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Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKinney|first=Michael L.|date=2008-01-29|title=Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and animals|journal=Urban Ecosystems|volume=11|issue=2|pages=161–176|doi=10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4|s2cid=23353943|issn=1083-8155}}</ref> This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lundkvist|first1=E.|last2=Landin|first2=J.|last3=Karlsson|first3=F.|title= Dispersing diving beetles (Dytiscidae) in agricultural and urban landscapes in south-eastern Sweden |journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici |year=2002 }}</ref> The more urbanized the surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liao|first1=W.|last2=Venn|first2=S.|last3=Niemelä|first3=J.|title=Environmental determinants of diving beetle assemblages (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) in an urban landscape|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|year=2020|doi=10.1007/s10531-020-01977-9|doi-access=free|volume=29|issue=7|pages=2343–2359}}</ref> Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKinney|first=Michael|date=October 2002|title=Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Conservation|journal=BioScience|volume=52|issue=10|pages=883|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref> | Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKinney|first=Michael L.|date=2008-01-29|title=Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and animals|journal=Urban Ecosystems|volume=11|issue=2|pages=161–176|doi=10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4|s2cid=23353943|issn=1083-8155}}</ref> This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lundkvist|first1=E.|last2=Landin|first2=J.|last3=Karlsson|first3=F.|title= Dispersing diving beetles (Dytiscidae) in agricultural and urban landscapes in south-eastern Sweden |journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici |year=2002 }}</ref> The more urbanized the surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liao|first1=W.|last2=Venn|first2=S.|last3=Niemelä|first3=J.|title=Environmental determinants of diving beetle assemblages (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) in an urban landscape|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|year=2020|doi=10.1007/s10531-020-01977-9|doi-access=free|volume=29|issue=7|pages=2343–2359}}</ref> Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKinney|first=Michael|date=October 2002|title=Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Conservation|journal=BioScience|volume=52|issue=10|pages=883|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
==Health and social effects== | |||
{{quote box | width=25em| bgcolor=#B0C4DE |align=left|qalign=left |quote=<div style="text-align:left;">When cities don't plan for increases in population it drives up house and land prices, creating rich (ghettos) and poor ghettos. "You get a very unequal society and that inequality is manifested where people live, in our neighbourhoods, and it means there can be less capacity for empathy and less development for all society." – Jack Finegan, Urban Programme Specialist at [[UN-Habitat]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://yangon.coconuts.co/2016/02/22/crowded-hlaing-tharyar-township-slums-sit-next-gated-communites | title=In crowded Hlaing Tharyar township, slums sit next to gated communites (sic) | Coconuts Yangon| date=2016-02-22}}</ref></div>}} | |||
In the developing world, urbanization does not translate into a significant increase in [[life expectancy]].<ref name="Eckert-2014" /> Rapid urbanization has led to increased mortality from [[non-communicable disease]]s associated with lifestyle, including [[cancer]] and [[heart disease]].<ref name="Allender-2008" /> Differences in mortality from [[contagious disease]]s vary depending on the particular disease and location.<ref name="Eckert-2014" /> | |||
Urban health levels are on average better in comparison to rural areas. However, residents in poor urban areas such as slums and [[informal settlement]]s suffer "disproportionately from disease, injury, premature death, and the combination of ill-health and poverty entrenches disadvantage over time."<ref name="UNFPA" /> Many of the urban poor have difficulty accessing health services due to their inability to pay for them; so they resort to less qualified and unregulated providers.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} | |||
While urbanization is associated with improvements in [[public hygiene]], [[sanitation]] and access to [[health care]], it also entails changes in occupational, [[dietary]], and [[exercise]] patterns.<ref name="Allender-2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Allender S, Foster C, Hutchinson L, Arambepola C |title=Quantification of urbanization in relation to chronic diseases in developing countries: a systematic review |journal=Journal of Urban Health |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=938–51 | date=November 2008 |pmid=18931915 |pmc=2587653 |doi=10.1007/s11524-008-9325-4 }}</ref> It can have mixed effects on health patterns, alleviating some problems, and accentuating others.<ref name="Eckert-2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eckert S, Kohler S |title=Urbanization and health in developing countries: a systematic review |journal=World Health & Population |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=7–20 |year=2014 |pmid=24702762 |doi=10.12927/whp.2014.23722 |url=http://www.longwoods.com/product/download/code/23722|doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
===Nutrition=== | |||
One such effect is the formation of [[food desert]]s. Nearly 23.5 million people in the United States lack access to supermarkets within one mile of their home.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Block|first1=Jason P.|last2=Subramanian|first2=S. V.|date=2015-12-08 | |||
|title=Moving Beyond "Food Deserts": Reorienting United States Policies to Reduce Disparities in Diet Quality|journal=PLOS Medicine|volume=12|issue=12|pages=e1001914|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001914|pmid=26645285|pmc=4672916|issn=1549-1676}}</ref> Several studies suggest that long distances to a grocery store are associated with higher rates of obesity and other health disparities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Ghosh-Dastidar|first1=Bonnie|last2=Cohen|first2=Deborah|last3=Hunter|first3=Gerald|last4=Zenk|first4=Shannon N.|last5=Huang|first5=Christina|last6=Beckman|first6=Robin|last7=Dubowitz|first7=Tamara|date=2014|title=Distance to Store, Food Prices, and Obesity in Urban Food Deserts | journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine|volume=47|issue=5|pages=587–595 | doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2014.07.005 | pmc = 4205193 | pmid = 25217097 }}</ref> | |||
Food deserts in developed countries often correspond to areas with a high-density of fast food chains and convenience stores that offer little to no fresh food.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cooksey-Stowers|first1=Kristen|last2=Schwartz|first2=Marlene B.|last3=Brownell|first3=Kelly D.|date=2017-11-14|title=Food Swamps Predict Obesity Rates Better Than Food Deserts in the United States | journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1366|doi=10.3390/ijerph14111366|pmc=5708005|pmid=29135909|doi-access=free}}</ref> Urbanization has been shown to be associated with the consumption of less fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains and a higher consumption of processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages.<ref name=":3" /> Poor access to healthy food and high intakes of fat, sugar and salt are associated with a greater risk for obesity, diabetes and related chronic disease. Overall, [[body mass index]] and [[cholesterol]] levels increase sharply with national income and the degree of urbanization.[[Urbanization#cite note-Allender-2008-40|[40]]] | |||
Food deserts in the United States are most commonly found in low-income and predominately African American neighbourhoods.<ref name=":3" /> One study on food deserts in [[Denver]], Colorado found that, in addition to minorities, the affected neighbourhoods also had a high proportion of children and new births.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Stilley |first=Megan |institution=The University of Colorado at Denver |title=Urban food deserts: An exploration of northern neighbourhoods in Denver |date=2012 |number=1509386 |id={{pq|1013635534}}}}</ref> In children, urbanization is associated with a lower risk of [[Undernutrition|under-nutrition]] but a higher risk of being [[overweight]].<ref name="Eckert-2014" /> | |||
===Asthma=== | |||
Urbanization has also been associated with an increased risk of asthma as well. Throughout the world, as communities transition from rural to more urban societies, the number of people affected by asthma increases. The odds of reduced rates of hospitalization and death from asthmas has decreased for children and young adults in urbanized municipalities in Brazil. This finding indicates that urbanization may have a negative impact on population health particularly affecting people's susceptibility to asthma.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Ponte|first1=Eduardo Vieira|last2=Cruz|first2=Alvaro A.|last3=Athanazio|first3=Rodrigo|last4=Carvalho-Pinto|first4=Regina|last5=Fernandes|first5=Frederico L. A.|last6=Barreto|first6=Mauricio L.|last7=Stelmach|first7=Rafael|date=2018-02-01|title=Urbanization is associated with increased asthma morbidity and mortality in Brazil|journal=The Clinical Respiratory Journal|volume=12|issue=2|pages=410–417|doi=10.1111/crj.12530|pmid=27400674|s2cid=46804746|issn=1752-699X}}</ref> | |||
In low and middle income countries many factors contribute to the high numbers of people with asthma. Similar to areas in the United States with increasing urbanization, people living in growing cities in low income countries experience high exposure to air pollution, which increases the prevalence and severity of asthma among these populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cruz|first1=Álvaro A.|last2=Stelmach|first2=Rafael|last3=Ponte|first3=Eduardo V.|date=2017-06-01|title=Asthma prevalence and severity in low-resource communities|journal=Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology|language=en|volume=17|issue=3|pages=188–193|doi=10.1097/aci.0000000000000360|pmid=28333691|s2cid=6018699|issn=1528-4050}}</ref> Links have been found between exposure to traffic-related air pollution and allergic diseases.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Carlsten|first1=Christopher|last2=Rider|first2=Christopher F.|date=2017-04-01|title=Traffic-related air pollution and allergic disease|journal=Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=85–89|doi=10.1097/aci.0000000000000351|pmid=28141628|s2cid=38066984|issn=1528-4050}}</ref> Children living in poor, urban areas in the United States now have an increased risk of morbidity due to asthma in comparison to other low-income children in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keet|first1=Corinne A.|last2=Matsui|first2=Elizabeth C.|last3=McCormack|first3=Meredith C.|last4=Peng|first4=Roger D.|title=Urban residence, neighborhood poverty, race/ethnicity, and asthma morbidity among children on Medicaid|journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology|volume=140|issue=3|pages=822–827|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2017.01.036|pmid=28283418|date=September 2017|pmc=8050806|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition, children with croup living in urban areas have higher hazard ratios for asthma than similar children living in rural areas. Researchers suggest that this difference in hazard ratios is due to the higher levels of air pollution and exposure to environmental allergens found in urban areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Sheng-Chieh|last2=Lin|first2=Hui-Wen|last3=Chiang|first3=Bor-Luen|date=2017-09-01|title=Association of croup with asthma in children|journal=Medicine|language=en|volume=96|issue=35|pages=e7667|doi=10.1097/md.0000000000007667|pmid=28858086|pmc=5585480|issn=0025-7974}}</ref> | |||
Exposure to elevated levels of ambient air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub>), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (PM<sub>2.5</sub>), can cause DNA methylation of CpG sites in immune cells, which increases children's risk of developing asthma. Studies have shown a positive correlation between ''Foxp3'' methylation and children's exposure to NO<sub>2</sub>, CO, and PM<sub>2.5</sub>. Furthermore, any amount of exposure to high levels of air pollution have shown long term effects on the ''Foxp3'' region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prunicki|first1=Mary|last2=Stell|first2=Laurel|last3=Dinakarpandian|first3=Deendayal|last4=de Planell-Saguer|first4=Mariangels|last5=Lucas|first5=Richard W.|last6=Hammond|first6=S. Katharine|author-link6=S Katharine Hammond|last7=Balmes|first7=John R.|last8=Zhou|first8=Xiaoying|last9=Paglino|first9=Tara|date=2018-01-05|title=Exposure to NO2, CO, and PM2.5 is linked to regional DNA methylation differences in asthma|journal=Clinical Epigenetics|volume=10|pages=2|doi=10.1186/s13148-017-0433-4|pmid=29317916|pmc=5756438|issn=1868-7083}}</ref> | |||
Despite the increase in access to health services that usually accompanies urbanization, the rise in population density negatively affects air quality ultimately mitigating the positive value of health resources as more children and young adults develop asthma due to high pollution rates.<ref name=":1" /> However, urban planning, as well as emission control, can lessen the effects of traffic-related air pollution on allergic diseases such as asthma.<ref name=":2" /> | |||
===Crime=== | |||
Historically, crime and urbanization have gone hand in hand. The simplest explanation is that areas with a higher population density are surrounded by greater availability of goods. Committing crimes in urbanized areas is also more feasible. Modernization has led to more crime as well, as the modern media has raised greater awareness of the income gap between the rich and the poor. This leads to feelings of deprivation, which in turn can lead to crime. In some regions where urbanization happens in wealthier areas, a rise in property crime and a decrease in violent crime is seen.<ref>Shelley, L. I. (1981). Crime and modernization: The impact of industrialization and urbanization on crime. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.</ref> | |||
Data shows that there is an increase in crime in urbanized areas. Some factors include per capita income, income inequality, and overall population size. There is also a smaller association between unemployment rate, police expenditures and crime.<ref>Gumus, E. (2004). Crime in urban areas: An empirical investigation.</ref> The presence of crime also has the ability to produce more crime. These areas have less social cohesion and therefore less social control. This is evident in the geographical regions that crime occurs in. As most crime tends to cluster in city centers, the further the distance from the center of the city, the lower the occurrence of crimes are.<ref>Bruinsma, G. J. (2007). Urbanization and urban crime: Dutch geographical and environmental research. Crime and Justice, 35(1), 453-502.</ref> | |||
Migration is also a factor that can increase crime in urbanized areas. People from one area are displaced and forced to move into an urbanized society. Here they are in a new environment with new norms and social values. This can lead to less social cohesion and more crime.<ref>Malik, A. A. (2016). Urbanization and Crime: A Relational Analysis. J. HUMAN. & Soc. Scl., 21, 68-69.</ref> | |||
===Physical activity=== | |||
Although urbanization tends to produce more negative effects, one positive effect that urbanization has impacted is an increase in physical activity in comparison to rural areas. Residents of rural areas and communities in the United States have higher rates of obesity and engage in less physical activity than urban residents.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Umstattd Meyer|first1=M. Renée|last2=Moore|first2=Justin B.|last3=Abildso|first3=Christiaan|last4=Edwards|first4=Michael B.|last5=Gamble|first5=Abigail|last6=Baskin|first6=Monica L.|author-link6=Monica Baskin |title=Rural Active Living|journal=Journal of Public Health Management and Practice|volume=22|issue=5|pages=E11–E20|doi=10.1097/phh.0000000000000333|pmid=26327514|pmc=4775461|year=2016}}</ref> Rural residents consume a higher percent of fat calories and are less likely to meet the guidelines for physical activity and more likely to be physically inactive.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Befort|first1=Christie A.|last2=Nazir|first2=Niaman|last3=Perri|first3=Michael G.|date=2012-09-01|title=Prevalence of Obesity Among Adults From Rural and Urban Areas of the United States: Findings From NHANES (2005-2008)|journal=The Journal of Rural Health|volume=28|issue=4|pages=392–397|doi=10.1111/j.1748-0361.2012.00411.x|pmid=23083085|issn=1748-0361|pmc=3481194}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=REIS|first1=JARED P.|last2=BOWLES|first2=HEATHER R.|last3=AINSWORTH|first3=BARBARA E.|last4=DUBOSE|first4=KATRINA D.|last5=SMITH|first5=SHARON|last6=LADITKA|first6=JAMES N.|date=2004-12-01|title=Nonoccupational Physical Activity by Degree of Urbanization and U.S. Geographic Region|journal=Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise|language=en|volume=36|issue=12|pages=2093–2098|doi=10.1249/01.mss.0000147589.98744.85|pmid=15570145|issn=0195-9131}}</ref> In comparison to regions within the United States, the west has the lowest prevalence of physical ''inactivity'' and the south has the highest prevalence of physical ''inactivity''.<ref name=":6" /> Metropolitan and large urban areas across all regions have the highest prevalence of physical activity among residents.<ref name=":6" /> | |||
Barriers such as geographic isolation, busy and unsafe roads, and social stigmas lead to decreased physical activity in rural environments.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Seguin|first1=Rebecca|last2=Connor|first2=Leah|last3=Nelson|first3=Miriam|last4=LaCroix|first4=Andrea|last5=Eldridge|first5=Galen|date=2014|title=Understanding Barriers and Facilitators to Healthy Eating and Active Living in Rural Communities|journal=Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism|volume=2014|pages=146502|doi=10.1155/2014/146502|pmid=25574386|pmc=4276670|issn=2090-0724|doi-access=free}}</ref> Faster speed limits on rural roads prohibits the ability to have bike lanes, sidewalks, footpaths, and shoulders along the side of the roads.<ref name=":4" /> Less developed open spaces in rural areas, like parks and trails, suggest that there is lower walkability in these areas in comparison to urban areas.<ref name=":4" /> Many residents in rural settings have to travel long distances to utilize exercise facilities, taking up too much time in the day and deterring residents from using recreational facilities to obtain physical activity.<ref name=":7" /> Additionally, residents of rural communities are traveling further for work, decreasing the amount of time that can be spent on leisure physical activity and significantly decreases the opportunity to partake in active transportation to work.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
Neighbourhoods and communities with nearby fitness venues, a common feature of urbanization, have residents that partake in increased amounts of physical activity.<ref name=":7" /> Communities with sidewalks, street lights, and traffic signals have residents participating in more physical activity than communities without those features.<ref name=":4" /> Having a variety of destinations close to where people live, increases the use of active transportation, such as walking and biking.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Sallis|first1=James F.|last2=Floyd|first2=Myron F.|last3=Rodríguez|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Saelens|first4=Brian E.|date=2012-02-07|title=Role of Built Environments in Physical Activity, Obesity, and Cardiovascular Disease|journal=Circulation|volume=125|issue=5|pages=729–737|doi=10.1161/circulationaha.110.969022|issn=0009-7322|pmid=22311885|pmc=3315587}}</ref> Active transportation is also enhanced in urban communities where there is easy access to public transportation due to residents walking or biking to transportation stops.<ref name=":8" /> | |||
In a study comparing different regions in the United States, opinions across all areas were shared that environmental characteristics like access to sidewalks, safe roads, recreational facilities, and enjoyable scenery are positively associated with participation in leisure physical activity.<ref name=":6" /> Perceiving that resources are nearby for physical activity increases the likelihood that residents of all communities will meet the guidelines and recommendations for appropriate physical activity.<ref name=":8" /> Specific to rural residents, the safety of outdoor developed spaces and convenient availability to recreational facilities matters most when making decisions on increasing physical activity.<ref name=":5" /> In order to combat the levels of inactivity in rural residents, more convenient recreational features, such as the ones discussed in this paragraph, need to be implemented into rural communities and societies.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} | |||
=== Mental health === | |||
Urbanization factors that contribute to [[mental health]] can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Luciano|title=Perceived insecurity, mental health and urbanization: Results from a multicentric study|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|volume=62|issue=6|pages=252–61|doi=10.1177/0020764016629694|pmid=26896027|year=2016|s2cid=37122169}}</ref> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=Helen|date=6 December 2007|title='Crowded suburbs' and 'killer cities': a brief review of the relationship between urban environments and mental health|journal=NSW Public Health Bulletin|volume=18|issue=12|pages=222–7|pmid=18093463|doi=10.1071/NB07024|doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<ref name="Srivastava IPJ">{{cite journal|last1=Srivastava|first1=Kalpana|date=July 2009|title=Urbanization and mental health|pmc=2996208|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal|volume=18|issue=2|pages=75–6|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.64028|pmid=21180479}}</ref> It is important to note that urbanization or population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with other public health measures that accompany urbanization.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} | |||