Jump to content

Ahimsa: Difference between revisions

Ahimsa (edit)

Revision as of 09:25, 24 April 2022

1,716 bytes added ,  24 April 2022
robot: Update article
(robot: Add missing article in Category:Mahabharata)
 
(robot: Update article)
 
Line 5: Line 5:
[[File:Lord Mahavir Gold.jpg|thumb|Lord [[Mahavira]], the torch-bearer of ahimsa]]
[[File:Lord Mahavir Gold.jpg|thumb|Lord [[Mahavira]], the torch-bearer of ahimsa]]


'''Ahimsa''' ({{Lang-sa|अहिंसा}}, [[IAST]]: ''ahiṃsā'', {{lit|nonviolence}}; {{IPA-pi|avihiṃsā}}<ref name="Johansson2012">{{cite book|author=Rune E. A. Johansson|title=Pali Buddhist Texts: An Introductory Reader and Grammar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CXBmlQvw7PwC&pg=PT143 |date=6 December 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-11106-8|page=143}}</ref>), less commonly spelled '''ahinsa''', is an ancient Indian principle of [[nonviolence]] which applies to all living beings. It is a key [[virtue]] in the [[Dharmic religion|Dhārmic religions]]: [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Hinduism]].<ref name=evpc/><ref name=pauldundas160/><ref name=historyindia2011>Bajpai, Shiva (2011). ''[http://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/the-history-of-hindu-india/the-history-of-hindu-india.pdf The History of India – From Ancient to Modern Times]'', Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA), {{ISBN|978-1-934145-38-8}}; see pages 8, 98</ref>
'''Ahimsa''' ({{Lang-sa|अहिंसा}}, [[IAST]]: ''ahiṃsā'', {{lit|nonviolence}}<ref name="Johansson2012">{{cite book|author=Rune E. A. Johansson|title=Pali Buddhist Texts: An Introductory Reader and Grammar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CXBmlQvw7PwC&pg=PT143 |date=6 December 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-11106-8|page=143}}</ref>), less commonly spelled '''ahinsa''', is an ancient Indian principle of [[nonviolence]] which applies to all living beings. It is a key [[virtue]] in the [[Dharmic religion|Dhārmic religions]]: [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Hinduism]].<ref name=evpc/><ref name=pauldundas160/><ref name=historyindia2011>Bajpai, Shiva (2011). ''[http://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/the-history-of-hindu-india/the-history-of-hindu-india.pdf The History of India – From Ancient to Modern Times]'', Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA), {{ISBN|978-1-934145-38-8}}; see pages 8, 98</ref>


Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues<ref name=evpc/> of Jainism, where it is first of the [[Jain Ethics|Pancha Mahavrata]]. It is also the first of the [[five precepts]] of Buddhism. ''Ahimsa'' is a multidimensional concept,<ref name="arapura">John Arapura in K. R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji Ed. (1997), Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1937-5}}; see Chapter 20, pages 392–417</ref> inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. ''Ahimsa'' has also been related to the notion that any violence has [[Karma|karmic]] consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and refined the principles of ''Ahimsa'', the concept also reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism.<ref name="evpc">Stephen H. Phillips and other authors (2008), in ''Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict'' (Second Edition), {{ISBN|978-0-12-373985-8}}, Elsevier Science, Pages 1347–1356, 701–849, 1867</ref><ref name="chapple1990">Chapple, C. (1990). Nonviolence to animals, earth and self in Asian Traditions (see Chapter 1). State University of New York Press (1993)</ref> Lord [[Parsvanatha]], the twenty-third ''[[tirthankara]]'' of Jainism, revived and preached the concept of non-violence in the 9th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shah|first=Natubhai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC&q=Parsvanatha+revived+non+violence&pg=PA27|title=Jainism: The World of Conquerors|date=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishe|isbn=978-81-208-1938-2|language=en|page=27}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Parshvanatha |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha |encyclopedia=britannica.com }}</ref> [[Mahavira]], the twenty-fourth and the last ''tirthankara'', further strengthened the idea in the 6th century BCE.<ref>{{citation |title=Mahavira |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahavira-Jaina-teacher |encyclopedia=britannica.com }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Patel|first=Haresh|title=Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect &#91;A Latter-Day Saint&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXgEfiNY46sC&pg=PA271|date=2009|publisher=Strategic Book Publishing|isbn=978-1-60693-846-1|page=271}}</ref> Between the 1st century BCE and 5th century CE, [[Valluvar]] emphasized ahimsa and [[moral vegetarianism]] as virtues for an individual, which formed the core of his teachings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Das|first= G. N.|year= 1997| title= Readings from Thirukkural | publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 8-1701-7342-6|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pDZilIimNRIC&pg=PA11 | pages=11–12 }}</ref> Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of ''Ahimsa'' was [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref>Gandhi, M. (2002). ''The essential Gandhi: an anthology of his writings on his life, work, and ideas''. Random House Digital, Inc.</ref>
Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues<ref name=evpc/> of Jainism, where it is first of the [[Jain Ethics|Pancha Mahavrata]]. It is also the first of the [[five precepts]] of Buddhism. ''Ahimsa'' is a multidimensional concept,<ref name="arapura">John Arapura in K. R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji Ed. (1997), Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1937-5}}; see Chapter 20, pages 392–417</ref> inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. ''Ahimsa'' has also been related to the notion that any violence has [[Karma|karmic]] consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and refined the principles of ''Ahimsa'', the concept also reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism.<ref name="evpc">Stephen H. Phillips and other authors (2008), in ''Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict'' (Second Edition), {{ISBN|978-0-12-373985-8}}, Elsevier Science, Pages 1347–1356, 701–849, 1867</ref><ref name="chapple1990">Chapple, C. (1990). Nonviolence to animals, earth and self in Asian Traditions (see Chapter 1). State University of New York Press (1993)</ref> Lord [[Parsvanatha]], the twenty-third ''[[tirthankara]]'' of Jainism, revived and preached the concept of non-violence in the 9th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shah|first=Natubhai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC&q=Parsvanatha+revived+non+violence&pg=PA27|title=Jainism: The World of Conquerors|date=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishe|isbn=978-81-208-1938-2|language=en|page=27}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Parshvanatha |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha |encyclopedia=britannica.com }}</ref> [[Mahavira]], the twenty-fourth and the last ''tirthankara'', further strengthened the idea in the 6th century BCE.<ref>{{citation |title=Mahavira |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahavira-Jaina-teacher |encyclopedia=britannica.com }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Patel|first=Haresh|title=Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect &#91;A Latter-Day Saint&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXgEfiNY46sC&pg=PA271|date=2009|publisher=Strategic Book Publishing|isbn=978-1-60693-846-1|page=271}}</ref> Between the 1st century BCE and 5th century CE, [[Valluvar]] emphasized ahimsa and [[moral vegetarianism]] as virtues for an individual, which formed the core of his teachings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Das|first= G. N.|year= 1997| title= Readings from Thirukkural | publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 8-1701-7342-6|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pDZilIimNRIC&pg=PA11 | pages=11–12 }}</ref> Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of ''Ahimsa'' was [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref>Gandhi, M. (2002). ''The essential Gandhi: an anthology of his writings on his life, work, and ideas''. Random House Digital, Inc.</ref>
Line 20: Line 20:


===Ancient Vedic texts===
===Ancient Vedic texts===
Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts.<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>Walli, Koshelya: ''The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought'', Varanasi 1974, p. 113–145.</ref> The oldest scriptures indirectly mention ''Ahimsa'', but do not emphasize it. Over time, the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of ''Ahimsa'' is increasingly refined and emphasized, until ''Ahimsa'' becomes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words [[Satya]] (truthfulness) and ''Ahimsa'' in a prayer to deity Indra;<ref>Sanskrit: अस्मे ता त इन्द्र सन्तु '''सत्याहिंस'''न्तीरुपस्पृशः । विद्याम यासां भुजो धेनूनां न वज्रिवः ॥१३॥ [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda 10.22] Wikisource;<br />English: Unto Tähtinen (1964), Non-violence as an Ethical Principle, Turun Yliopisto, Finland, PhD Thesis, pages 23–25; {{oclc|4288274}};<br />For other occurrence of ''Ahimsa'' in Rigveda, see [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.६४ Rigveda 5.64.3], [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.१४१ Rigveda 1.141.5];</ref> later, the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]] dated to be between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html To do no harm] Project Gutenberg, see translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE;<br />For other occurrences of ''Ahimsa'' in Vedic literature, see [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/150/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance] [[Maurice Bloomfield]], Harvard University Press, page 151</ref>
Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts.<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walli |first1=Koshelya |title=The Conception Of Ahimsa In Indian Thought |date=1974 |publisher=Bharat Manisha |location=Varanasi, India |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.546899/page/n1/mode/2up |ref={{sfnref|Walli}}}}</ref>{{rp|113-145}} The oldest scriptures indirectly mention ''Ahimsa'', but do not emphasize it. Over time, the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of ''Ahimsa'' is increasingly refined and emphasized, until ''Ahimsa'' becomes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words [[Satya]] (truthfulness) and ''Ahimsa'' in a prayer to deity Indra;<ref>Sanskrit: अस्मे ता त इन्द्र सन्तु '''सत्याहिंस'''न्तीरुपस्पृशः । विद्याम यासां भुजो धेनूनां न वज्रिवः ॥१३॥ [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda 10.22] Wikisource;<br />English: Unto Tähtinen (1964), Non-violence as an Ethical Principle, Turun Yliopisto, Finland, PhD Thesis, pages 23–25; {{oclc|4288274}};<br />For other occurrence of ''Ahimsa'' in Rigveda, see [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.६४ Rigveda 5.64.3], [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.१४१ Rigveda 1.141.5];</ref> later, the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]] dated to be between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html To do no harm] Project Gutenberg, see translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE;<br />For other occurrences of ''Ahimsa'' in Vedic literature, see [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/150/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance] [[Maurice Bloomfield]], Harvard University Press, page 151</ref>


The term ''Ahimsa'' appears in the text [[Taittiriya Shakha]] of the [[Yajurveda]] (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.<ref>Tähtinen p. 2.</ref> It occurs several times in the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' in the sense of "non-injury".<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The ''Ahimsa'' doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., ''Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalisation of violence in "South Asian" cultural history.'' BRILL, 1999 page 30.</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (''pashu-Ahimsa''), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–3.</ref>
The term ''Ahimsa'' appears in the text [[Taittiriya Shakha]] of the [[Yajurveda]] (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.<ref>Tähtinen p. 2.</ref> It occurs several times in the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' in the sense of "non-injury".<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The ''Ahimsa'' doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., ''Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalisation of violence in "South Asian" cultural history.'' BRILL, 1999 page 30.</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (''pashu-Ahimsa''), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–3.</ref>
Line 33: Line 33:


===The Epics===
===The Epics===
The [[Mahabharata]], one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, [[Mahaprasthanika Parva]] has the verse:<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm Mahabharata 13.117.37–38]</ref>
The [[Mahabharata]], one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, [[Anushasana Parva]] has the verse:<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm Mahabharata 13.117.37–38]</ref>
<blockquote><poem>
<blockquote><poem>
अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः।
अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः।
Line 81: Line 81:
The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits ([[sannyasa|sannyasin]]s) were urged to live on a [[fruitarian]] diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.<ref>Schmidt pp. 637–639; Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145</ref><ref>[[Rod Preece]], Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities, {{ISBN|978-0-7748-0725-8}}, University of British Columbia Press, pages 212–217</ref> Scholars<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'' (pages 168–177). Springer New York</ref><ref>Van Horn, G. (2006). Hindu Traditions and Nature: Survey Article. Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology, 10(1), 5–39</ref> claim the principles of ecological nonviolence is innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue.
The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits ([[sannyasa|sannyasin]]s) were urged to live on a [[fruitarian]] diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.<ref>Schmidt pp. 637–639; Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145</ref><ref>[[Rod Preece]], Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities, {{ISBN|978-0-7748-0725-8}}, University of British Columbia Press, pages 212–217</ref> Scholars<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'' (pages 168–177). Springer New York</ref><ref>Van Horn, G. (2006). Hindu Traditions and Nature: Survey Article. Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology, 10(1), 5–39</ref> claim the principles of ecological nonviolence is innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue.


The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the ''[[Tirukkural]],'' written in three volumes, likely between 450 and 500 CE, dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its [[Aram (Kural book)|first volume]] to the virtue of ''Ahimsa'', emphasizing on [[moral vegetarianism]] and [[non-killing]] (''kollamai'').<ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03591-5|pages=156–157}}</ref> However, the ''Tirukkural'' also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement "death sentence for the wicked".<ref name=Ananthanathan315>{{cite journal|title= Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural| author= A.K. Ananthanathan| journal= East and West| volume=44 | pages= 315–326| number= 2/4 |year=1994 |jstor= 29757156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Robinson|title=Just War in Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2lBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT169 |year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-92452-8|pages=169–170}}</ref>
The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the ''[[Tirukkural]],'' written in three volumes, likely between 450 and 500 CE, dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its [[Aram (Kural book)|first volume]] to the virtue of ''Ahimsa'', emphasizing on [[moral vegetarianism]] and [[non-killing]] (''kollamai'').<ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03591-5|pages=156–157}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Krishna | first = Nanditha | title = Hinduism and Nature | publisher = Penguin Random House | series = | volume = | edition = | date = 2017 | location = New Delhi | pages = 264 | url = https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Hinduism_and_Nature/gp1IDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=ahimsa+and+Tirukkural&pg=PT131&printsec=frontcover | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-93-8732-654-5}}</ref> However, the ''Tirukkural'' also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement "death sentence for the wicked".<ref name=Ananthanathan315>{{cite journal|title= Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural| author= A.K. Ananthanathan| journal= East and West| volume=44 | pages= 315–326| number= 2/4 |year=1994 |jstor= 29757156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Robinson|title=Just War in Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2lBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT169 |year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-92452-8|pages=169–170}}</ref>


===Modern times===
===Modern times===
Line 132: Line 132:
Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the [[Pāli Canon]].<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 111.</ref> While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal queen/king as a pacifist, such a queen/king is nonetheless flanked by an army.<ref name="Tessa Bartholomeusz 2002, page 41">Bartholomeusz, p. 41.</ref> It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists.<ref name="Tessa Bartholomeusz 2002, page 41"/> The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 50.</ref> In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.<ref>Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., ''Buddhism.'' Continuum, 2001, pages 195–196.</ref>
Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the [[Pāli Canon]].<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 111.</ref> While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal queen/king as a pacifist, such a queen/king is nonetheless flanked by an army.<ref name="Tessa Bartholomeusz 2002, page 41">Bartholomeusz, p. 41.</ref> It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists.<ref name="Tessa Bartholomeusz 2002, page 41"/> The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 50.</ref> In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.<ref>Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., ''Buddhism.'' Continuum, 2001, pages 195–196.</ref>


The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 40.</ref> Some argue that a [[suttas|sutta]] in the ''Gamani Samyuttam'' rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as she/he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if she/he is killed in battle while her/his mind is seized with the intention to kill, she/he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 125–126. Full texts of the sutta:[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn42/sn42.003.than.html].</ref> In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.<ref>Rune E.A. Johansson, ''The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism.'' Curzon Press 1979, page 33.</ref>
The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 40.</ref> Some argue that a [[suttas|sutta]] in the ''Gamani Samyuttam'' rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 125–126. Full texts of the sutta:[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn42/sn42.003.than.html].</ref> In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.<ref>Rune E.A. Johansson, ''The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism.'' Curzon Press 1979, page 33.</ref>


Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 40–53. Some examples are the ''Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta'', the ''Kosala Samyutta'', the ''Ratthapala Sutta'', and the ''Sinha Sutta''. See also page 125. See also Trevor Ling, ''Buddhism, Imperialism, and War.'' George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1979, pages 136–137.</ref> One example is the ''Kosala Samyutta'', in which King [[Pasenadi]], a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King [[Ajatasattu]] and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of [[Magadha]] has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajatasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajatasattu and did not harm him.<ref>Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=HJCvh8aWI_wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:0861713311&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Ajatshatru&f=false The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya]''. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-331-1}}. Page 177</ref> Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatasattu.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 49, 52–53.</ref>
Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 40–53. Some examples are the ''Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta'', the ''Kosala Samyutta'', the ''Ratthapala Sutta'', and the ''Sinha Sutta''. See also page 125. See also Trevor Ling, ''Buddhism, Imperialism, and War.'' George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1979, pages 136–137.</ref> One example is the ''Kosala Samyutta'', in which King [[Pasenadi]], a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King [[Ajatasattu]] and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of [[Magadha]] has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajatasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajatasattu and did not harm him.<ref>Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=HJCvh8aWI_wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:0861713311&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Ajatshatru&f=false The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya]''. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-331-1}}. Page 177</ref> Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatasattu.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 49, 52–53.</ref>
Line 147: Line 147:
People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist [[Ghost Festival]],<ref>[http://www.sx.chinanews.com.cn/2008-08-18/1/69009.html 农历中元节]{{Dead link|date=June 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Sx.chinanews.com.cn. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> the [[Nine Emperor Gods Festival]], and the [[Vegetarian Festival]], as well as during others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mxzxw.cn/zwhgz/wszl_16_23.htm|title=明溪县"禁屠日"习俗的由来|website=www.mxzxw.cn}} {{dead link|date=August 2019|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>[http://www.chinesefolklore.org.cn/web/index.php?Page=2&NewsID=3016 建构的节日：政策过程视角下的唐玄宗诞节]. Chinesefolklore.org.cn (2008-02-16). Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref>
People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist [[Ghost Festival]],<ref>[http://www.sx.chinanews.com.cn/2008-08-18/1/69009.html 农历中元节]{{Dead link|date=June 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Sx.chinanews.com.cn. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> the [[Nine Emperor Gods Festival]], and the [[Vegetarian Festival]], as well as during others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mxzxw.cn/zwhgz/wszl_16_23.htm|title=明溪县"禁屠日"习俗的由来|website=www.mxzxw.cn}} {{dead link|date=August 2019|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>[http://www.chinesefolklore.org.cn/web/index.php?Page=2&NewsID=3016 建构的节日：政策过程视角下的唐玄宗诞节]. Chinesefolklore.org.cn (2008-02-16). Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref>
{{clear}}
{{clear}}
==Modern views==
The idea of veganism or moral vegetarianism is linked to ahimsa. In 1960, [[H. Jay Dinshah]] founded the [[American Vegan Society]] (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa.<ref name=AVS50>{{Cite magazine|last=Dinshah|first=Freya|year=2010|title=American Vegan Society: 50 Years|url=http://www.americanvegan.org/AV1001.pdf|url-status=dead|magazine=American Vegan|series=2|publisher=[[American Vegan Society]]|location=Vineland, NJ|volume=10|issue=1 (Summer 2010)|page=31|issn=1536-3767|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722213651/http://www.americanvegan.org/AV1001.pdf|archive-date=22 July 2011|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>Stepaniak 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ia5eZIlgLUC&pg=PA6 6–7]; Preece 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uMnubkF5HjAC&pg=PA323 323].</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americanvegan.org/history.htm|title=History|publisher=American Vegan Society|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827105211/http://www.americanvegan.org/history.htm|archive-date=27 August 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 186: Line 189:
*Schmidt, Hanns Peter: ''The Origin of Ahimsa'', in: ''Mélanges d'Indianisme à la mémoire de Louis Renou'', Paris 1968
*Schmidt, Hanns Peter: ''The Origin of Ahimsa'', in: ''Mélanges d'Indianisme à la mémoire de Louis Renou'', Paris 1968
* {{citation |last=Sethia |first=Tara |title=Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism |url={{Google books|QYdlKv8wBiYC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2004 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Sethia |first=Tara |title=Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism |url={{Google books|QYdlKv8wBiYC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2004 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4 }}
*Tähtinen, Unto: ''Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition'', London 1976 {{ISBN|0-09-123340-2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tähtinen |first1=Unto |title=Ahiṃsā : non-violence in Indian tradition |date=1976 |publisher=Rider |location=London |isbn=0-09-123340-2 |ref={{sfnref|Tähtinen}}}}
* {{citation| last=Winternitz |first=Moriz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature| url={{Google books|Lgz1eMhu0JsC|plainurl=yes}}| year=1993 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0265-0}}
* {{citation| last=Winternitz |first=Moriz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature| url={{Google books|Lgz1eMhu0JsC|plainurl=yes}}| year=1993 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0265-0}}
{{Refend}}
{{Refend}}
Line 194: Line 197:
{{commons category|Ahimsa}}
{{commons category|Ahimsa}}
* {{cite web | title=Sanskrit: Ahimsa quotations from Puranic scripture| website=vedabase.net | date=2007-02-25 | url=http://vedabase.net/a/ahimsa | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070225222717/http://vedabase.net/a/ahimsa | archive-date=2007-02-25 | url-status=dead | access-date=2019-08-25}}
* {{cite web | title=Sanskrit: Ahimsa quotations from Puranic scripture| website=vedabase.net | date=2007-02-25 | url=http://vedabase.net/a/ahimsa | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070225222717/http://vedabase.net/a/ahimsa | archive-date=2007-02-25 | url-status=dead | access-date=2019-08-25}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.cpp.edu/~ahimsacenter/ahimsa_programs.shtml|title=AHIMSA Center|website=Cal Poly Pomona|postscript=: Series of Lectures on Ahimsa.}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.cpp.edu/~ahimsacenter/ahimsa_programs.shtml|title=AHIMSA Center|website=Cal Poly Pomona}} Series of Lectures on Ahimsa
* {{Cite web|url=http://fore.yale.edu/news/item/practicing-ahimsa-nonviolence-toward-humans-animals-and-earth/|title=Practicing Ahimsa: Nonviolence toward Humans, Animals, and Earth|last=Jain|first=Pankaj|date=2013|website=The Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale|access-date=2019-08-25}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://fore.yale.edu/news/item/practicing-ahimsa-nonviolence-toward-humans-animals-and-earth/|title=Practicing Ahimsa: Nonviolence toward Humans, Animals, and Earth|last=Jain|first=Pankaj|date=2013|website=The Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale|access-date=2019-08-25}}


Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/308752"