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=== Mental health === | === Mental health === | ||
Urbanization factors that contribute to [[mental health]] can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Luciano|title=Perceived insecurity, mental health and urbanization: Results from a multicentric study|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|volume=62|issue=6|pages=252–61|doi=10.1177/0020764016629694|pmid=26896027|year=2016|s2cid=37122169}}</ref> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=Helen|date=6 December 2007|title='Crowded suburbs' and 'killer cities': a brief review of the relationship between urban environments and mental health|journal=NSW Public Health Bulletin|volume=18|issue=12|pages=222–7|pmid=18093463|doi=10.1071/NB07024|doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<ref name="Srivastava IPJ">{{cite journal|last1=Srivastava|first1=Kalpana|date=July 2009|title=Urbanization and mental health|pmc=2996208|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal|volume=18|issue=2|pages=75–6|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.64028|pmid=21180479}}</ref> It is important to note that urbanization or population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with other public health measures that accompany urbanization.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} | Urbanization factors that contribute to [[mental health]] can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Luciano|title=Perceived insecurity, mental health and urbanization: Results from a multicentric study|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|volume=62|issue=6|pages=252–61|doi=10.1177/0020764016629694|pmid=26896027|year=2016|s2cid=37122169}}</ref> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=Helen|date=6 December 2007|title='Crowded suburbs' and 'killer cities': a brief review of the relationship between urban environments and mental health|journal=NSW Public Health Bulletin|volume=18|issue=12|pages=222–7|pmid=18093463|doi=10.1071/NB07024|doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<ref name="Srivastava IPJ">{{cite journal|last1=Srivastava|first1=Kalpana|date=July 2009|title=Urbanization and mental health|pmc=2996208|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal|volume=18|issue=2|pages=75–6|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.64028|pmid=21180479}}</ref> It is important to note that urbanization or population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with other public health measures that accompany urbanization.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} | ||
==Changing forms== | |||
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2021}} | |||
Different forms of urbanization can be classified depending on the style of architecture and planning methods as well as the historic growth of areas. | |||
[[File:2006megacities.svg|thumb|260px|right|Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006.]] | |||
In cities of the [[Developed country|developed world]] urbanization traditionally exhibited a concentration of human activities and settlements around the downtown area, the so-called ''in-migration''. In-migration refers to migration from former colonies and similar places. The fact that many immigrants settle in impoverished city centres led to the notion of the "peripheralization of the core", which simply describes that people who used to be at the periphery of the former empires now live right in the centre. | |||
Recent developments, such as [[inner-city]] redevelopment schemes, mean that new arrivals in cities no longer necessarily settle in the centre. In some developed regions, the reverse effect, originally called [[counter urbanization]] has occurred, with cities losing population to rural areas, and is particularly common for richer families. This has been possible because of improved communications and has been caused by factors such as the fear of crime and poor urban environments. It has contributed to the phenomenon of [[shrinking cities]] experienced by some parts of the industrialized world. | |||
Rural migrants are attracted by the possibilities that cities can offer, but often settle in [[Slum|shanty towns]] and experience extreme poverty. The inability of countries to provide adequate housing for these rural migrants is related to [[overurbanization]], a phenomenon in which the rate of urbanization grows more rapidly than the rate of economic development, leading to high unemployment and high demand for resources.<ref name="Davis">{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Kingsley|last2=Hertz Golden|first2=Hilda|year=1954|title=Urbanization and the Development of Pre-Industrial Areas|journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change|volume=3|issue=1|pages=6–26|doi=10.1086/449673|s2cid=155010637}}</ref> In the 1980s, this was attempted to be tackled with the '''urban bias theory''' which was promoted by [[Michael Lipton]]. | |||
Most of the urban poor in developing countries unable to find work can spend their lives in insecure, poorly paid jobs. According to research by the [[Overseas Development Institute]] pro-poor urbanization will require labour-intensive growth, supported by labour protection, flexible land use regulation and investments in basic services.'<ref>{{cite web|date=November 2008|title=Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf|publisher=Overseas Development Institute|access-date=12 January 2009|archive-date=27 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327183722/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
=== Suburbanization === | |||
{{Main|Suburbanization}} | |||
When the residential area shifts outward, this is called suburbanization. A number of researchers and writers suggest that suburbanization has gone so far to form new points of concentration outside the downtown both in developed and developing countries such as India.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2006.11.001| title = Density gradients and their determinants: Evidence from India| journal = Regional Science and Urban Economics| volume = 37| issue = 3| pages = 314–44| year = 2007| last1 = Sridhar | first1 = K. S. }}</ref> This networked, poly-centric form of concentration is considered by some emerging pattern of urbanization. It is called variously [[edge city]] (Garreau, 1991), network city (Batten, 1995), postmodern city (Dear, 2000), or [[exurb]], though the latter term now refers to a less dense area beyond the suburbs. Los Angeles is the best-known example of this type of urbanization. In the United States, this process has reversed as of 2011, with "re-urbanization" occurring as ''suburban flight'' due to chronically high transport costs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bora |first=Madhusmita |url=http://www.nwitimes.com/lifestyles/home-and-garden/shifts-in-u-s-housing-demand-will-likely-lead-to/article_06860ab0-ef92-5c44-a05a-ef5aafef0143.html |title=Shifts in U.S. housing demand will likely lead to the re-urbanization of America |publisher=Nwitimes.com |date=1 July 2012 |access-date=20 March 2013}}</ref> | |||
{{quote box | width=25em| bgcolor=#B0C4DE |align=left|qalign=left |quote=<div style="text-align:left;">...the most important class conflict in the poor countries of the world today is not between labour and capital. Nor is it between foreign and national interests. It is between rural classes and urban classes. The rural sector contains most of the poverty and most of the low-cost sources of potential advance; but the urban sector contains most of the articulateness, organization, and power. So the urban classes have been able to win most of the rounds of the struggle with the countryside...". – Michael Lipton, author of urban bias theory<ref>Varshney, A. (ed.) 1993. "Beyond Urban Bias", p. 5. London: Frank Cass.</ref> | |||
</div> |}} | |||
=== Planned urbanization === | |||
Urbanization can be planned urbanization or organic. Planned urbanization, i.e.: [[planned community]] or the [[garden city movement]], is based on an advance plan, which can be prepared for military, aesthetic, economic or [[urban design]] reasons. Examples can be seen in many ancient cities; although with exploration came the collision of nations, which meant that many invaded cities took on the desired planned characteristics of their occupiers. Many ancient organic cities experienced redevelopment for military and economic purposes, new roads carved through the cities, and new parcels of land were cordoned off serving various planned purposes giving cities distinctive geometric designs. UN agencies prefer to see [[infrastructure|urban infrastructure]] installed before urbanization occurs. [[Landscape planning|Landscape planners]] are responsible for landscape infrastructure ([[public park]]s, [[sustainable urban drainage systems]], [[Greenway (landscape)|greenways]] etc.) which can be planned before urbanization takes place, or afterwards to revitalize an area and create greater [[livability]] within a region. Concepts of control of the urban expansion are considered in the [[American Institute of Planners]]. | |||
As population continues to grow and urbanize at unprecedented rates, [[new urbanism]] and [[smart growth]] techniques are implemented to create a transition into developing environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable cities. Smart Growth and New Urbanism's principles include [[walkability]], mixed-use development, comfortable high-density design, land conservation, [[social equity]], and economic diversity. Mixed-use communities work to fight [[gentrification]] with [[affordable housing]] to promote social equity, decrease [[automobile dependency]] to lower use of [[fossil fuel]]s, and promote a [[localized economy]]. Walkable communities have a 38% higher average GDP per capita than less walkable urban metros (Leinberger, Lynch). By combining economic, environmental, and social sustainability, cities will become equitable, resilient, and more appealing than [[urban sprawl]] that [[overexploitation|overuse]]s [[land use|land]], promotes [[automobile]] use, and segregates the population economically.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=11 July 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102837/http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="control">{{cite journal|author=Lovelace, E.H.|title=Control of urban expansion: the Lincoln, Nebraska experience|journal=[[Journal of the American Institute of Planners]]|year=1965|volume=31:4|issue=4|pages=348–52|author-link=Eldridge Lovelace|doi=10.1080/01944366508978191}}</ref> | |||