]] | [[File:Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam 2.jpg|thumb|Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam]] | ||
Amongst the major architectural works in the [[Bijapur Sultanate]], one of the earliest is the unfinished [[Jama Mosque, Bijapur|Jami Masjid]], which was begun by Ali Adil Shah I in 1576. It has an arcaded prayer hall, with fine aisles, and has an impressive dome supported by massive piers. One of the most impressive monuments built during the reign of Ibrahim II was the Ibrahim Rouza which was originally planned as a tomb for queen Taj Sultana, but was later converted into the tomb for Ibrahim Adil Shah II and his family. This complex, completed in 1626, consists of a paired tomb and mosque. | Amongst the major architectural works in the [[Bijapur Sultanate]], one of the earliest is the unfinished [[Jama Mosque, Bijapur|Jami Masjid]], which was begun by Ali Adil Shah I in 1576. It has an arcaded prayer hall, with fine aisles, and has an impressive dome supported by massive piers. One of the most impressive monuments built during the reign of Ibrahim II was the Ibrahim Rouza which was originally planned as a tomb for queen Taj Sultana, but was later converted into the tomb for Ibrahim Adil Shah II and his family. This complex, completed in 1626, consists of a paired tomb and mosque. | ||
Notable buildings of the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani]] and [[Deccan sultanates]] in the Deccan include the [[Charminar]], [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Mecca Masjid]], [[Qutb Shahi tombs]], [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa|Madrasa Mahmud Gawan]] and [[Gol Gumbaz]].<ref name="michell_77" | Notable buildings of the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani]] and [[Deccan sultanates]] in the Deccan include the [[Charminar]], [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Mecca Masjid]], [[Qutb Shahi tombs]], [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa|Madrasa Mahmud Gawan]] and [[Gol Gumbaz]].<ref name="michell_77" />{{Sfn|Haig|1907|p=209-216}}The greatest monument in Bijapur is the [[Gol Gumbaz]], the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, which was completed in 1656, and whose hemispherical dome measures {{convert|44|m}} across. | ||
One of the earliest architectural achievements of the Qutb Shahi dynasty is the [[Golconda|fortified city of Golconda]], which is now in ruins.In the 16th century, [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]] decided to shift the capital to [[Hyderabad]], {{convert|8|km}} east of Golconda. Here, he constructed the most original monument in the Deccan, the [[Charminar]], in the heart of the new city.<ref name=":0" /> This monument, completed in 1591, has four minarets, each {{convert|56|m}}. | One of the earliest architectural achievements of the Qutb Shahi dynasty is the [[Golconda|fortified city of Golconda]], which is now in ruins.In the 16th century, [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]] decided to shift the capital to [[Hyderabad]], {{convert|8|km}} east of Golconda. Here, he constructed the most original monument in the Deccan, the [[Charminar]], in the heart of the new city.<ref name=":0" /> This monument, completed in 1591, has four minarets, each {{convert|56|m}}. | ||
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File:Shalimar Bagh 1.jpg|'''[[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]]''' is a [[Mughal garden]] in [[Srinagar]], linked through a channel to the northeast of [[Dal Lake]]. The Bagh is considered the high point of Mughal [[horticulture]]. | File:Shalimar Bagh 1.jpg|'''[[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]]''' is a [[Mughal garden]] in [[Srinagar]], linked through a channel to the northeast of [[Dal Lake]]. The Bagh is considered the high point of Mughal [[horticulture]]. | ||
File:Akbar's Tomb -Agra -Uttar Pradesh -IMG 2116.jpg|[[Akbar's tomb|Akbar's Tomb, Agra]]. Built with red sandstone by his [[Jahangir|son]] and [[Shah Jahan|grandson]] in 1605 to 1618. | File:Akbar's Tomb -Agra -Uttar Pradesh -IMG 2116.jpg|[[Akbar's tomb|Akbar's Tomb, Agra]]. Built with red sandstone by his [[Jahangir|son]] and [[Shah Jahan|grandson]] in 1605 to 1618. | ||
File:Humayun's tomb by Shagil Kannur 4.jpg|[[Humayun's Tomb]], [[Delhi]], the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb, 1569–70 CE | File:Humayun's tomb by Shagil Kannur 4.jpg|[[Humayun's Tomb]], [[Delhi]], the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb, 1569–70 CE<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232/|title=Humayun's Tomb, Delhi|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228192141/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232/|archive-date=2019-02-28|url-status=live|access-date=2019-02-28}}</ref> | ||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
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=== Sikh Architecture === | === Sikh Architecture === | ||
{{Main|Sikh architecture}} | {{Main|Sikh architecture}} | ||
[[File:Hamandir Sahib (Golden Temple).jpg|thumb|The [[Golden Temple]] in Amritsar | [[File:Hamandir Sahib (Golden Temple).jpg|thumb|The [[Golden Temple]] in Amritsar]] | ||
[[Sikh architecture]] is heavily influenced by [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] and [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]] styles. The [[onion dome]], [[fresco]]es, in-lay work, and multi-foil arches, are Mughal influences, more specially from [[Shah Jahan]]'s period, whereas ''[[Chhatri|chattris]]'', oriel windows, bracket supported eaves at the string-course, and ornamented friezes are derived from elements of [[Architecture of Rajasthan|Rajput architecture]]. Apart from religious buildings, Sikh architecture includes secular [[forts]], ''bungas'' (residential places), palaces, and colleges. | [[Sikh architecture]] is heavily influenced by [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] and [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]] styles. The [[onion dome]], [[fresco]]es, in-lay work, and multi-foil arches, are Mughal influences, more specially from [[Shah Jahan]]'s period, whereas ''[[Chhatri|chattris]]'', oriel windows, bracket supported eaves at the string-course, and ornamented friezes are derived from elements of [[Architecture of Rajasthan|Rajput architecture]]. Apart from religious buildings, Sikh architecture includes secular [[forts]], ''bungas'' (residential places), palaces, and colleges. | ||
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The religious structure is called ''[[gurdwara]]'' (a place where the Guru dwells). The word ''gurdwara'' is a compound of ''guru'' (guide or master) and ''dwara'' (gateway or seat). The [[Golden Temple]] in Amritsar and [[Hazur Sahib]] are examples. | The religious structure is called ''[[gurdwara]]'' (a place where the Guru dwells). The word ''gurdwara'' is a compound of ''guru'' (guide or master) and ''dwara'' (gateway or seat). The [[Golden Temple]] in Amritsar and [[Hazur Sahib]] are examples. | ||
[[File:Baba atal 1.jpg|thumb|[[Gurdwara Baba Atal]] is a 17th century nine-storeyed Gurudwara in Amritsar]] | [[File:Baba atal 1.jpg|thumb|[[Gurdwara Baba Atal]] is a 17th-century nine-storeyed Gurudwara in Amritsar]] | ||
Gurdwara buildings do not have to conform to any set architectural design. The only established requirements are: the installation of the Granth Sahib under a canopy or in a canopied seat, usually on a platform higher than the specific floor on which the devotees sit, and a tall Sikh pennant flag atop the building. | Gurdwara buildings do not have to conform to any set architectural design. The only established requirements are: the installation of the Granth Sahib under a canopy or in a canopied seat, usually on a platform higher than the specific floor on which the devotees sit, and a tall Sikh pennant flag atop the building. | ||
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[[Mumbai (Bombay)]] has some of the most prominent examples of British colonial architecture. This included the [[Gothic Revival architecture|gothic revival]] ([[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus railway station|Victoria terminus]], [[University of Bombay]], [[Rajabai Clock Tower]], [[Bombay High Court]], [[Municipal Corporation Building, Mumbai|BMC Building]]), [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]] ([[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya|Prince of Wales Museum]], [[Gateway of India]], [[The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel|Taj Mahal Palace Hotel]]) and [[Art Deco]] ([[Eros Cinema]], [[New India Assurance Building]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/|title=Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828023451/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/|archive-date=2018-08-28|url-status=live|access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref> | [[Mumbai (Bombay)]] has some of the most prominent examples of British colonial architecture. This included the [[Gothic Revival architecture|gothic revival]] ([[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus railway station|Victoria terminus]], [[University of Bombay]], [[Rajabai Clock Tower]], [[Bombay High Court]], [[Municipal Corporation Building, Mumbai|BMC Building]]), [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]] ([[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya|Prince of Wales Museum]], [[Gateway of India]], [[The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel|Taj Mahal Palace Hotel]]) and [[Art Deco]] ([[Eros Cinema]], [[New India Assurance Building]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/|title=Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828023451/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/|archive-date=2018-08-28|url-status=live|access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref> | ||
Madras and Calcutta were similarly bordered by water and division of Indian in the north and British in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 "the banks of the river are as one may say absolutely studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses." Esplanade-row is fronts the fort with lined palaces.{{sfn|Evenson|1989|p=20}}<ref name="Dutta">{{cite journal|last=Dutta|first=Arindam|title=Representing Calcutta: Modernity, Nationalism and the Colonial Uncanny|journal=Journal of Architectural Education|date=29 March 2010|volume=63|issue=2|pages=167–169|doi=10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01082.x|s2cid=143881493}}</ref> Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses which later transformed into the metropolis of brick and stone.{{sfn|Nilsson|1968|pp=66–67}}The [[Chepauk Palace]] in the city, designed by [[Paul Benfield]], is said to be the first Indo-Saracenic building in India. Since then, many of the colonial-era buildings in the city were designed in this style of architecture, which is most apparent around the [[Fort St. George, India|Fort St George]] built in 1640. Most of these were designed by English architects Robert Fellowes Chisholm and Henry Irwin. The best examples of this style include the Madras High Court (built in 1892), Southern Railway headquarters, Ripon Building, Government Museum, Senate House of the University of Madras, Amir Mahal, Bharat Insurance Building, Victoria Public Hall and the College of Engineering. The Triumph of Labour, also known as the Labour statue, at the Marina Beach is an important landmark of Madras.[[File:Gaine Castle at Dhanyakuria.jpg|thumb|Gaine Castle at Dhanyakuria, West Bengal | Madras and Calcutta were similarly bordered by water and division of Indian in the north and British in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 "the banks of the river are as one may say absolutely studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses." Esplanade-row is fronts the fort with lined palaces.{{sfn|Evenson|1989|p=20}}<ref name="Dutta">{{cite journal|last=Dutta|first=Arindam|title=Representing Calcutta: Modernity, Nationalism and the Colonial Uncanny|journal=Journal of Architectural Education|date=29 March 2010|volume=63|issue=2|pages=167–169|doi=10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01082.x|s2cid=143881493}}</ref> Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses which later transformed into the metropolis of brick and stone.{{sfn|Nilsson|1968|pp=66–67}}The [[Chepauk Palace]] in the city, designed by [[Paul Benfield]], is said to be the first Indo-Saracenic building in India. Since then, many of the colonial-era buildings in the city were designed in this style of architecture, which is most apparent around the [[Fort St. George, India|Fort St George]] built in 1640. Most of these were designed by English architects Robert Fellowes Chisholm and Henry Irwin. The best examples of this style include the Madras High Court (built in 1892), Southern Railway headquarters, Ripon Building, Government Museum, Senate House of the University of Madras, Amir Mahal, Bharat Insurance Building, Victoria Public Hall and the College of Engineering. The Triumph of Labour, also known as the Labour statue, at the Marina Beach is an important landmark of Madras.[[File:Gaine Castle at Dhanyakuria.jpg|thumb|Gaine Castle at Dhanyakuria, West Bengal|220x220px]] [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]] evolved by combining Indian architectural features with European styles. [[Vincent Esch]] and [[George Wittet]] were pioneers in this style. The [[Victoria Memorial, Kolkata|Victoria Memorial]] in Calcutta is the most effective symbolism of British Empire, built as a monument in tribute to Queen Victoria's reign. The plan of the building consists of one large central part covered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner holds a smaller dome and is floored with marble plinth. The memorial stands on 26 hectares of garden surrounded by reflective pools.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=129}} | ||
The period of British rule saw wealthy Bengali families (especially [[Zamindars of Bengal|zamindar estates]]) employing European firms to design houses and palaces. The Indo-Saracenic movement was strongly prevalent in the region. While most rural estates featured an elegant country house, the cities of Calcutta had widespread 19th and early 20th century urban architecture, comparable to London, Sydney or Auckland. Art deco influences began in Calcutta in the 1930s. | The period of British rule saw wealthy Bengali families (especially [[Zamindars of Bengal|zamindar estates]]) employing European firms to design houses and palaces. The Indo-Saracenic movement was strongly prevalent in the region. While most rural estates featured an elegant country house, the cities of Calcutta had widespread 19th and early 20th century urban architecture, comparable to London, Sydney or Auckland. Art deco influences began in Calcutta in the 1930s. | ||
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=== Other Colonial Powers === | === Other Colonial Powers === | ||
Among the other European colonies were [[Portuguese Goa and Damaon]] and [[Portuguese Bombay and Bassein]]. The [[Madh Island|Madh Fort]], [[St. John the Baptist Church, Mumbai|St. John the Baptist Church]]& [[Castella de Aguada]] in Bombay are remnants of Portuguese colonial rule. The [[Churches and convents of Goa]], an ensemble of seven churches built by the Portuguese in Goa are a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234/|title=Churches and Convents of Goa|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104191222/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234|archive-date=2019-01-04|url-status=live|access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref> | Among the other European colonies were [[Portuguese Goa and Damaon]] and [[Portuguese Bombay and Bassein]]. The [[Madh Island|Madh Fort]], [[St. John the Baptist Church, Mumbai|St. John the Baptist Church]] & [[Castella de Aguada]] in Bombay are remnants of Portuguese colonial rule. The [[Churches and convents of Goa]], an ensemble of seven churches built by the Portuguese in Goa are a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234/|title=Churches and Convents of Goa|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104191222/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234|archive-date=2019-01-04|url-status=live|access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref> | ||
The Portuguese were among the first European traders to discover the sea route to India as early as 1498. The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 AD, when [[Vasco da Gama]] reached [[Calicut]] on the coast of the [[Malabar region]]. | The Portuguese were among the first European traders to discover the sea route to India as early as 1498. The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 AD, when [[Vasco da Gama]] reached [[Calicut]] on the coast of the [[Malabar region]]. | ||
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<gallery widths="180" heights="160"> | <gallery widths="180" heights="160"> | ||
File:The Chandannagar Strand Ghat.jpg|The Chandannagar Strand Ghat, reminiscences of a [[French India|French colony]], [[Chandannagar|Chandannagar, West Bengal]] | File:The Chandannagar Strand Ghat.jpg|The Chandannagar Strand Ghat, reminiscences of a [[French India|French colony]], [[Chandannagar|Chandannagar, West Bengal]] | ||
File:Fort Dansborg.JPG|[[Fort Dansborg]], built by the 17th century Danish admiral [[Ove Gjedde]], reminiscences of [[Danish India]], [[Tharangambadi]], Tamil Nadu | File:Fort Dansborg.JPG|[[Fort Dansborg]], built by the 17th century Danish admiral [[Ove Gjedde]], reminiscences of [[Danish India]], [[Tharangambadi]], Tamil Nadu | ||
File:Tomb of susanna anna maria2.jpg|Tomb of Susanna Anna Maria, reminisces of [[Dutch India]], [[Hugli-Chuchura|Chinsurah]], West Bengal | File:Tomb of susanna anna maria2.jpg|Tomb of Susanna Anna Maria, reminisces of [[Dutch India]], [[Hugli-Chuchura|Chinsurah]], West Bengal | ||
File:St. Francis Church at Velha Goa.jpg|Church Of St Francis Of Assisi, reminisce of [[Portuguese India]], [[Goa]] | File:St. Francis Church at Velha Goa.jpg|Church Of St Francis Of Assisi, reminisce of [[Portuguese India]], [[Goa]] | ||
File:French Quarter, Pondicherry (16) (37466068276).jpg|French Quarter, Pondicherry. The city became the chief [[French India|French settlement in India]]. | File:French Quarter, Pondicherry (16) (37466068276).jpg|French Quarter, Pondicherry. The city became the chief [[French India|French settlement in India]]. | ||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
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In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres of industry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India.<ref name=rjadhav1>See Raj Jadhav, p. 11 in ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India''.</ref> Urban housing in India balances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class.<ref name=Gast77>Gast, 77</ref> Growing awareness of ecology has influenced architecture in India during modern times.<ref name=Gast119>Gast, 119</ref> | In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres of industry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India.<ref name=rjadhav1>See Raj Jadhav, p. 11 in ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India''.</ref> Urban housing in India balances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class.<ref name=Gast77>Gast, 77</ref> Growing awareness of ecology has influenced architecture in India during modern times.<ref name=Gast119>Gast, 119</ref> | ||
Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but has been losing its significance as of late.<ref name="rjadhav2" /> Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region.<ref name="rjadhav2">See Raj Jadhav, 13 in ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India''.</ref> Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women.<ref name="rjadhav2" /> Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.<ref name="Gast77" /> [[Calico (textile)|Calico]], [[chintz]], and [[palampore]]—of Indian origin—highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.<ref name="eb-savage">Savage 2008</ref> [[Roshandan]]s, which are skylights-cum-ventilators, are a common feature in Indian homes, especially in [[North India]].<ref name="ref10zayiq">{{Citation | title=India remembered | author=Thomas George Percival Spear|author-link = Percival Spear|author2 = Margaret Spear | publisher=Orient Longman, 1981 | isbn=978-0-86131-265-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vEtAAAAMAAJ | quote=''... The bungalow was a typical north Indian one, with a large central room lit only by skylights (roshandans) and a number of others opening out from them ...''| year=1981}}</ref><ref name="ref25xegoc">{{Citation | title=Mansions at dusk: the havelis of old Delhi | author=Pavan K. Varma, Sondeep Shankar | publisher=Spantech Publishers, 1992 | isbn=978-81-85215-14-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCBuAAAAMAAJ | quote=''... Thirdly, while obviating direct sunlight, it had to allow some light and air to enter through overhead roshandans ...''| year=1992 }}</ref>[[File:Lotus_temple01.jpg|thumb|[[Lotus Temple|Lotus Temple, Delhi]] | Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but has been losing its significance as of late.<ref name="rjadhav2" /> Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region.<ref name="rjadhav2">See Raj Jadhav, 13 in ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India''.</ref> Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women.<ref name="rjadhav2" /> Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.<ref name="Gast77" /> [[Calico (textile)|Calico]], [[chintz]], and [[palampore]]—of Indian origin—highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.<ref name="eb-savage">Savage 2008</ref> [[Roshandan]]s, which are skylights-cum-ventilators, are a common feature in Indian homes, especially in [[North India]].<ref name="ref10zayiq">{{Citation | title=India remembered | author=Thomas George Percival Spear|author-link = Percival Spear|author2 = Margaret Spear | publisher=Orient Longman, 1981 | isbn=978-0-86131-265-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vEtAAAAMAAJ | quote=''... The bungalow was a typical north Indian one, with a large central room lit only by skylights (roshandans) and a number of others opening out from them ...''| year=1981}}</ref><ref name="ref25xegoc">{{Citation | title=Mansions at dusk: the havelis of old Delhi | author=Pavan K. Varma, Sondeep Shankar | publisher=Spantech Publishers, 1992 | isbn=978-81-85215-14-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCBuAAAAMAAJ | quote=''... Thirdly, while obviating direct sunlight, it had to allow some light and air to enter through overhead roshandans ...''| year=1992 }}</ref>[[File:Lotus_temple01.jpg|thumb|[[Lotus Temple|Lotus Temple, Delhi]] [[Fariborz Sahba]]]]At the time of independence in 1947, India had only about 300 trained architects in a population of what was then 330 million, and only one training institution, the [[Indian Institute of Architects]]. Thus the first generation of Indian architects were educated abroad. | ||
Some early architects were traditionalists, such as [[Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar|Ganesh Deolalikar]], whose design for the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] imitated the [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]]-[[Herbert Baker|Baker]] buildings down to the last detail, and B.R. Manickam, who designed the [[Vidhana Soudha]] in Bangalore revived the [[Dravidian architecture]]. | Some early architects were traditionalists, such as [[Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar|Ganesh Deolalikar]], whose design for the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] imitated the [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]]-[[Herbert Baker|Baker]] buildings down to the last detail, and B.R. Manickam, who designed the [[Vidhana Soudha]] in Bangalore revived the [[Dravidian architecture]]. | ||
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In 1950, French architect [[Le Corbusier]], a pioneer of [[Modern architecture|modernist architecture]], was commissioned by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to design the city of [[Chandigarh]]. His plan called for residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In the middle was the [[Chandigarh Capitol Complex|capitol]], a complex of three government buildings – the [[Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh)|Palace of Assembly]], the [[Punjab and Haryana High Court|High Court]], and [[Secretariat Building (Chandigarh)|the Secretariat]].<ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/|title=The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301021805/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/|archive-date=2019-03-01|url-status=live|access-date=2019-02-28}}</ref> He also designed the [[Sanskar Kendra]] at [[Ahmedabad]]. Corbusier inspired the next generation of architects in India to work with modern, rather than revivalist styles.<ref name=":1" /> | In 1950, French architect [[Le Corbusier]], a pioneer of [[Modern architecture|modernist architecture]], was commissioned by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to design the city of [[Chandigarh]]. His plan called for residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In the middle was the [[Chandigarh Capitol Complex|capitol]], a complex of three government buildings – the [[Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh)|Palace of Assembly]], the [[Punjab and Haryana High Court|High Court]], and [[Secretariat Building (Chandigarh)|the Secretariat]].<ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/|title=The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301021805/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/|archive-date=2019-03-01|url-status=live|access-date=2019-02-28}}</ref> He also designed the [[Sanskar Kendra]] at [[Ahmedabad]]. Corbusier inspired the next generation of architects in India to work with modern, rather than revivalist styles.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
Economic | Economic liberalisation and consequent prosperity enabled more radical new styles to be tried along with a sense to compete with modern and western architectural standards. | ||
Other prominent examples of modernist architecture in India include [[Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad|IIM Ahmedabad]] by [[Louis Kahn]] (1961), [[Indian Institute of Technology Delhi|IIT Delhi]] by [[Jugal Kishore Choudhury|Jugal Kishore Chodhury]] (1961), [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|IIT Kanpur]] by [[Achyut Kanvinde]] (1963), [[Indian Institute of Management Bangalore|IIM Bangalore]] by [[B. V. Doshi]] (1973), [[Lotus Temple]] by [[Fariborz Sahba]] (1986), and [[Jawahar Kala Kendra]] (1992) and [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Bhawan Bhopal]] (1996) by [[Charles Correa]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Mukerji|first1=Arjun|last2=Sanghamitra|first2=Basu|title=A Search for Post-Modernism in Indian Architecture|url=https://www.academia.edu/8859069|journal=Abacus|language=en}}</ref> | Other prominent examples of modernist architecture in India include [[Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad|IIM Ahmedabad]] by [[Louis Kahn]] (1961), [[Indian Institute of Technology Delhi|IIT Delhi]] by [[Jugal Kishore Choudhury|Jugal Kishore Chodhury]] (1961), [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|IIT Kanpur]] by [[Achyut Kanvinde]] (1963), [[Indian Institute of Management Bangalore|IIM Bangalore]] by [[B. V. Doshi]] (1973), [[Lotus Temple]] by [[Fariborz Sahba]] (1986), and [[Jawahar Kala Kendra]] (1992) and [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Bhawan Bhopal]] (1996) by [[Charles Correa]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Mukerji|first1=Arjun|last2=Sanghamitra|first2=Basu|title=A Search for Post-Modernism in Indian Architecture|url=https://www.academia.edu/8859069|journal=Abacus|date=January 2011|language=en}}</ref> | ||
Skyscrapers built in the [[International Style (architecture)|international style]] are becoming increasingly common in cities. This includes [[The 42 (Kolkata)|The 42]] (2019) and [[The Imperial (Mumbai)|The Imperial]] (2010) by [[Hafeez Contractor]]. Other projects of the 21st century include [[Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad|IIT Hyderabad]] by [[Christopher Charles Benninger|Christopher Benninger]] (2015). | Skyscrapers built in the [[International Style (architecture)|international style]] are becoming increasingly common in cities. This includes [[The 42 (Kolkata)|The 42]] (2019) and [[The Imperial (Mumbai)|The Imperial]] (2010) by [[Hafeez Contractor]]. Other projects of the 21st century include [[Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad|IIT Hyderabad]] by [[Christopher Charles Benninger|Christopher Benninger]] (2015). | ||
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{{Further|Mughal gardens}} | {{Further|Mughal gardens}} | ||
[[File:GreatMughalsTM (complete).svg|thumb|Taj Mahal Gardens plan|307x307px]] | [[File:GreatMughalsTM (complete).svg|thumb|Taj Mahal Gardens plan|307x307px]] | ||
[[File:Bamboo_garden_(Venuvana)_at_Rajagriha,_the_visit_of_Bimbisara.jpg|left|thumb | [[File:Bamboo_garden_(Venuvana)_at_Rajagriha,_the_visit_of_Bimbisara.jpg|left|thumb|[[Bimbisara]] visiting a bamboo garden in [[Rajgir|Rajagriha]]]] | ||
There is less archaeological evidence of early gardens elsewhere in India but the ancient Hindu sacred books give a remarkably detailed account of gardens in Ancient India. | There is less archaeological evidence of early gardens elsewhere in India but the ancient Hindu sacred books give a remarkably detailed account of gardens in Ancient India. | ||
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[[Manasollasa]], a twelfth century text giving details on garden design, asserts that it should include rocks and raised mounds of summits, manicured with plants and trees of diverse varieties, artificial ponds, and flowing brooks. It describes the arrangement, the soils, the seeds, the distance between types of plants and trees, the methods of preparing manure, proper fertilizing and maintaining the garden, which plants and trees are best planted first, when to plant others, watering, signs of overwatering and underwatering, weeds, means of protecting the garden, and other details. | [[Manasollasa]], a twelfth century text giving details on garden design, asserts that it should include rocks and raised mounds of summits, manicured with plants and trees of diverse varieties, artificial ponds, and flowing brooks. It describes the arrangement, the soils, the seeds, the distance between types of plants and trees, the methods of preparing manure, proper fertilizing and maintaining the garden, which plants and trees are best planted first, when to plant others, watering, signs of overwatering and underwatering, weeds, means of protecting the garden, and other details. | ||
[[File:WLM@J&K-Pari_Mahal.jpg|thumb | |||
[[File:WLM@J&K-Pari_Mahal.jpg|thumb|[[Pari Mahal]]]] | |||
Early Islamic dynasties, like of Delhi Sultanates, never showed interests on gardens with an exception of [[Lodi dynasty|Lodhi Dynasty]]. Mughals along with the Hindu Rajputs ushered a new era of Garden architecture. Concepts like ''Charbagh'' (four gardens) came from Persia. In the Charbagh at the Taj Mahal, each of the four parts contains sixteen flower beds. | Early Islamic dynasties, like of Delhi Sultanates, never showed interests on gardens with an exception of [[Lodi dynasty|Lodhi Dynasty]]. Mughals along with the Hindu Rajputs ushered a new era of Garden architecture. Concepts like ''Charbagh'' (four gardens) came from Persia. In the Charbagh at the Taj Mahal, each of the four parts contains sixteen flower beds. | ||
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<gallery widths="140" heights="180" class="center"> | <gallery widths="140" heights="180" class="center"> | ||
File:Nishat Bagh (14362717638).jpg|[[Nishat Bagh|Nishat Bagh, Srinagar]] | File:Nishat Bagh (14362717638).jpg|[[Nishat Bagh|Nishat Bagh, Srinagar]] | ||
File:Glasshouse and fountain at lalbagh.jpg|[[Lal Bagh]] , Bengaluru | File:Glasshouse and fountain at lalbagh.jpg|[[Lal Bagh]] , Bengaluru | ||
File:View of the Mughal Garden of Rashtrapati Bhavan in March 1962.jpg|View of the Mughal Garden of Rashtrapati Bhavan | File:View of the Mughal Garden of Rashtrapati Bhavan in March 1962.jpg|View of the Mughal Garden of Rashtrapati Bhavan | ||
File:Waterfall at Rock Garden, Chandigarh.jpg|Waterfall at [[Rock Garden, Chandigarh]] | File:Waterfall at Rock Garden, Chandigarh.jpg|Waterfall at [[Rock Garden, Chandigarh]] | ||
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=== True Arch === | === True Arch === | ||
The 19th century archaeologist [[Alexander Cunningham]], head of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], at first believed that due to the total absence of arches in Hindu temples, they were alien to Indian architecture, but several pre-Islamic examples bear testimony to their existence, as explained by him in the following manner:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya|last=Cunningham|first=Alexander|publisher=W. H. Allen|year=1892 | The 19th century archaeologist [[Alexander Cunningham]], head of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], at first believed that due to the total absence of arches in Hindu temples, they were alien to Indian architecture, but several pre-Islamic examples bear testimony to their existence, as explained by him in the following manner:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya|last=Cunningham|first=Alexander|publisher=W. H. Allen|year=1892|location=London|pages=85}}</ref> | ||
{{Blockquote|text=Formerly it was the settled belief of all European enquirers that the ancient Hindus were ignorant of the Arch. This belief no doubt arose from the total absence of arches in any of the Hindu Temples. Thirty years ago I shared this belief with Mr. Fergusson, when I argued that the presence of arches in the great Buddhist Temple at Buddha Gaya proved that the building could not have been erected before the Muhammadan conquest. But during my late employment in the Archeological Survey of India several buildings of undoubted antiquity were discovered in which both vaults and arches formed part of the original construction.|sign=[[Alexander Cunningham]]|source=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya, 1892}} Archaeological evidences indicate that wedge shaped bricks and construction of wells in the Indus valley civilization and although no true arches have been discovered as of yet, these bricks would have been suitable in the construction of true arches.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&q=indus+valley+civilization+wells+true+arch&pg=PA58|title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|date=2015-11-15|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781780235417|language=en}}</ref> True arch in India dates from [[Nanda Empire|pre Mauryan Nanda]] period from the 5th century BC. Arch fragment discovered by archaeologist [[K. P. Jayaswal]] from an arch with [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] inscribed on it,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.20579/page/n109|title=Proceedinds And Transactions Of The Second Oriental Conference (1923) | {{Blockquote|text=Formerly it was the settled belief of all European enquirers that the ancient Hindus were ignorant of the Arch. This belief no doubt arose from the total absence of arches in any of the Hindu Temples. Thirty years ago I shared this belief with Mr. Fergusson, when I argued that the presence of arches in the great Buddhist Temple at Buddha Gaya proved that the building could not have been erected before the Muhammadan conquest. But during my late employment in the Archeological Survey of India several buildings of undoubted antiquity were discovered in which both vaults and arches formed part of the original construction.|sign=[[Alexander Cunningham]]|source=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya, 1892}} Archaeological evidences indicate that wedge shaped bricks and construction of wells in the Indus valley civilization and although no true arches have been discovered as of yet, these bricks would have been suitable in the construction of true arches.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&q=indus+valley+civilization+wells+true+arch&pg=PA58|title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|date=2015-11-15|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781780235417|language=en}}</ref> True arch in India dates from [[Nanda Empire|pre Mauryan Nanda]] period from the 5th century BC. Arch fragment discovered by archaeologist [[K. P. Jayaswal]] from an arch with [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] inscribed on it,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.20579/page/n109|title=Proceedinds And Transactions Of The Second Oriental Conference (1923)|date=1923|pages=86|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Calcutta Review Vol.10, No.1-3(april-june)1924|year=1924|pages=140}}</ref> or 1st - 2nd century CE when it first appeared in [[Kosambi|Kausambi]] palace architecture from [[Kushan Empire|Kushana]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dubey|first=Lal Mani|title=Some Observations on the Vesara School of Hindu Architecture|date=1978|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139449|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=39|pages=1000–1006|jstor=44139449|issn=2249-1937}}</ref> Arches present at [[Vishnu]] temples at [[Deo Barunark|Deo Baranark]], [[Amb Temples|Amb]] and [[Kafir Kot]] temples from [[Hindu Shahi]] period and Hindu temple of [[Bhitargaon]] bear testimony to the use arches in the Hindu temple architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1N95DwAAQBAJ&q=amb+temple+true+arch&pg=PA4|title=Temples of the Indus: Studies in the Hindu Architecture of Ancient Pakistan|last=Meister|first=Michael W.|date=2010-07-26|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004190115|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/f/019pho000001003u00466000.html|title=Front view of a ruined temple, with sculptured slabs in foreground, Deo Baranark|last=Wright|first=Colin|website=Bl.uk|access-date=2019-04-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/92037/_http___www_bl_uk_onlinegallery_onlineex_apac_photocoll_g_zoomify58580_html.html|title=General view of ruined temple at Deo Baranark|website=Europeana Collections|language=en|access-date=2019-04-23}}</ref> | ||
[[File:20191203 Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi 0507 6368 DxO.jpg|thumb|Arches of Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi]] | [[File:20191203 Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi 0507 6368 DxO.jpg|thumb|Arches of Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi]] | ||
Although Alexander Cunningham has persisted in the notion that the Buddhist [[Mahabodhi Temple]]'s pointed arch was added later during a Burmese restoration, given its predominant use in Islamic architecture, scholars such as Huu Phuoc Le have contested this assumption based on analysis that relieving arches could not have been added without destroying the entire temple structure, which is dated to 6th–7th century CE. Hence the pointed and relieving arches much have formed part of the original building dating from the pre-Islamic periods in proper.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buddhist Architecture|last=Le|first=Huu Phuoc|publisher=Grafikol|year=2010|isbn=978-0984404308|location=USA|pages=246–247}}</ref><ref>Rowland, 163-164</ref> Moreover, pointed arches vaulted entrances have been noted in Bhitargaon temple and Kausambi Palace architecture as well.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/|title=Group of Monuments at Hampi | Although Alexander Cunningham has persisted in the notion that the Buddhist [[Mahabodhi Temple]]'s pointed arch was added later during a Burmese restoration, given its predominant use in Islamic architecture, scholars such as Huu Phuoc Le have contested this assumption based on analysis that relieving arches could not have been added without destroying the entire temple structure, which is dated to 6th–7th century CE. Hence the pointed and relieving arches much have formed part of the original building dating from the pre-Islamic periods in proper.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buddhist Architecture|last=Le|first=Huu Phuoc|publisher=Grafikol|year=2010|isbn=978-0984404308|location=USA|pages=246–247}}</ref><ref>Rowland, 163-164</ref> Moreover, pointed arches vaulted entrances have been noted in Bhitargaon temple and Kausambi Palace architecture as well.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/|title=Group of Monuments at Hampi|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214052910/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/|archive-date=2019-02-14|access-date=2019-10-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=District Gazetteers Of The United Provinces Of Agra And Oudh Cawnpore Vol Xix|pages=190}}</ref> | ||
=== Trabeate style === | === Trabeate style === | ||
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=== Torana === | === Torana === | ||
[[File:Nova_Toran_Temple_,_Khor_,Neemuch_Nimach_near_vikram_Cement_Campus_(20).jpg|thumb|[[Nav Toran Temple]], [[Neemuch]], Madhya Pradesh]] | [[File:Nova_Toran_Temple_,_Khor_,Neemuch_Nimach_near_vikram_Cement_Campus_(20).jpg|thumb|[[Nav Toran Temple]], [[Neemuch]], Madhya Pradesh]] | ||
'''Torana''', also referred to as '''vandanamalikas''',<ref name=tor10>Parul Pandya Dhar (2010): ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture''. New Delhi: D K Printworld. {{ISBN|978-8124605349}}.</ref> is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes seen in the [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] architecture of the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Southeast Asia]] and parts of [[East Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|title=Toraṇa {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631|access-date=2018-08-08|last1=Hardy|first1=Adam|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4}}</ref> Chinese [[paifang]] gateways, Japanese [[torii]] gateways,<ref name=tor4>{{cite book |author=Albert Henry Longhurst |title=The Story of the Stūpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17 |year=1992 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0160-4 |page=17 }}</ref><ref name=tor5>{{cite book|title=China's old dwellings|author=Ronald G. Knapp|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=2000|page=85|isbn=0-8248-2214-5}}</ref><ref name=tor6>{{cite book|title=Frommer's China|author1=Simon Foster |author2=Jen Lin-Liu |author3=Sharon Owyang |author4=Sherisse Pham |author5=Beth Reiber |author6=Lee Wing-sze |publisher=[[Frommers]]|year=2010|page=435|isbn=978-0-470-52658-3}}</ref> Korean [[Hongsalmun]] gateways, and Thai [[Giant Swing|Sao Ching Cha]]<ref name="scheid">{{cite web|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|title=Religion in Japan|last=Scheid|first=Bernhard|work=Torii|publisher=University of Vienna|language=German| | '''Torana''', also referred to as '''vandanamalikas''',<ref name=tor10>Parul Pandya Dhar (2010): ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture''. New Delhi: D K Printworld. {{ISBN|978-8124605349}}.</ref> is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes seen in the [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] architecture of the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Southeast Asia]] and parts of [[East Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|title=Toraṇa {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631|access-date=2018-08-08|last1=Hardy|first1=Adam|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4}}</ref> Chinese [[paifang]] gateways, Japanese [[torii]] gateways,<ref name=tor4>{{cite book |author=Albert Henry Longhurst |title=The Story of the Stūpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17 |year=1992 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0160-4 |page=17 }}</ref><ref name=tor5>{{cite book|title=China's old dwellings|author=Ronald G. Knapp|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=2000|page=85|isbn=0-8248-2214-5}}</ref><ref name=tor6>{{cite book|title=Frommer's China|author1=Simon Foster |author2=Jen Lin-Liu |author3=Sharon Owyang |author4=Sherisse Pham |author5=Beth Reiber |author6=Lee Wing-sze |publisher=[[Frommers]]|year=2010|page=435|isbn=978-0-470-52658-3}}</ref> Korean [[Hongsalmun]] gateways, and Thai [[Giant Swing|Sao Ching Cha]]<ref name="scheid">{{cite web|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|title=Religion in Japan|last=Scheid|first=Bernhard|work=Torii|publisher=University of Vienna|language=German|access-date=12 February 2010}}</ref> were derived from the Indian ''torana''. | ||
Torana is considered sacred and honorific gateway in [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]] and [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]] religious sites.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/torana</ref> It is built with a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights or posts. Mostly made of [[wood]] or [[Rock (geology)|stone]], and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculpted. | Torana is considered sacred and honorific gateway in [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]] and [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]] religious sites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/torana|title=torana | Indian temple gateway|website=Britannica.com|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref> It is built with a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights or posts. Mostly made of [[wood]] or [[Rock (geology)|stone]], and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculpted. | ||
Toranas are associated with Buddhist [[stupa]]s like the ''[[Great Stupa of Sanchi|Great Stupa]]'' in [[Sanchi]], as well as with Jain and Hindu structures, and also with several secular structures. Symbolic toranas can also be made of flowers and even leaves and hung over the doors and at entrances, particularly in Western and Southern India. They are believed to bring good fortune and signify auspicious and festive occasions. They can also serve didactic and narrative purposes or be erected to mark the victory of a king.<ref>Parul Pandya Dhar, (2010). ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture,'' (New Delhi: D K Printworld,).</ref> | Toranas are associated with Buddhist [[stupa]]s like the ''[[Great Stupa of Sanchi|Great Stupa]]'' in [[Sanchi]], as well as with Jain and Hindu structures, and also with several secular structures. Symbolic toranas can also be made of flowers and even leaves and hung over the doors and at entrances, particularly in Western and Southern India. They are believed to bring good fortune and signify auspicious and festive occasions. They can also serve didactic and narrative purposes or be erected to mark the victory of a king.<ref>Parul Pandya Dhar, (2010). ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture,'' (New Delhi: D K Printworld,).</ref> | ||
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|width=180 | |width=180 | ||
|height=120 | |height=120 | ||
|File:North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG|Rear side of North Torana of Stupa-1 at [[Sanchi]] Hill, 3rd century BCE to 1st century BCE, India | |File:North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG|Rear side of North Torana of Stupa-1 at [[Sanchi]] Hill, 3rd century BCE to 1st century BCE, India | ||
|5=File:Dola Mandap.jpg|6=A photo of Torana taken in 1890 of 10th century [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], India.|7=File:Muktesvara deula.jpg|8=Torana of the 10th century [[Muktesvara deula]], India.|9=File:Warangal_fort.jpg|10=Torana from the 12th century [[Kakatiya dynasty]], at [[Warangal Fort]], India | |5=File:Dola Mandap.jpg|6=A photo of Torana taken in 1890 of 10th century [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], India.|7=File:Muktesvara deula.jpg|8=Torana of the 10th century [[Muktesvara deula]], India.|9=File:Warangal_fort.jpg|10=Torana from the 12th century [[Kakatiya dynasty]], at [[Warangal Fort]], India|11=File:Door to ancient time.jpg|12=Torana in Sas-Bahu Temple, Udaipur}} | ||
=== Gavaksha === | === Gavaksha === | ||
A Gavaksha or chandrashala are often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall, around the single large window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a very flexible unit.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Glossary of Asian Art|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/asianartglossary.html#chandrashala|access-date=2021-07-15|website= | A Gavaksha or chandrashala are often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall, around the single large window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a very flexible unit.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Glossary of Asian Art|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/asianartglossary.html#chandrashala|access-date=2021-07-15|website=Art-and-archaeology.com}}</ref> Gavāksha is a Sanskrit word which means "bulls or cows eye". In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendour of the central icon in its sanctum.<ref>Elgood (2000), 103</ref> Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world. Like the whole of the classic chaitya, the form originated in the shape of the wooden thatched roofs of buildings, none of which have survived; the earliest version replicating such roofs in stone is at the entrance to the non-Buddhist Lomas Rishi Cave, one of the man-made Barabar Caves in Bihar. | ||
== Influence on neighboring Asian countries == | == Influence on neighboring Asian countries == | ||
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==== Vietnam ==== | ==== Vietnam ==== | ||
{{See also | Art of Champa |}} | {{See also | Art of Champa |}} | ||
[[File:Tháp_Po_Klaung_Garai,_Phan_Rang,_Ninh_Thuận.JPG|left|thumb|[[Po Klong Garai Temple]] near [[Phan Rang]] | [[File:Tháp_Po_Klaung_Garai,_Phan_Rang,_Ninh_Thuận.JPG|left|thumb|[[Po Klong Garai Temple]] near [[Phan Rang]]]] | ||
The profile of the 13th-century [[Po Klong Garai Temple]] near [[Phan Rang]] includes all the buildings typical of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the ''gopura'', the saddle-shaped ''kosagrha'', and ''mandapa'' attached to the ''kalan'' tower. | The profile of the 13th-century [[Po Klong Garai Temple]] near [[Phan Rang]] includes all the buildings typical of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the ''gopura'', the saddle-shaped ''kosagrha'', and ''mandapa'' attached to the ''kalan'' tower. | ||
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Indo-Saracenic architecture was a [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist architectural]] style mostly used by British architects in India in the later 19th century, especially in public and government buildings in the [[British Raj]], and the palaces of rulers of the [[princely state]]s. It drew stylistic and decorative elements from native [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], especially [[Mughal architecture]]. The basic layout and structure of the buildings tended to be close to that used in contemporary buildings in other revivalist styles, such as [[Gothic revival architecture|Gothic revival]] and [[Neoclassical architecture|Neo-Classical]], with specific Indian features and decoration added. | Indo-Saracenic architecture was a [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist architectural]] style mostly used by British architects in India in the later 19th century, especially in public and government buildings in the [[British Raj]], and the palaces of rulers of the [[princely state]]s. It drew stylistic and decorative elements from native [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], especially [[Mughal architecture]]. The basic layout and structure of the buildings tended to be close to that used in contemporary buildings in other revivalist styles, such as [[Gothic revival architecture|Gothic revival]] and [[Neoclassical architecture|Neo-Classical]], with specific Indian features and decoration added. | ||
[[File:Masjid_Ubudiah,_Kuala_Kangsar.JPG|thumb|[[Ubudiah Mosque|Masjid Ubudiah]], showcasing elements of Indo-Saracenic style | [[File:Masjid_Ubudiah,_Kuala_Kangsar.JPG|thumb|[[Ubudiah Mosque|Masjid Ubudiah]], showcasing elements of Indo-Saracenic style]] | ||
According to [[Thomas R. Metcalf]], a leading scholar of the style, "the Indo-Saracenic, with its imagined past turned to the purposes of British colonialism, took shape outside India [ie the subcontinent] most fully only in Malaya". | According to [[Thomas R. Metcalf]], a leading scholar of the style, "the Indo-Saracenic, with its imagined past turned to the purposes of British colonialism, took shape outside India [ie the subcontinent] most fully only in Malaya". | ||
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Much of Myanmar's architecture is tied to ancient Indian culture, and can be traced to the country's earliest known inhabitants.<ref name="worldbook">{{Cite book|title=Myanmar|publisher=World Book Inc.|year=2016|location=Chicago|chapter=Art}}</ref> The [[Mon people|Mon]] and Pyu people were the first two influential groups to migrated to Myanmar, and the first [[Indochina|Indo-Chinese]] adherents of [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]].<ref name="worldbook"/> [[Beikthano]], one of the first Pyu centers, contains urbanesque foundations which include a monastery and [[stupa]]-like structures. These Pyu stupas, the first Indian foundations in Myanmar, were built from 200 BC to 100 CE and were sometimes used for burial. | Much of Myanmar's architecture is tied to ancient Indian culture, and can be traced to the country's earliest known inhabitants.<ref name="worldbook">{{Cite book|title=Myanmar|publisher=World Book Inc.|year=2016|location=Chicago|chapter=Art}}</ref> The [[Mon people|Mon]] and Pyu people were the first two influential groups to migrated to Myanmar, and the first [[Indochina|Indo-Chinese]] adherents of [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]].<ref name="worldbook"/> [[Beikthano]], one of the first Pyu centers, contains urbanesque foundations which include a monastery and [[stupa]]-like structures. These Pyu stupas, the first Indian foundations in Myanmar, were built from 200 BC to 100 CE and were sometimes used for burial. | ||
[[File:Balloon over Bagan.jpg|left|thumb|Temples in Bagan]] | [[File:Balloon over Bagan.jpg|left|thumb|Temples in Bagan]] | ||
During [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan period]], the Pyu-style stupas were transformed into monuments reminiscent of alms bowls or gourd-shaped [[dome]]s, unbaked [[brick]], tapered and rising roofs, Buddha niches, polylobed [[arch]]es and ornamental doorways influenced by Bengali [[Pala Empire]] and its monuments. The [[Ananda Temple]] (finished in 1090), one of the first temples erected in [[Bagan]], was influenced by Indian architecture.<ref>{{Cite web | During [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan period]], the Pyu-style stupas were transformed into monuments reminiscent of alms bowls or gourd-shaped [[dome]]s, unbaked [[brick]], tapered and rising roofs, Buddha niches, polylobed [[arch]]es and ornamental doorways influenced by Bengali [[Pala Empire]] and its monuments. The [[Ananda Temple]] (finished in 1090), one of the first temples erected in [[Bagan]], was influenced by Indian architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ananda Pahto Temple, Bagan, Myanmar|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/513/myanmar/bagan/ananda-pahto-temple|website=Orientalarchitecture.com}}</ref> Architectural features of the temple include brick vaulted halls, Buddha statues, tapered roofs and the absence of [[Terrace (building)|terraces]]. | ||
[[File:Ananda-Bagan-Myanmar-18-gje.jpg|thumb|Ananda Temple terracotta plaque glazed in green | [[File:Ananda-Bagan-Myanmar-18-gje.jpg|thumb|Ananda Temple terracotta plaque glazed in green]] | ||
Pala influence and spread of Buddhism in Myanmar also brought in terracotta tiles from Bengal. The terracotta plaques at Pagan are made with well kneaded and fired clay but all the plaques are glazed with green colour. | Pala influence and spread of Buddhism in Myanmar also brought in terracotta tiles from Bengal. The terracotta plaques at Pagan are made with well kneaded and fired clay but all the plaques are glazed with green colour. | ||
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During that period, several instance of artistic influence are known, particular in the area of monumental stone sculpture and statuary, an area with no known precedents in India. The main period of stone architectural creation seems to correspond to the period of Ashoka's reign. Before that, Indians had a tradition of wooden architecture, remains of wooden palisades were discovered at archaeological sites in [[Pataliputra]], confirmed the Classical accounts. | During that period, several instance of artistic influence are known, particular in the area of monumental stone sculpture and statuary, an area with no known precedents in India. The main period of stone architectural creation seems to correspond to the period of Ashoka's reign. Before that, Indians had a tradition of wooden architecture, remains of wooden palisades were discovered at archaeological sites in [[Pataliputra]], confirmed the Classical accounts. | ||
The first examples of stone architecture were also found in the palace compound of Pataliputra, with the distinctly Hellenistic [[Pataliputra capital]] and a pillared hall using polished-stone columns. The other remarkable example of monumental stone architecture is that of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], themselves displaying Hellenistic influence. There is also very early stone architecture in the palace at [[Kosambi]], including true arches used in the underground chambers, from the last phase of the palace in the 1st or 2nd century CE.<ref>Gosh, A. (1964). ''Indian Archaeology: A review 1961-62'', New | The first examples of stone architecture were also found in the palace compound of Pataliputra, with the distinctly Hellenistic [[Pataliputra capital]] and a pillared hall using polished-stone columns. The other remarkable example of monumental stone architecture is that of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], themselves displaying Hellenistic influence. There is also very early stone architecture in the palace at [[Kosambi]], including true arches used in the underground chambers, from the last phase of the palace in the 1st or 2nd century CE.<ref>Gosh, A. (1964). ''Indian Archaeology: A review 1961-62'', New Delhi, Archaeological survey of India, pp. 50–52, [https://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201961-62%20A%20Review.pdf PDF]; Harle, 43</ref> | ||
==== Pataliputra capital ==== | ==== Pataliputra capital ==== | ||
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}} | }} | ||
[[Lion Capital of Ashoka]] from [[Sarnath]].The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] conquered and governed the territories of the North-western regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]], from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. The conquest occurred in two phases. The first invasion was conducted around 535 BCE by [[Cyrus the Great]], who founded the Achaemenid Empire.{{sfn|Sen | [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]] from [[Sarnath]].The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] conquered and governed the territories of the North-western regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]], from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. The conquest occurred in two phases. The first invasion was conducted around 535 BCE by [[Cyrus the Great]], who founded the Achaemenid Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}} Cyrus annexed the regions west of the [[Indus River]], which formed the eastern border of his empire. Following the death of Cyrus, [[Darius the Great]] established his dynasty and began to reconquer former provinces and further expand the extent of the empire. Around 518 BCE Darius crossed the Himalayas into India to initiate a second period of conquest by annexing regions up to the [[Jhelum River]] in [[Punjab]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=André-Salvini|first=Béatrice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJnaKu9DdNEC|title=Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia|date=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24731-4|language=en}}</ref> Each invasion brought in new style and soon started to influence the art and architectural styles in India. | ||
Various Indian artefacts tend to suggest some Perso-Hellenistic artistic influence in India, mainly felt during the time of the [[Mauryan Empire]].{{sfn|Sen | Various Indian artefacts tend to suggest some Perso-Hellenistic artistic influence in India, mainly felt during the time of the [[Mauryan Empire]].{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}} | ||
The [[Pataliputra]] palace with its pillared hall shows decorative influences of the Achaemenid palaces and Persepolis and may have used the help of foreign craftsmen.<ref>[http://jsr.usb.ac.ir/article_1659_265.html The Analysis of Indian Muria Empire affected from Achaemenid's architecture art] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144452/http://jsr.usb.ac.ir/article_1659_265.html|date=2 April 2015}}. In: Journal of Subcontinent Researches. Article 8, Volume 6, Issue 19, Summer 2014, Page 149-174.</ref>{{sfn|Sen | The [[Pataliputra]] palace with its pillared hall shows decorative influences of the Achaemenid palaces and Persepolis and may have used the help of foreign craftsmen.<ref>[http://jsr.usb.ac.ir/article_1659_265.html The Analysis of Indian Muria Empire affected from Achaemenid's architecture art] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144452/http://jsr.usb.ac.ir/article_1659_265.html|date=2 April 2015}}. In: Journal of Subcontinent Researches. Article 8, Volume 6, Issue 19, Summer 2014, Page 149-174.</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}} Mauryan rulers may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments.<ref>{{cite book|title=Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj|author1=A. S. Bhalla|author2=I.B. Tauris|date=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |page= 18|isbn=9781784530877}}</ref> This may be the result of the formative influence of craftsmen employed from Persia following the disintegration of the Achaemenid Empire after the conquests of Alexander the Great.<ref name="auto1">"The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE-200 CE" Robin Coningham, Ruth Young Cambridge University Press, 31 aout 2015, p.414 [https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA414]</ref><ref>[[iarchive:reportonexcavat01waddgoog|Report on the excavations at Pātaliputra (Patna); the Palibothra of the Greeks by Waddell, L. A. (Laurence Austine)]]</ref> | ||
The renowned [[Mauryan polish]], especially used in the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], may also have been a technique imported from the Achaemenid Empire.{{sfn|Sen | The renowned [[Mauryan polish]], especially used in the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], may also have been a technique imported from the Achaemenid Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}} | ||
==== Rock cut architecture ==== | ==== Rock cut architecture ==== | ||
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}} | }} | ||
The sculpture of the [[Masarh lion]], found near the Maurya capital of [[Pataliputra]], raises the question of the Achaemenid and Greek influence on the art of the [[Mauryan art|Maurya Empire]], and on the western origins of stone carving in India. The lion is carved in [[Chunar stone|Chunar sandstone]], like the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], and its finish is polished, a feature of the [[Mauryan art|Maurya sculpture]].<ref name="Gupta 88">Page 88: "There is one fragmentary lion head from Masarh, Distt. Bhojpur, Bihar. It is carved out of Chunar sandstone and it also bears the typical Mauryan polish. But it is undoubtedly based on the Achaemenian idiom. The tubular or wick-like whiskers and highly decorated neck with long locks of the mane with one series arranged like sea waves is somewhat non-Indian in approach . But, to be exact, we have an example of a lion from a sculptural frieze from Persepolis of 5th century BCE in which it is overpowering a bull which may be compared with the Masarh lion."... Page 122: "This particular example of a foreign model gets added support from the male heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath since they also prove beyond doubt that a section of the elite in the Gangetic Basin was of foreign origin. However, as noted earlier, this is an example of the late Mauryan period since this is not the type | The sculpture of the [[Masarh lion]], found near the Maurya capital of [[Pataliputra]], raises the question of the Achaemenid and Greek influence on the art of the [[Mauryan art|Maurya Empire]], and on the western origins of stone carving in India. The lion is carved in [[Chunar stone|Chunar sandstone]], like the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], and its finish is polished, a feature of the [[Mauryan art|Maurya sculpture]].<ref name="Gupta 88">Page 88: "There is one fragmentary lion head from Masarh, Distt. Bhojpur, Bihar. It is carved out of Chunar sandstone and it also bears the typical Mauryan polish. But it is undoubtedly based on the Achaemenian idiom. The tubular or wick-like whiskers and highly decorated neck with long locks of the mane with one series arranged like sea waves is somewhat non-Indian in approach . But, to be exact, we have an example of a lion from a sculptural frieze from Persepolis of 5th century BCE in which it is overpowering a bull which may be compared with the Masarh lion."... Page 122: "This particular example of a foreign model gets added support from the male heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath since they also prove beyond doubt that a section of the elite in the Gangetic Basin was of foreign origin. However, as noted earlier, this is an example of the late Mauryan period since this is not the type adopted in any Ashoka pillar. We are, therefore, visualizing a historical situation in India in which the West Asian influence on Indian art was felt more in the late Mauryan than in the early Mauryan period. The term West Asia in this context stands for Iran and Afghanistan, where the Sakas and Pahlavas had their basecamps for eastward movement. The prelude to future inroads of the Indo-Bactrians in India had after all started in the second century B.C."... in {{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Swarajya Prakash|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0lDqAAAAMAAJ|title=The Roots of Indian Art: A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan|year=1980|publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|isbn=978-0-391-02172-3|pages=88, 122|language=en|author-link=Swaraj Prakash Gupta}}. Also {{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Vinay (Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Faculty Member)|date=2015|title=West Asian Influence on Lion Motifs in Mauryan Art|url=https://www.academia.edu/10709971|journal=Heritage and Us|language=en|issue=4|page=14}}</ref> According to [[Swaraj Prakash Gupta|S.P. Gupta]], the sculptural style is unquestionably [[Achaemenid art|Achaemenid]].<ref name="Gupta 88" /> This is particularly the case for the well-ordered tubular representation of whiskers ([[vibrissa]]s) and the geometrical representation of inflated veins flush with the entire face.<ref name="Gupta 88" /> The mane, on the other hand, with tufts of hair represented in wavelets, is rather naturalistic.<ref name="Gupta 88" /> Very similar examples are however known in Greece and [[Persepolis]].<ref name="Gupta 88" /> It is possible that this sculpture was made by an Achaemenid or Greek sculptor in India and either remained without effect, or was the Indian imitation of a Greek or Achaemenid model, somewhere between the fifth century BCE and the first century BCE, although it is generally dated from the time of the [[Maurya Empire]], around the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="Gupta 88" /> | ||
==== See also ==== | ==== See also ==== | ||
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* Rowland, Benjamin, ''The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain'', 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, {{ISBN|0140561021}} | * Rowland, Benjamin, ''The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain'', 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, {{ISBN|0140561021}} | ||
* Savage, George (2008), ''interior design'', Encyclopædia Britannica. | * Savage, George (2008), ''interior design'', Encyclopædia Britannica. | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/133102415 |title=Ancient Indian history and civilization |date=1999 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=81-224-1198-3 |edition=2 |location=New Delhi |oclc=133102415}} | |||
* {{cite book|last=Tadgell|first=Christopher|title=The history of architecture in India : from the dawn of civilization to the end of the Raj|year=1990|publisher=Architecture Design and Technology Press|location=London|isbn=978-1-85454-350-9}} | * {{cite book|last=Tadgell|first=Christopher|title=The history of architecture in India : from the dawn of civilization to the end of the Raj|year=1990|publisher=Architecture Design and Technology Press|location=London|isbn=978-1-85454-350-9}} | ||
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Bindia|title=Introduction to Indian Architecture|year=2004|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Singapore|isbn=978-0-7946-0011-2}} | * {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Bindia|title=Introduction to Indian Architecture|year=2004|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Singapore|isbn=978-0-7946-0011-2}} | ||
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* {{cite book |last=Soekmono |author-link=Soekmono |first=R.|editor=Jan Fontein|editor-link=Jan Fontein| title= The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Volume 17 from Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol 17| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7cd2Ha7fT90C |publisher=E.J. BRILL | year=1995 |location=Leiden |isbn=9789004102156 }} | * {{cite book |last=Soekmono |author-link=Soekmono |first=R.|editor=Jan Fontein|editor-link=Jan Fontein| title= The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Volume 17 from Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol 17| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7cd2Ha7fT90C |publisher=E.J. BRILL | year=1995 |location=Leiden |isbn=9789004102156 }} | ||
* Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu/S.K.Ramachandara Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series) {{ISBN|978-93-81218-51-8}} (Set) | * Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu/S.K.Ramachandara Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series) {{ISBN|978-93-81218-51-8}} (Set) | ||
* {{cite book |title=Bidar, Its History and Monuments |last=Yazdani |first=Ghulam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6xpQpOCtzAC |date=1947 }} | |||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
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==External links== | ==External links== | ||
{{Commons category | * {{Commons category-inline}} | ||
* [http://www.kamit.jp/engl.htm Kamiya, Taeko, ''The Architecture of India''.] | * [http://www.kamit.jp/engl.htm Kamiya, Taeko, ''The Architecture of India''.] | ||
* Focuscivil, [https://www.focuscivil.online/introduction-of-medieval-period-architecture/ mediaeval period architecture of india] | * Focuscivil, [https://www.focuscivil.online/introduction-of-medieval-period-architecture/ mediaeval period architecture of india] | ||