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In [[toponymic]] terminology, names of individual cities and towns are called ''astionyms'' (from [[Ancient Greek]] ἄστυ 'city or town' and ὄνομα 'name').{{sfn|Room|1996|p=13}}
In [[toponymic]] terminology, names of individual cities and towns are called ''astionyms'' (from [[Ancient Greek]] ἄστυ 'city or town' and ὄνομα 'name').{{sfn|Room|1996|p=13}}
==Geography==
[[File:Kartie Sakhali old grave yard - panoramio - Masoud Akbari.jpg|thumb|Hillside housing and [[graveyard]] in [[Kabul]]]][[Urban geography]] deals both with cities in their larger context and with their internal structure.<ref>Carter (1995), pp. 5–7. "[...] the two main themes of study introduced at the outset: the town as a distributed feature and the town as a feature with internal structure, or in other words, the town in area and the town as area."</ref> Cities are estimated to cover about 3% of the land surface of the Earth.<ref>Bataille, L., "From passive to energy generating assets",  [https://issuu.com/energyinbuildingsindustry/docs/eibi_october_2021 ''Energy in Buildings & Industry'', October 2021], p. 34, accessed 12 February 2022</ref>
=== Site ===
[[File:Allegheny Monongahela Ohio.jpg|thumb|[[Downtown Pittsburgh]] sits at the [[confluence]] of the [[Monongahela River|Monongahela]] and [[Allegheny River|Allegheny]] rivers, which become the [[Ohio River|Ohio]].]]Town siting has varied through history according to natural, technological, economic, and military contexts. Access to water has long been a major factor in city placement and growth, and despite exceptions enabled by the advent of [[rail transport]] in the nineteenth century, through the present most of the world's urban population lives near the coast or on a river.<ref>Marshall (1989), pp. 11–14.</ref>
Urban areas as a rule cannot [[Subsistence agriculture|produce their own food]] and therefore must develop some [[city region|relationship]] with a [[hinterland]] which sustains them.<ref name="Kaplan2004p155">Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 155–156.</ref> Only in special cases such as [[mining town]]s which play a vital role in long-distance trade, are cities disconnected from the countryside which feeds them.<ref name="Marshall1989p15">Marshall (1989), p. 15. "The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population. Moreover, within any area possessing a broadly uniform level of agricultural productivity, there is a rough but definite association between the density of the rural population and the average spacing of cities above any chosen minimum size."</ref> Thus, centrality within a productive region influences siting, as economic forces would in theory favor the creation of market places in optimal mutually reachable locations.<ref name="Latham2009p18" />
=== Center ===
{{Main|City centre}}
[[File:Helsinginkeskustailmakuva 04.JPG|thumb|[[Kluuvi]], a city centre of [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]|left]]
The vast majority of cities have a central area containing buildings with special economic, political, and religious significance. Archaeologists refer to this area by the Greek term [[temenos]] or if fortified as a [[citadel]].<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 34–35. "In the center of the city, an elite compound or temenos was situated. Study of the very earliest cities show this compound to be largely composed of a temple and supporting structures. The temple rose some 40 feet above the ground and would have presented a formidable profile to those far away. The temple contained the priestly class, scribes, and record keepers, as well as granaries, schools, crafts—almost all non-agricultural aspects of society.</ref> These spaces historically reflect and amplify the city's centrality and importance to its wider [[city region|sphere of influence]].<ref name="Latham2009p18">Latham et al. (2009), p. 18. "From the simplest forms of exchange, when peasant farmers literally brought their produce from the fields into the densest point of interaction—giving us market towns—the significance of central places to surrounding territories began to be asserted. As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence. Large central squares or open spaces reflected the importance of collective gatherings in city life, such as Tiananmen Square in Beijing, the Zócalo in Mexico City, the Piazza Navonae in Rome and Trafalgar Square in London.</ref> Today cities have a [[city center]] or [[downtown]], sometimes coincident with a [[central business district]].
=== Public space ===
Cities typically have [[public space]]s where anyone can go. These include [[privately owned public space|privately owned spaces open to the public]] as well as forms of public land such as [[Public domain (land)|public domain]] and the [[common land|commons]]. [[Western philosophy]] since the time of the Greek [[agora]] has considered physical public space as the substrate of the symbolic [[public sphere]].<ref>Latham et al. (2009), pp. 177–179.</ref><ref>Don Mitchell, "[https://www.academia.edu/download/33133088/the-end-of-public-space-mitchell.pdf The End of Public Space? People's Park, Definitions of the Public, and Democracy]";{{dead link|date=October 2017|fix-attempted=yes}} ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'' 85(1), March 1995.</ref> [[Public art]] adorns (or disfigures) public spaces. [[Park]]s and other [[Incorporation of nature within a city|natural sites within cities]] provide residents with relief from the hardness and regularity of typical [[built environment]]s.
=== Internal structure ===
[[File:L'Enfant plan.svg|thumb|The [[L'Enfant Plan]] for [[Washington, D.C.]], inspired by the design of [[Versailles]], combines a utilitarian grid pattern with diagonal avenues and a symbolic focus on [[monument]]al architecture.<ref>Moholy-Nagy (1986), pp. 146–148.</ref>]]
[[Urban structure]] generally follows one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial, concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear. Physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built. If located on a mountainside, urban structure may rely on terraces and winding roads. It may be adapted to its means of subsistence (e.g. agriculture or fishing). And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape.<ref>Moholy-Nagy (1968), 21–33.</ref> Beyond these "geomorphic" features, cities can develop internal patterns, due to natural growth or to [[urban planning|city planning]].
In a radial structure, main roads converge on a central point. This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of [[town wall]]s and [[citadel]]s marking older city boundaries. In more recent history, such forms were supplemented by [[ring road]]s moving traffic around the outskirts of a town. Dutch cities such as [[Amsterdam]] and [[Haarlem]] are structured as a central square surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion. In cities such as [[Moscow]], this pattern is still clearly visible.
A system of rectilinear city streets and land plots, known as the [[grid plan]], has been used for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas.  The [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] built [[Mohenjo-Daro]], [[Harappa]] and other cities on a grid pattern, using ancient principles described by [[Kautilya]], and aligned with the [[compass points]].<ref>Mohan Pant and Shjui Fumo, "[https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jaabe/4/1/4_1_51/_pdf The Grid and Modular Measures in The Town Planning of Mohenjodaro and Kathmandu Valley: A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjodaro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi (Kathmandu Valley)]"; ''Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering'' 59, May 2005.</ref><ref name="Smith2002">Smith, "[http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/1-CompleteSet/MES-02-EarlyCities.pdf Earliest Cities]", in Gmelch & Zenner (2002).</ref><ref>Michel Danino, "[http://www.iisc.ernet.in/prasthu/pages/PP_data/paper2.pdf New Insights into Harappan Town-Planning, Proportions and Units, with Special Reference to Dholavira] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525012828/http://www.iisc.ernet.in/prasthu/pages/PP_data/paper2.pdf |date=25 May 2017 }}", "Man and Environment 33(1), 2008.</ref><ref>Jane McIntosh, ''The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives''; ABC-CLIO, 2008; {{ISBN|978-1-57607-907-2}}  pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA231 231], [https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA346 346].</ref> The ancient Greek city of [[Priene]] exemplifies a grid plan with specialized districts used across the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic Mediterranean]].
=== Urban areas ===
[[File:Tel Aviv, Israel by Planet Labs.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|This aerial view of the [[Gush Dan]] metropolitan area in Israel shows the geometrically planned<ref>Volker M.  Welter, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30245874 The 1925 Master Plan for Tel-Aviv by Patrick Geddes]"; ''Israel Studies'' 14(3), Fall 2009.</ref> city of [[Tel Aviv]] proper (upper left) as well as [[Givatayim]] to the east and some of [[Bat Yam]] to the south. Tel Aviv's population is 433,000; the total population of its metropolitan area is 3,785,000.<ref>[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]], "[http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton67/st02_25.pdf Locations, Population and Density per Sq.&nbsp;km., by metropolitan area and selected localities, 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002132439/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton67/st02_25.pdf |date=2016-10-02}}."</ref>|left]]Urban-type settlement extends far beyond the traditional boundaries of the [[city proper]]<ref>Carter (1995), p. 15. "In the underbound city the administratively defined area is smaller than the physical extent of settlement. In the overbound city the administrative area is greater than the physical extent. The 'truebound' city is one where the administrative bound is nearly coincidental with the physical extent."</ref> in a form of development sometimes described critically as [[urban sprawl]].<ref>{{Cite book | year=2013 |author1=Paul James |author2=Meg Holden |author3=Mary Lewin |author4=Lyndsay Neilson |author5=Christine Oakley |author6=Art Truter |author7=David Wilmoth | chapter= Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth | title= Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development |editor1=Harald Mieg |editor2=Klaus Töpfer | chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/7207756 | publisher= Routledge}}</ref> Decentralization and dispersal of city functions (commercial, industrial, residential, cultural, political) has transformed the very meaning of the term and has challenged geographers seeking to classify territories according to an urban-rural binary.<ref name="HugoEtAl2003" />
[[Metropolitan areas]] include [[suburbs]] and [[exurbs]] organized around the needs of [[commuting|commuters]], and sometimes [[edge city|edge cities]] characterized by a degree of economic and political independence. (In the US these are grouped into [[metropolitan statistical areas]] for purposes of [[demography]] and [[marketing]].) Some cities are now part of a continuous urban landscape called [[urban agglomeration]], [[conurbation]], or [[megalopolis]] (exemplified by the [[northeast megalopolis|BosWash]] corridor of the [[Northeastern United States]].)<ref>Chaunglin Fang & Danlin Yu, "[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204617300439 Urban agglomeration: An evolving concept of an emerging phenomenon]"; ''Landscape and Urban Planning'' 162, 2017.</ref>
{{clear}}

Revision as of 20:56, 18 March 2022


For other uses, see City (disambiguation).
London skyline with Palace of Westminster in midground
People cross busy Shibuya intersection lined with electronic billboards at dusk
Impressionist painting of wide tree-lined Boulevard Montmartre with horse-drawn carts in the 1890s
Informal settlements built into the hillside in Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil at dusk
Skyscrapers line a busy sidewalk along 6th Avenue in New York City
Vendors and signs along a busy dirt street in Old Delhi
Hong Kong skyline
An underground train in the São Paulo Metro
Left to right, from top: Westminster Palace in London, Shibuya Crossing in Tokyo, painting of Boulevard Montmartre in Paris by Camille Pissarro, the Rocinha favela in Rio de Janeiro, 6th Avenue in Manhattan, spice market in Old Delhi, Hong Kong, the São Paulo Metro

A city is a large human settlement.[1][2][lower-alpha 1] It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.[3] Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organisations and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving efficiency of goods and service distribution.

Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability.[4][5] Present-day cities usually form the core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas—creating numerous commuters traveling towards city centres for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in a world of intensifying globalisation, all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming and global health. Because of these major influences on global issues, the international community has prioritized investment in sustainable cities through Sustainable Development Goal 11. Due to the efficiency of transportation and the smaller land consumption, dense cities hold the potential to have a smaller ecological footprint per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas.[6] Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change.[7] However, this concentration can also have significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands, concentrating pollution, and stressing water supplies and other resources.

Other important traits of cities besides population include the capital status and relative continued occupation of the city. For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations.[8] Some historic capitals, such as Kyoto and Xi'an, maintain their reflection of cultural identity even without modern capital status. Religious holy sites offer another example of capital status within a religion, Jerusalem, Mecca, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Haridwar and Allahabad each hold significance.

Meaning

Palitana represents the city's symbolic function in the extreme, devoted as it is to Jain temples.[9]

A city can be distinguished from other human settlements by its relatively great size, but also by its functions and its special symbolic status, which may be conferred by a central authority. The term can also refer either to the physical streets and buildings of the city or to the collection of people who dwell there, and can be used in a general sense to mean urban rather than rural territory.[10][11]

National censuses use a variety of definitions - invoking factors such as population, population density, number of dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure - to classify populations as urban. Typical working definitions for small-city populations start at around 100,000 people.[12] Common population definitions for an urban area (city or town) range between 1,500 and 50,000 people, with most U.S. states using a minimum between 1,500 and 5,000 inhabitants.[13][14] Some jurisdictions set no such minima.[15] In the United Kingdom, city status is awarded by the Crown and then remains permanently. (Historically, the qualifying factor was the presence of a cathedral, resulting in some very small cities such as Wells, with a population 12,000 as of 2018 and St Davids, with a population of 1,841 as of 2011.) According to the "functional definition", a city is not distinguished by size alone, but also by the role it plays within a larger political context. Cities serve as administrative, commercial, religious, and cultural hubs for their larger surrounding areas.[16][17] An example of a settlement with "city" in their names which may not meet any of the traditional criteria to be named such include Broad Top City, Pennsylvania (population 452).

The presence of a literate elite is sometimes included[by whom?] in the definition.[18] A typical city has professional administrators, regulations, and some form of taxation (food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to support the government workers. (This arrangement contrasts with the more typically horizontal relationships in a tribe or village accomplishing common goals through informal agreements between neighbors, or through leadership of a chief.) The governments may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work systems such as canal-building, food-distribution, land-ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or a combination of these. Societies that live in cities are often called civilizations.

The degree of urbanization is a modern metric to help define what comprises a city: "a population of at least 50,000 inhabitants in contiguous dense grid cells (>1,500 inhabitants per square kilometer)".[19] This metric was "devised over years by the European Commission, OECD, World Bank and others, and endorsed in March [2021] by the United Nations... largely for the purpose of international statistical comparison".[20]

Etymology

The word city and the related civilization come from the Latin root civitas, originally meaning 'citizenship' or 'community member' and eventually coming to correspond with urbs, meaning 'city' in a more physical sense.[10] The Roman civitas was closely linked with the Greek polis—another common root appearing in English words such as metropolis.[21]

In toponymic terminology, names of individual cities and towns are called astionyms (from Ancient Greek ἄστυ 'city or town' and ὄνομα 'name').[22]

Geography

Hillside housing and graveyard in Kabul

Urban geography deals both with cities in their larger context and with their internal structure.[23] Cities are estimated to cover about 3% of the land surface of the Earth.[24]

Site

Downtown Pittsburgh sits at the confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, which become the Ohio.

Town siting has varied through history according to natural, technological, economic, and military contexts. Access to water has long been a major factor in city placement and growth, and despite exceptions enabled by the advent of rail transport in the nineteenth century, through the present most of the world's urban population lives near the coast or on a river.[25]

Urban areas as a rule cannot produce their own food and therefore must develop some relationship with a hinterland which sustains them.[26] Only in special cases such as mining towns which play a vital role in long-distance trade, are cities disconnected from the countryside which feeds them.[27] Thus, centrality within a productive region influences siting, as economic forces would in theory favor the creation of market places in optimal mutually reachable locations.[28]

Center

Main article: City centre
Kluuvi, a city centre of Helsinki, Finland

The vast majority of cities have a central area containing buildings with special economic, political, and religious significance. Archaeologists refer to this area by the Greek term temenos or if fortified as a citadel.[29] These spaces historically reflect and amplify the city's centrality and importance to its wider sphere of influence.[28] Today cities have a city center or downtown, sometimes coincident with a central business district.

Public space

Cities typically have public spaces where anyone can go. These include privately owned spaces open to the public as well as forms of public land such as public domain and the commons. Western philosophy since the time of the Greek agora has considered physical public space as the substrate of the symbolic public sphere.[30][31] Public art adorns (or disfigures) public spaces. Parks and other natural sites within cities provide residents with relief from the hardness and regularity of typical built environments.

Internal structure

The L'Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C., inspired by the design of Versailles, combines a utilitarian grid pattern with diagonal avenues and a symbolic focus on monumental architecture.[32]

Urban structure generally follows one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial, concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear. Physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built. If located on a mountainside, urban structure may rely on terraces and winding roads. It may be adapted to its means of subsistence (e.g. agriculture or fishing). And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape.[33] Beyond these "geomorphic" features, cities can develop internal patterns, due to natural growth or to city planning.

In a radial structure, main roads converge on a central point. This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries. In more recent history, such forms were supplemented by ring roads moving traffic around the outskirts of a town. Dutch cities such as Amsterdam and Haarlem are structured as a central square surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion. In cities such as Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.

A system of rectilinear city streets and land plots, known as the grid plan, has been used for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The Indus Valley Civilisation built Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and other cities on a grid pattern, using ancient principles described by Kautilya, and aligned with the compass points.[34][16][35][36] The ancient Greek city of Priene exemplifies a grid plan with specialized districts used across the Hellenistic Mediterranean.

Urban areas

This aerial view of the Gush Dan metropolitan area in Israel shows the geometrically planned[37] city of Tel Aviv proper (upper left) as well as Givatayim to the east and some of Bat Yam to the south. Tel Aviv's population is 433,000; the total population of its metropolitan area is 3,785,000.[38]

Urban-type settlement extends far beyond the traditional boundaries of the city proper[39] in a form of development sometimes described critically as urban sprawl.[40] Decentralization and dispersal of city functions (commercial, industrial, residential, cultural, political) has transformed the very meaning of the term and has challenged geographers seeking to classify territories according to an urban-rural binary.[14]

Metropolitan areas include suburbs and exurbs organized around the needs of commuters, and sometimes edge cities characterized by a degree of economic and political independence. (In the US these are grouped into metropolitan statistical areas for purposes of demography and marketing.) Some cities are now part of a continuous urban landscape called urban agglomeration, conurbation, or megalopolis (exemplified by the BosWash corridor of the Northeastern United States.)[41]

  1. ↑ Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.
  2. ↑ Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) The Social Science Encyclopedia. 2nd edition. London: Routledge.
  3. ↑ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 99.
  4. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (13 June 2018). "Urbanization". Our World in Data. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
  5. ↑ James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781315765747.
  6. ↑ "Cities: a 'cause of and solution to' climate change". UN News. 18 September 2019. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
  7. ↑ "Sustainable cities must be compact and high-density". The Guardian News. 30 June 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
  8. ↑ "Ch2". www-personal.umich.edu. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  9. ↑ Moholy-Nagy (1968), p. 45.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "city, n.", Oxford English Dictionary, June 2014.
  11. ↑ Kevin A. Lynch, "What Is the Form of a City, and How is It Made?"; in Marzluff et al. (2008), p. 678. "The city may be looked on as a story, a pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict. Values are embedded in these metaphors: historic continuity, stable equilibrium, productive efficiency, capable decision and management, maximum interaction, or the progress of political struggle. Certain actors become the decisive elements of transformation in each view: political leaders, families and ethnic groups, major investors, the technicians of transport, the decision elite, the revolutionary classes."
  12. ↑ "Population by region - Urban population by city size - OECD Data". theOECD. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
  13. ↑ "Table 6" in United Nations Demographic Yearbook (2015), the 1988 version of which is quoted in Carter (1995), pp. 10–12.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named HugoEtAl2003
  15. ↑ "How NC Municipalities Work – North Carolina League of Municipalities". www.nclm.org. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Smith, "Earliest Cities", in Gmelch & Zenner (2002).
  17. ↑ Marshall (1989), pp. 14–15.
  18. ↑ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 23–24.
  19. ↑ Lewis Dijkstra, Ellen Hamilton, Somik Lall, and Sameh Wahba (10 March 2020). "How do we define cities, towns, and rural areas?".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Moore, Oliver (2 October 2021). "What makes a city a city? It's a little complicated". The Globe and Mail. p. A11.
  21. ↑ Yi Jianping, "'Civilization' and 'State': An Etymological Perspective"; Social Sciences in China 33(2), 2012; doi:10.1080/02529203.2012.677292.
  22. ↑ Room 1996, p. 13.
  23. ↑ Carter (1995), pp. 5–7. "[...] the two main themes of study introduced at the outset: the town as a distributed feature and the town as a feature with internal structure, or in other words, the town in area and the town as area."
  24. ↑ Bataille, L., "From passive to energy generating assets", Energy in Buildings & Industry, October 2021, p. 34, accessed 12 February 2022
  25. ↑ Marshall (1989), pp. 11–14.
  26. ↑ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 155–156.
  27. ↑ Marshall (1989), p. 15. "The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population. Moreover, within any area possessing a broadly uniform level of agricultural productivity, there is a rough but definite association between the density of the rural population and the average spacing of cities above any chosen minimum size."
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Latham et al. (2009), p. 18. "From the simplest forms of exchange, when peasant farmers literally brought their produce from the fields into the densest point of interaction—giving us market towns—the significance of central places to surrounding territories began to be asserted. As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence. Large central squares or open spaces reflected the importance of collective gatherings in city life, such as Tiananmen Square in Beijing, the Zócalo in Mexico City, the Piazza Navonae in Rome and Trafalgar Square in London.
  29. ↑ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 34–35. "In the center of the city, an elite compound or temenos was situated. Study of the very earliest cities show this compound to be largely composed of a temple and supporting structures. The temple rose some 40 feet above the ground and would have presented a formidable profile to those far away. The temple contained the priestly class, scribes, and record keepers, as well as granaries, schools, crafts—almost all non-agricultural aspects of society.
  30. ↑ Latham et al. (2009), pp. 177–179.
  31. ↑ Don Mitchell, "The End of Public Space? People's Park, Definitions of the Public, and Democracy";[permanent dead link] Annals of the Association of American Geographers 85(1), March 1995.
  32. ↑ Moholy-Nagy (1986), pp. 146–148.
  33. ↑ Moholy-Nagy (1968), 21–33.
  34. ↑ Mohan Pant and Shjui Fumo, "The Grid and Modular Measures in The Town Planning of Mohenjodaro and Kathmandu Valley: A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjodaro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi (Kathmandu Valley)"; Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 59, May 2005.
  35. ↑ Michel Danino, "New Insights into Harappan Town-Planning, Proportions and Units, with Special Reference to Dholavira Archived 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine", "Man and Environment 33(1), 2008.
  36. ↑ Jane McIntosh, The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives; ABC-CLIO, 2008; ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2 pp. 231, 346.
  37. ↑ Volker M. Welter, "The 1925 Master Plan for Tel-Aviv by Patrick Geddes"; Israel Studies 14(3), Fall 2009.
  38. ↑ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, "Locations, Population and Density per Sq. km., by metropolitan area and selected localities, 2015 Archived 2016-10-02 at the Wayback Machine."
  39. ↑ Carter (1995), p. 15. "In the underbound city the administratively defined area is smaller than the physical extent of settlement. In the overbound city the administrative area is greater than the physical extent. The 'truebound' city is one where the administrative bound is nearly coincidental with the physical extent."
  40. ↑ Paul James; Meg Holden; Mary Lewin; Lyndsay Neilson; Christine Oakley; Art Truter; David Wilmoth (2013). "Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth". In Harald Mieg; Klaus Töpfer (eds.). Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development. Routledge.
  41. ↑ Chaunglin Fang & Danlin Yu, "Urban agglomeration: An evolving concept of an emerging phenomenon"; Landscape and Urban Planning 162, 2017.


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