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{{Short description|A social group in India and Pakistan}}
{{Short description|A social group in India and Pakistan}}
{{other uses}}
{{other uses}}
 
The '''Charans''' (IAST: Cāraṇ; [[Sanskrit]]: चारण; [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]: ચારણ; [[Urdu]]: ارڈ; IPA: cɑːrəɳə) are a South Asian community natively residing in the [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], and [[Maharashtra]] states of [[India]], as well as the [[Sindh]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] provinces of [[Pakistan]]. Historically, Charans were poets & literateurs, as well as warriors and jagirdars. They specialised in diverse occupations as literateurs, warriors, agriculturalists, [[w:Trader_(finance)|traders]], and [[w:Merchant|merchants]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palriwala|first=Rajni|date=1993|title=Economics and Patriliny: Consumption and Authority within the Household|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3520426|journal=Social Scientist|volume=21|issue=9/11|pages=47–73|doi=10.2307/3520426|jstor=3520426|issn=0970-0293|quote="In Rajasthan, they were bards and 'literateurs', but also warriors and jagirdars, holders of land and power over men; the dependents of Rajputs, their equals and their teachers. On my initial visit and subsequently, I was assured of this fact vis-a-vis Panchwas and introduced to the thakurs, who in life-style, the practice of female seclusion, and various reference points they alluded to appeared as Rajputs. While other villagers insisted that Rajputs and Charans were all the same to them, the Charans, were not trying to pass themselves off as Rajputs, but indicating that they were as good as Rajputs if not ritually superior....most of the ex-landlord households, the Charans and one Pathan, remained in the middle and upper ranks of village society"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paul|first=Kim|date=1993-01-01|title=Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00856409308723191|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=16|issue=sup001|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/00856409308723191|issn=0085-6401|quote="In the past some Charans were agriculturalists, engaged in farming lands which were divided equally between male descendants of the lineage. Others were cowherds and caravan escorts...."}}</ref><ref name="Tambs-Lyche2017" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=George E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYK2AAAAIAAJ|title=Elites, Ethnographic Issues|date=1983|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|isbn=978-0-8263-0658-6|pages=219|language=en|quote="Charans were court poets and historians, "bards"."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Shah|first=P. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGseAAAAMAAJ|title=Raj Marwar During British Paramountcy: A Study in Problems and Policies Up to 1923|date=1982|publisher=Sharda Publishing House|isbn=978-0-7855-1985-0|pages=194|language=en|quote="The Charans constituted a body of faithful companions of the Rajputs. They composed poems in praise of the heroic deeds of the Rajputs, and thus inspired them with courage and fortitude. They also guarded the mansions of their patrons, gave protection to their women and children during emergency and also acted as tutors for the young ones. In return land gifts and honours were conferred upon them. The Charans, who could not devote themselves to intellectual pursuits, took to trade. They also protected merchants and travellers passing through desolate regions and forests."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Saurabh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZyoCgAAQBAJ|title=Politics of Water Conservation: Delivering Development in Rural Rajasthan, India|date=2015-10-01|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-21392-7|pages=42|language=en|quote="Sharma (ibid) argues that the ex-Zamindars (or landlords) who own big landholdings even today are influential but those who do not retain it are not only less influential but have also slid down the scale of status hierarchy. The families most affected by this belong to the Rajputs, Jats, Charans and Brahmins (all traditionally powerful caste groups)."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Matheson|first=Sylvia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCVuAAAAMAAJ|title=Rajasthan, Land of Kings|date=1984|publisher=Vendome Press|isbn=978-0-86565-046-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hastings|first=James M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nReHAAAAMAAJ|title=Poets, Sants, and Warriors: The Dadu Panth, Religious Change and Identity Formation in Jaipur State Circa 1562-1860 Ce|date=2002|publisher=University of Wisconsin--Madison|pages=23|language=en|quote="In Rajasthan, the Charans are a highly esteemed caste seen as occupying a social position slightly lower than that of Brahmins but above that of Rajputs, with whom they maintain a symbiotic relationship...Like Rajputs, with whom they often shared company, Charans would eat meat, drink liquor and engage in martial activities...Although, in a way, poetic composition and recitation was for them a “pastime” subordinate to the primary income producing occupations of military service, agriculture, and horse and cattle trading..."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sharma|first=K. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyCBDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Caste, Social Inequality and Mobility in Rural India: Reconceptualizing the Indian Village|date=2019-02-02|publisher=SAGE Publishing India|isbn=978-93-5328-202-8|pages=322-323|language=en|quote="Charans, a landowning caste (ex-zamindars), Brahmins and Banias were at the centre of the village...the upper castes, namely, Brahmins, Charans and Banias were dominant and grabbed new jobs and opportunities.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Patel|first=Tulsi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RiwTAQAAIAAJ|title=Fertility Behaviour: Population and Society in a Rajasthan Village|date=2006-11-30|publisher=OUP India|isbn=978-0-19-568706-4|language=en|quote="The jagir was held by members of the Charan caste...By this criterion most of the vegetarian castes enjoy a high rank while the non-vegetarian castes belong to the lower category, except Charan and Rajput who belong to the highest category, despite being non-vegetarian and non-teetotaler...While the abolition of feudal land tenures has led to downward mobility of Charans and Rajputs, it has helped upward mobility of Patels and Jats...Except for Charans and Rajputs, all others cultivate land as tenants and sharecroppers, especially if their own holding is small...However, Brahmins do take up wage labour in agriculture, unlike Banias, Charans and Rajputs...My entry into homes of higher castes, especially those of Charans and Rajputs, was not easy either."}}</ref>
The '''Charans''' (IAST: Cāraṇ; [[Sanskrit]]: चारण; [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]: ચારણ; [[Urdu]]: ارڈ; IPA: cɑːrəɳə) are a South Asian community natively residing in the [[Rajasthan]] and [[Gujarat]] states of [[India]], as well as the [[Sindh]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] provinces of [[Pakistan]]. Historically, Charans have been engaged in diverse occupations like bards, [[Poet|poets]], literateurs, [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]], [[Farmer|agriculturalists]] and also [[Jagir|jagirdars]] and warriors and some even as [[Trader (finance)|traders]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palriwala|first=Rajni|date=1993|title=Economics and Patriliny: Consumption and Authority within the Household|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3520426|journal=Social Scientist|volume=21|issue=9/11|pages=47–73|doi=10.2307/3520426|jstor=3520426|issn=0970-0293|quote="In Rajasthan, they were bards and 'literateurs', but also warriors and jagirdars, holders of land and power over men; the dependents of Rajputs, their equals and their teachers. On my initial visit and subsequently, I was assured of this fact vis-a-vis Panchwas and introduced to the thakurs, who in life-style, the practice of female seclusion, and various reference points they alluded to appeared as Rajputs. While other villagers insisted that Rajputs and Charans were all the same to them, the Charans, were not trying to pass themselves off as Rajputs, but indicating that they were as good as Rajputs if not ritually superior....most of the ex-landlord households, the Charans and one Pathan, remained in the middle and upper ranks of village society"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paul|first=Kim|date=1993-01-01|title=Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00856409308723191|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=16|issue=sup001|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/00856409308723191|issn=0085-6401|quote="In the past some Charans were agriculturalists, engaged in farming lands which were divided equally between male descendants of the lineage. Others were cowherds and caravan escorts...."}}</ref><ref name="Tambs-Lyche2017" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=George E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYK2AAAAIAAJ|title=Elites, Ethnographic Issues|date=1983|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|isbn=978-0-8263-0658-6|pages=219|language=en|quote="Charans were court poets and historians, "bards"."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Shah|first=P. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGseAAAAMAAJ|title=Raj Marwar During British Paramountcy: A Study in Problems and Policies Up to 1923|date=1982|publisher=Sharda Publishing House|isbn=978-0-7855-1985-0|pages=194|language=en|quote="The Charans constituted a body of faithful companions of the Rajputs. They composed poems in praise of the heroic deeds of the Rajputs, and thus inspired them with courage and fortitude. They also guarded the mansions of their patrons, gave protection to their women and children during emergency and also acted as tutors for the young ones. In return land gifts and honours were conferred upon them. The Charans, who could not devote themselves to intellectual pursuits, took to trade. They also protected merchants and travellers passing through desolate regions and forests."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Saurabh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZyoCgAAQBAJ|title=Politics of Water Conservation: Delivering Development in Rural Rajasthan, India|date=2015-10-01|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-21392-7|pages=42|language=en|quote="Sharma (ibid) argues that the ex-Zamindars (or landlords) who own big landholdings even today are influential but those who do not retain it are not only less influential but have also slid down the scale of status hierarchy. The families most affected by this belong to the Rajputs, Jats, Charans and Brahmins (all traditionally powerful caste groups)."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Matheson|first=Sylvia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCVuAAAAMAAJ|title=Rajasthan, Land of Kings|date=1984|publisher=Vendome Press|isbn=978-0-86565-046-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hastings|first=James M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nReHAAAAMAAJ|title=Poets, Sants, and Warriors: The Dadu Panth, Religious Change and Identity Formation in Jaipur State Circa 1562-1860 Ce|date=2002|publisher=University of Wisconsin--Madison|pages=23|language=en|quote="In Rajasthan, the Charans are a highly esteemed caste seen as occupying a social position slightly lower than that of Brahmins but above that of Rajputs, with whom they maintain a symbiotic relationship...Like Rajputs, with whom they often shared company, Charans would eat meat, drink liquor and engage in martial activities...Although, in a way, poetic composition and recitation was for them a “pastime” subordinate to the primary income producing occupations of military service, agriculture, and horse and cattle trading..."}}</ref>
 
== Historical Occupations ==
== Historical Occupations ==
=== Traders & Merchants ===
=== Traders & Merchants ===
Exercising their privilege to transport [[goods]] between various states with [[impunity]] and utilising the large wealth of [[cattle]] as pack animals, Charans were able to establish a “virtual monopoly of trade in North-Western India”. Many Charans are said to have become wealthy [[Merchant|merchants]] and [[Money lenders|money-lenders]]. Their caravans were considered to be insured against bandits. In Rajasthan, the Kachela Charans excelled as merchants. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Matheson|first=Sylvia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCVuAAAAMAAJ|title=Rajasthan, Land of Kings|date=1984|publisher=Vendome Press|isbn=978-0-86565-046-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />
Exercising their privilege to transport [[goods]] between various states with [[impunity]] and utilising the large wealth of [[cattle]] as pack animals, Charans were able to establish a “virtual monopoly of trade in North-Western India”. Many Charans are said to have become wealthy [[Merchant|merchants]] and [[Money lenders|money-lenders]]. Their caravans were considered to be insured against bandits. In Rajasthan, the Kachela Charans excelled as merchants. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Matheson|first=Sylvia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCVuAAAAMAAJ|title=Rajasthan, Land of Kings|date=1984|publisher=Vendome Press|isbn=978-0-86565-046-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />
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The [[Salt road|Salt-Trade]] in Marwar involved thousands of people & pack animals like [[Ox|oxen]] & [[Camel|camels]]. Charans along with Pushkarna [[Brahmin|Brahmins]] and [[Bhil people|Bhils]] were engaged in salt-trade and exempted from the payment of custom duties. Kachela Charans from [[Sindhari]] used to collect salt from [[Tilwara|Talwara]] & sell in other parts of [[Marwar]].<ref name=":2" />
The [[Salt road|Salt-Trade]] in Marwar involved thousands of people & pack animals like [[Ox|oxen]] & [[Camel|camels]]. Charans along with Pushkarna [[Brahmin|Brahmins]] and [[Bhil people|Bhils]] were engaged in salt-trade and exempted from the payment of custom duties. Kachela Charans from [[Sindhari]] used to collect salt from [[Tilwara|Talwara]] & sell in other parts of [[Marwar]].<ref name=":2" />
=== Caravan Protectors ===
=== Caravan Protectors ===
<blockquote>The Charans held the reputation of defending the merchandise entrusted to their charge through sword and shield if necessary; or else, if outnumbered, by threatening to take, or even taking, their own life.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>Charans were described as “greatest carriers of goods” for delivery in important centres of [[Malpura]], [[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]], [[Sojat]], [[Ajmer]], and [[Bhilwara]] by acting as escorts(bailers).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajasthan, District Gazetteers: Pali|url=http://indianculture.gov.in/gazettes/rajasthan-district-gazetteers-pali-0|access-date=2022-01-14|website=INDIAN CULTURE|language=en}}</ref> The route of the caravans was through [[Suigam]]([[Gujarat]]), [[Sanchore|Sanchor]], [[Bhinmal]], [[Jalore|Jalor]] to [[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rajput States and the East India Company|url=http://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/rajput-states-and-east-india-company|access-date=2022-01-14|website=INDIAN CULTURE|language=en}}</ref> The inviolability of a Charan along with their knowledge of the [[Trade route|trade routes]] distinguished them as ideal caravan escorts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Living goddesses, past and present in North-west India, German Scholars on India – Global InCH- International Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage|url=https://globalinch.org/bibliography/living-goddesses-past-and-present-in-north-west-india-german-scholars-onindia/|access-date=2022-01-14|language=en-US}}</ref> Caravans of [[Horse|horses]], [[Camel|camels]] and pack [[Ox|oxen]] carrying various [[Commodity|commodities]] passed through desolate stretches of [[desert]] & forested hills which were always under threat of [[Banditry|bandits]] & dacoits. Charans acted as the protectors & escorts. As caravan protectors, "[[sacred]] Charans" thwarted the attempts of bandits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Chandra|first=Yashaswini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VawSEAAAQBAJ|title=The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback|date=2021-01-22|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-93-89109-92-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paul|first=Kim|date=1993-01-01|title=Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00856409308723191|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=16|issue=sup001|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/00856409308723191|issn=0085-6401}}</ref> If not strong enough to defend their [[convoy]] with [[sword]] and [[shield]], they would threaten to kill themselves. Given the position of Charans in the socio-cultural system of the time, the wilful killing of a Charan was equivalent to equally abominable crime of killing a Brahmin. As such, if a Charan did commit suicide over any transgression of the caravans under his guardianship, the marauder-robbers responsible for the suicide were deemed to have "earned the sin of a Charan’s death, with all its post-life connotations of hell-fire and damnation." Thus, under the safety of Charans, commodities were transported from one region to another.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hunter|first=William Wilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8tAOzgEACAAJ|title=The Imperial Gazetteer Of India (Volume Xxi) Pushkar To Salween|date=2020-11-19|publisher=Alpha Editions|isbn=978-93-5421-782-1|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sahai|first=Nandita Prasad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AttHAAAAMAAJ|title=Politics of Patronage and Protest: The State, Society, and Artisans in Early Modern Rajasthan|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-567896-3|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Kothiyal|first=Tanuja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQS-DAAAQBAJ|title=Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert|date=2016-03-14|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-67389-8|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
<blockquote>The Charans held the reputation of defending the merchandise entrusted to their charge through sword and shield if necessary; or else, if outnumbered, by threatening to take, or even taking, their own life.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>Charans were described as “greatest carriers of goods” for delivery in important centres of [[Malpura]], [[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]], [[Sojat]], [[Ajmer]], and [[Bhilwara]] by acting as escorts(bailers).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajasthan, District Gazetteers: Pali|url=http://indianculture.gov.in/gazettes/rajasthan-district-gazetteers-pali-0|access-date=2022-01-14|website=INDIAN CULTURE|language=en}}</ref> The route of the caravans was through [[Suigam]]([[Gujarat]]), [[Sanchore|Sanchor]], [[Bhinmal]], [[Jalore|Jalor]] to [[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rajput States and the East India Company|url=http://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/rajput-states-and-east-india-company|access-date=2022-01-14|website=INDIAN CULTURE|language=en}}</ref> The inviolability of a Charan along with their knowledge of the [[Trade route|trade routes]] distinguished them as ideal caravan escorts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Living goddesses, past and present in North-west India, German Scholars on India – Global InCH- International Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage|url=https://globalinch.org/bibliography/living-goddesses-past-and-present-in-north-west-india-german-scholars-onindia/|access-date=2022-01-14|language=en-US}}</ref> Caravans of [[Horse|horses]], [[Camel|camels]] and pack [[Ox|oxen]] carrying various [[Commodity|commodities]] passed through desolate stretches of [[desert]] & forested hills which were always under threat of [[Banditry|bandits]] & dacoits. Charans acted as the protectors & escorts. As caravan protectors, "[[sacred]] Charans" thwarted the attempts of bandits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Chandra|first=Yashaswini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VawSEAAAQBAJ|title=The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback|date=2021-01-22|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-93-89109-92-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paul|first=Kim|date=1993-01-01|title=Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00856409308723191|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=16|issue=sup001|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/00856409308723191|issn=0085-6401}}</ref> If not strong enough to defend their [[convoy]] with [[sword]] and [[shield]], they would threaten to kill themselves. Given the position of Charans in the socio-cultural system of the time, the wilful killing of a Charan was equivalent to equally abominable crime of killing a Brahmin. As such, if a Charan did commit suicide over any transgression of the caravans under his guardianship, the marauder-robbers responsible for the suicide were deemed to have "earned the sin of a Charan’s death, with all its post-life connotations of hell-fire and damnation." Thus, under the safety of Charans, commodities were transported from one region to another.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hunter|first=William Wilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8tAOzgEACAAJ|title=The Imperial Gazetteer Of India (Volume Xxi) Pushkar To Salween|date=2020-11-19|publisher=Alpha Editions|isbn=978-93-5421-782-1|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sahai|first=Nandita Prasad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AttHAAAAMAAJ|title=Politics of Patronage and Protest: The State, Society, and Artisans in Early Modern Rajasthan|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-567896-3|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Kothiyal|first=Tanuja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQS-DAAAQBAJ|title=Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert|date=2016-03-14|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-67389-8|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
 
=== Horse Trade ===
=== Horse Trade ===
[[Horse trading|Horse trade]] was one of the prominent occupations of Charans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Jansen|first1=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GLJkAAAAMAAJ|title=Epic Adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents|last2=Maier|first2=Hendrik M. J.|date=2004|publisher=Lit|isbn=978-3-8258-6758-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Deva|first=B. Chaitanya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11bjCwAAQBAJ|title=INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN MUSIC|date=1992|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|isbn=978-81-230-2103-4|language=en}}</ref> Some Charan sub-groups like Kachela Charans(from [[Kutch district|Kutch]] & [[Sindh]]) and Sorathia Charans(from [[Kathiawar]]) were historically engaged in horse breeding & trading.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtUSAQAAMAAJ|title=Social Scientist|date=2005|publisher=Indian School of Social Sciences.|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Dutson|first=Judith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PS6zop4lVSUC|title=Storey's Illustrated Guide to 96 Horse Breeds of North America|date=2012-05-07|publisher=Storey Publishing|isbn=978-1-60342-918-4|language=en}}</ref> The common connection of horses also led to bonds between Charans & the [[Kathi people|Kathi]] tribe. Some Kuchela Charans settled around Mallani([[Barmer district|Barmer]], Rajasthan) in western [[Rajasthan]] which was notable for its horse-breeding. [[Marwari horse|Marwari horses]] from this area came to be known as Mallani horses. By the 18th century, most of the horse trade business in the [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]] kingdom was controlled by Charans, besides [[Afghans]]. Charan horse dealers were considered to be very well networked. In another example of the clout of horse-trading Charans, a Charan from the Kachela subgroup arrived at the court of [[Marwar]] ruler, [[Takht Singh|Maharaja Takhat Singh]], under the auspices of the sect leader of [[Nath|Nath Sampradaya]], and marketed his horses, with 10 horses being directly purchased by the ruler himself. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Kamphorst|first=Janet|url=http://site.ebrary.com/id/10314656|title=In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia)|date=2008|publisher=Leiden University Press|isbn=978-90-485-0603-3|location=Leiden|oclc=614596834}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Saxena|first=Rajendra Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RRbtAAAAMAAJ|title=Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana|date=2002|publisher=Publication Scheme|isbn=978-81-86782-75-0|language=en}}</ref>
[[Horse trading|Horse trade]] was one of the prominent occupations of Charans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Jansen|first1=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GLJkAAAAMAAJ|title=Epic Adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents|last2=Maier|first2=Hendrik M. J.|date=2004|publisher=Lit|isbn=978-3-8258-6758-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Deva|first=B. Chaitanya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11bjCwAAQBAJ|title=INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN MUSIC|date=1992|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|isbn=978-81-230-2103-4|language=en}}</ref> Some Charan sub-groups like Kachela Charans(from [[Kutch district|Kutch]] & [[Sindh]]) and Sorathia Charans(from [[Kathiawar]]) were historically engaged in horse breeding & trading.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtUSAQAAMAAJ|title=Social Scientist|date=2005|publisher=Indian School of Social Sciences.|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Dutson|first=Judith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PS6zop4lVSUC|title=Storey's Illustrated Guide to 96 Horse Breeds of North America|date=2012-05-07|publisher=Storey Publishing|isbn=978-1-60342-918-4|language=en}}</ref> The common connection of horses also led to bonds between Charans & the [[Kathi people|Kathi]] tribe. Some Kuchela Charans settled around Mallani([[Barmer district|Barmer]], Rajasthan) in western [[Rajasthan]] which was notable for its horse-breeding. [[Marwari horse|Marwari horses]] from this area came to be known as Mallani horses. By the 18th century, most of the horse trade business in the [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]] kingdom was controlled by Charans, besides [[Afghans]]. Charan horse dealers were considered to be very well networked. In another example of the clout of horse-trading Charans, a Charan from the Kachela subgroup arrived at the court of [[Marwar]] ruler, [[Takht Singh|Maharaja Takhat Singh]], under the auspices of the sect leader of [[Nath|Nath Sampradaya]], and marketed his horses, with 10 horses being directly purchased by the ruler himself. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Kamphorst|first=Janet|url=http://site.ebrary.com/id/10314656|title=In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia)|date=2008|publisher=Leiden University Press|isbn=978-90-485-0603-3|location=Leiden|oclc=614596834}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Saxena|first=Rajendra Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RRbtAAAAMAAJ|title=Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana|date=2002|publisher=Publication Scheme|isbn=978-81-86782-75-0|language=en}}</ref>
== Social structure ==
== Social structure ==
Traditionally, the Charans worked as [[Bards]] and [[Genealogists]].<ref name="Thapar2013">{{cite book | author = Romila Thapar | date = 14 October 2013 | title = The Past Before Us | publisher = Harvard University Press | pages = 81– | isbn = 978-0-674-72651-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81}}</ref><ref name="Guha2019">{{cite book | author = Sumit Guha | date = 1 November 2019 | title = History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000 | publisher = University of Washington Press | pages = 56– | isbn = 978-0-295-74623-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KHa7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56}}</ref><ref name="Talbot2016">{{cite book | author = Cynthia Talbot | date = 2016 | title = The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj Cauhan and the Indian Past, 1200–2000 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pages = 163– | isbn = 978-1-107-11856-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m3DjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163}}</ref><ref name="Perez2004">{{cite book | author = Rosa Maria Perez | date = 2004 | title = Kings and Untouchables: A Study of the Caste System in Western India | publisher = Orient Blackswan | pages = 75– | isbn = 9788180280146 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GDRWAglUumEC&pg=PA75}}</ref><ref name="Tambs-Lyche2017">{{cite book|author=Harald Tambs-Lyche|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOsrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT88|title=Transaction and Hierarchy: Elements for a Theory of Caste|date=9 August 2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-39396-6|pages=130|quote="Charans are affiliated, by their past history as buffalo herders, to the pastoralist estate. Some Charans, indeed, still herd buffaloes." "Their vegetarian, non-violent and economically puritan ethos conflicts with the Charan tradition, marked by the aristocratic values...Some Charan bards received lands in jagir for their services, and in parts of Marwar, certain Charan families were effectively Darbars."}}</ref>
Traditionally, the Charans worked as [[Bards]] and [[Genealogists]].<ref name="Thapar2013">{{cite book | author = Romila Thapar | date = 14 October 2013 | title = The Past Before Us | publisher = Harvard University Press | pages = 81– | isbn = 978-0-674-72651-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81}}</ref><ref name="Guha2019">{{cite book | author = Sumit Guha | date = 1 November 2019 | title = History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000 | publisher = University of Washington Press | pages = 56– | isbn = 978-0-295-74623-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KHa7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56}}</ref><ref name="Talbot2016">{{cite book | author = Cynthia Talbot | date = 2016 | title = The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj Cauhan and the Indian Past, 1200–2000 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pages = 163– | isbn = 978-1-107-11856-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m3DjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163}}</ref><ref name="Perez2004">{{cite book | author = Rosa Maria Perez | date = 2004 | title = Kings and Untouchables: A Study of the Caste System in Western India | publisher = Orient Blackswan | pages = 75– | isbn = 9788180280146 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GDRWAglUumEC&pg=PA75}}</ref><ref name="Tambs-Lyche2017">{{cite book|author=Harald Tambs-Lyche|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOsrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT88|title=Transaction and Hierarchy: Elements for a Theory of Caste|date=9 August 2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-39396-6|pages=130|quote="Charans are affiliated, by their past history as buffalo herders, to the pastoralist estate. Some Charans, indeed, still herd buffaloes." "Their vegetarian, non-violent and economically puritan ethos conflicts with the Charan tradition, marked by the aristocratic values...Some Charan bards received lands in jagir for their services, and in parts of Marwar, certain Charan families were effectively Darbars."}}</ref>


Line 29: Line 22:
Charan society is based on written [[genealogy]]. A Charan will consider all the other Charans as equal even if they do not know each other and have radically different economic or geographic status.<ref name="Thomson">{{cite journal|author=Thomson, G. R.|title=Charans of Gujarat: Caste Identity, Music and Cultural Change|journal= Ethnomusicology| volume=35| issue=3| pages=381–391|year=1991|doi=10.2307/851968|jstor=851968}}</ref>
Charan society is based on written [[genealogy]]. A Charan will consider all the other Charans as equal even if they do not know each other and have radically different economic or geographic status.<ref name="Thomson">{{cite journal|author=Thomson, G. R.|title=Charans of Gujarat: Caste Identity, Music and Cultural Change|journal= Ethnomusicology| volume=35| issue=3| pages=381–391|year=1991|doi=10.2307/851968|jstor=851968}}</ref>


Charan men are also known as the sacrosanct guides of camel and pack oxen and carvans through Thar desert and as traders in horses, wool and salts , suppliers of food and [[Weapon|weaponry]] to armies
Charan men are also known as the sacrosanct guides of camel and pack oxen and carvans through Thar desert and as traders in horses, wool and salts , suppliers of food and [[Weapon|weaponry]] to armies
[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/12986]
[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/12986]


Anil Chandra Banerjee, a professor of history, has said that {{quote|In them we have a combination of the traditional characteristics of the Brahmin and the Kshatriyas. Like the Brahmins, they adopted literary pursuits and accepted gifts. Like the Rajput, they worshipped Shakti and engaged in military activities. They stood at the front gate of the fort to receive the first blow of the sword.<ref name="Banerjee">{{cite book |last=Banerjee |first=Anil Chandra.|title=Aspects of Rajput State and Society |pages=124–125 |year=1983|oclc = 12236372}}</ref>}} Banerjee's opinion is shared by another historian, G. N. Sharma, who said that {{quote|Charans exercise great respectability and influence in Rajasthan. The speciality of the caste is that it combines in its character the characteristics of Rajputs and Brahmans in an adequate manner.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sharma |first=G. N. |title =Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan |publisher=Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher |place=Agra |page=111 |year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.120777/2015.120777.Social-Life-In-Medieval-Rajasthan-1500-1800-A-D#page/n109/mode/2up}}</ref>}}
Anil Chandra Banerjee, a professor of history, has said that {{quote|In them we have a combination of the traditional characteristics of the Brahmin and the Kshatriyas. Like the Brahmins, they adopted literary pursuits and accepted gifts. Like the Rajput, they worshipped Shakti and engaged in military activities. They stood at the front gate of the fort to receive the first blow of the sword.<ref name="Banerjee">{{cite book |last=Banerjee |first=Anil Chandra.|title=Aspects of Rajput State and Society |pages=124–125 |year=1983|oclc = 12236372}}</ref>}} Banerjee's opinion is shared by another historian, G. N. Sharma, who said that {{quote|Charans exercise great respectability and influence in Rajasthan. The speciality of the caste is that it combines in its character the characteristics of Rajputs and Brahmans in an adequate manner.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sharma |first=G. N. |title =Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan |publisher=Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher |place=Agra |page=111 |year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.120777/2015.120777.Social-Life-In-Medieval-Rajasthan-1500-1800-A-D#page/n109/mode/2up}}</ref>}}
=== Food and drink ===
=== Food and drink ===
Charans used to enjoy consumption of [[opium]] (also known as Afeem in regional languages), practices which are also popular among the Rajputs of this region. But unlike Rajputs, Charan women do not consume liquor. <ref name="khushwantsingh">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|title=We Indians|publisher=Orient Paperbacks |location=Delhi |year=1982 |oclc=10710940}}</ref> Charans do not eat the flesh of cows, and hold those who do in utter disregard. Cows are respected like mothers. Before Indian independence in 1947, a sacrifice of a male buffalo constituted a major part of the celebration of [[Navratri]].<ref name="harlan">{{cite book | author = Harlan L |title =Goddesses' Henchmen - Gender in Hero Worship |publisher = Oxford University Press |place = USA |pages =258| year = 2003}}</ref> Such celebrations quite often used to be presided over by Charan woman.<ref name=Matanamadh>{{cite web
Charans used to enjoy consumption of [[opium]] (also known as Afeem in regional languages), practices which are also popular among the Rajputs of this region. But unlike Rajputs, Charan women do not consume liquor. <ref name="khushwantsingh">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|title=We Indians|publisher=Orient Paperbacks |location=Delhi |year=1982 |oclc=10710940}}</ref> Charans do not eat the flesh of cows, and hold those who do in utter disregard. Cows are respected like mothers. Before Indian independence in 1947, a sacrifice of a male buffalo constituted a major part of the celebration of [[Navratri]].<ref name="harlan">{{cite book | author = Harlan L |title =Goddesses' Henchmen - Gender in Hero Worship |publisher = Oxford University Press |place = USA |pages =258| year = 2003}}</ref> Such celebrations quite often used to be presided over by Charan woman.<ref name=Matanamadh>{{cite web
Line 43: Line 35:
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5QwfGajJD?url=http://www.matanamadh.org/history.html
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5QwfGajJD?url=http://www.matanamadh.org/history.html
|archive-date=2007-08-08}}</ref>
|archive-date=2007-08-08}}</ref>
== Contributions to Indian literature ==
== Contributions to Indian literature ==
A whole genre of literature is known as Charan literature.<ref name="meghani"/> The [[Dingal]] language and literature exist largely due to this caste.<ref name="sharma">{{cite book | last=Sharma |first=G. N. |title =Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan |publisher = Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher |place = Agra |pages = 94–96 |year = 1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.120777/2015.120777.Social-Life-In-Medieval-Rajasthan-1500-1800-A-D#page/n109/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="smith">{{cite journal | author = Smith, J. D. | title = An introduction to language of the historical documents from Rajasthan | journal = Modern Asian Studies | volume = 9 | issue =4 | pages = 433–464 | year = 1974 | doi = 10.1017/S0026749X00012841| s2cid = 145590691 }}</ref> [[Jhaverchand Meghani|Zaverchand Meghani]] divides Charani sahitya (literature) into thirteen subgenres:<ref name="meghani">{{cite book | author = Meghani, Z. |title = Charano and Charani Sahitya | place = Ahmedabad |year = 1943}}</ref>
A whole genre of literature is known as Charan literature.<ref name="meghani"/> The [[Dingal]] language and literature exist largely due to this caste.<ref name="sharma">{{cite book | last=Sharma |first=G. N. |title =Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan |publisher = Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher |place = Agra |pages = 94–96 |year = 1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.120777/2015.120777.Social-Life-In-Medieval-Rajasthan-1500-1800-A-D#page/n109/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="smith">{{cite journal | author = Smith, J. D. | title = An introduction to language of the historical documents from Rajasthan | journal = Modern Asian Studies | volume = 9 | issue =4 | pages = 433–464 | year = 1974 | doi = 10.1017/S0026749X00012841| s2cid = 145590691 }}</ref> [[Jhaverchand Meghani|Zaverchand Meghani]] divides Charani sahitya (literature) into thirteen subgenres:<ref name="meghani">{{cite book | author = Meghani, Z. |title = Charano and Charani Sahitya | place = Ahmedabad |year = 1943}}</ref>
Line 59: Line 50:
* Ancient epics
* Ancient epics
* Songs describing the anguish of people in times of famine and adversity
* Songs describing the anguish of people in times of famine and adversity
Other classifications of Charani sahitya are Khyatas (chronicles), Vartas and Vatas (stories), Raso (martial epics), Veli - ''Veli Krishan Rukman ri'', Doha-Chhand (verses).<ref name="sharma"/><ref name="smith"/>
Other classifications of Charani sahitya are Khyatas (chronicles), Vartas and Vatas (stories), Raso (martial epics), Veli - ''Veli Krishan Rukman ri'', Doha-Chhand (verses).<ref name="sharma"/><ref name="smith"/>
== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |title=In Praise of Death: History and Poetry in Medieval Marwar |first=Janet |last=Kamphorst |publisher=Leiden University Press |isbn=978-90-8728-044-4 |year=2008 |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/12986}}
*{{cite book |title=In Praise of Death: History and Poetry in Medieval Marwar |first=Janet |last=Kamphorst |publisher=Leiden University Press |isbn=978-90-8728-044-4 |year=2008 |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/12986}}
[[Category:Indian surnames]]
[[Category:Indian surnames]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]

Revision as of 02:28, 11 March 2022


For other uses, see Charan (disambiguation).

The Charans (IAST: Cāraṇ; Sanskrit: चारण; Gujarati: ચારણ; Urdu: ارڈ; IPA: cɑːrəɳə) are a South Asian community natively residing in the Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra states of India, as well as the Sindh and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan. Historically, Charans were poets & literateurs, as well as warriors and jagirdars. They specialised in diverse occupations as literateurs, warriors, agriculturalists, traders, and merchants.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

Historical Occupations

Traders & Merchants

Exercising their privilege to transport goods between various states with impunity and utilising the large wealth of cattle as pack animals, Charans were able to establish a “virtual monopoly of trade in North-Western India”. Many Charans are said to have become wealthy merchants and money-lenders. Their caravans were considered to be insured against bandits. In Rajasthan, the Kachela Charans excelled as merchants. [11][12][13]

Utilizing their favourable position since they had “exemption from perpetual and harassing imposts...they gradually became chief carriers and traders”.In Mallani, Charans were described as “large traders" possessing great privileges as a sacred race being exempted from local dues throughout Marwar.[14]

Charan traders took large caravans of bullocks north to Marwar and Hindustan, and east to Malwa through Gujarat. They traded in various commodities including ivory, coconuts, alum, and dry dates which they take from Kutch while bringing back corn and tobacco from Marwar & Hindustan. Ivory, brought from Africa to Mandvi in Gujarat, was bought by Charan traders in return for grain and coarse cloth. Then the Charan traders transported the ivory back to Marwar and sold it there.[15]

The Salt-Trade in Marwar involved thousands of people & pack animals like oxen & camels. Charans along with Pushkarna Brahmins and Bhils were engaged in salt-trade and exempted from the payment of custom duties. Kachela Charans from Sindhari used to collect salt from Talwara & sell in other parts of Marwar.[14]

Caravan Protectors

The Charans held the reputation of defending the merchandise entrusted to their charge through sword and shield if necessary; or else, if outnumbered, by threatening to take, or even taking, their own life.[15]

Charans were described as “greatest carriers of goods” for delivery in important centres of Malpura, Pali, Sojat, Ajmer, and Bhilwara by acting as escorts(bailers).[16] The route of the caravans was through Suigam(Gujarat), Sanchor, Bhinmal, Jalor to Pali.[17] The inviolability of a Charan along with their knowledge of the trade routes distinguished them as ideal caravan escorts.[12] Caravans of horses, camels and pack oxen carrying various commodities passed through desolate stretches of desert & forested hills which were always under threat of bandits & dacoits. Charans acted as the protectors & escorts. As caravan protectors, "sacred Charans" thwarted the attempts of bandits.[13][18] If not strong enough to defend their convoy with sword and shield, they would threaten to kill themselves. Given the position of Charans in the socio-cultural system of the time, the wilful killing of a Charan was equivalent to equally abominable crime of killing a Brahmin. As such, if a Charan did commit suicide over any transgression of the caravans under his guardianship, the marauder-robbers responsible for the suicide were deemed to have "earned the sin of a Charan’s death, with all its post-life connotations of hell-fire and damnation." Thus, under the safety of Charans, commodities were transported from one region to another.[19][20][14][15]

Horse Trade

Horse trade was one of the prominent occupations of Charans.[21][22] Some Charan sub-groups like Kachela Charans(from Kutch & Sindh) and Sorathia Charans(from Kathiawar) were historically engaged in horse breeding & trading.[23][24] The common connection of horses also led to bonds between Charans & the Kathi tribe. Some Kuchela Charans settled around Mallani(Barmer, Rajasthan) in western Rajasthan which was notable for its horse-breeding. Marwari horses from this area came to be known as Mallani horses. By the 18th century, most of the horse trade business in the Bikaner kingdom was controlled by Charans, besides Afghans. Charan horse dealers were considered to be very well networked. In another example of the clout of horse-trading Charans, a Charan from the Kachela subgroup arrived at the court of Marwar ruler, Maharaja Takhat Singh, under the auspices of the sect leader of Nath Sampradaya, and marketed his horses, with 10 horses being directly purchased by the ruler himself. [25][13][26]

Social structure

Traditionally, the Charans worked as Bards and Genealogists.[27][28][29][30][3]

Members of the caste are considered to be divine by a large section of society. Women of the caste are adored as mother goddesses by other major communities of this region including, Khatris and Rajputs.[31] For centuries, Charans were known for their reputation of preferring to die rather than break a promise.[32]

Charan society is based on written genealogy. A Charan will consider all the other Charans as equal even if they do not know each other and have radically different economic or geographic status.[33]

Charan men are also known as the sacrosanct guides of camel and pack oxen and carvans through Thar desert and as traders in horses, wool and salts , suppliers of food and weaponry to armies [1]

Anil Chandra Banerjee, a professor of history, has said that

In them we have a combination of the traditional characteristics of the Brahmin and the Kshatriyas. Like the Brahmins, they adopted literary pursuits and accepted gifts. Like the Rajput, they worshipped Shakti and engaged in military activities. They stood at the front gate of the fort to receive the first blow of the sword.[34]

Banerjee's opinion is shared by another historian, G. N. Sharma, who said that

Charans exercise great respectability and influence in Rajasthan. The speciality of the caste is that it combines in its character the characteristics of Rajputs and Brahmans in an adequate manner.[35]

Food and drink

Charans used to enjoy consumption of opium (also known as Afeem in regional languages), practices which are also popular among the Rajputs of this region. But unlike Rajputs, Charan women do not consume liquor. [36] Charans do not eat the flesh of cows, and hold those who do in utter disregard. Cows are respected like mothers. Before Indian independence in 1947, a sacrifice of a male buffalo constituted a major part of the celebration of Navratri.[37] Such celebrations quite often used to be presided over by Charan woman.[38]

Contributions to Indian literature

A whole genre of literature is known as Charan literature.[39] The Dingal language and literature exist largely due to this caste.[40][41] Zaverchand Meghani divides Charani sahitya (literature) into thirteen subgenres:[39]

  • Songs in praise of gods and goddesses (stavan)
  • Songs in praise of heroes, saints and patrons (birdavalo)
  • Descriptions of war (varanno)
  • Rebukes of wavering great kings and men who use their power for evil (upalambho)
  • Mockery of a standing treachery of heroism (thekadi)
  • Love stories
  • Laments for dead warriors, patrons and friends (marasiya or vilap kavya)
  • Praise of natural beauty, seasonal beauty and festivals
  • Descriptions of weapons
  • Songs in praise of lions, horses, camels, and buffalo
  • Sayings about didactic and practical cleverness
  • Ancient epics
  • Songs describing the anguish of people in times of famine and adversity

Other classifications of Charani sahitya are Khyatas (chronicles), Vartas and Vatas (stories), Raso (martial epics), Veli - Veli Krishan Rukman ri, Doha-Chhand (verses).[40][41]

References

  1. ↑ Palriwala, Rajni (1993). "Economics and Patriliny: Consumption and Authority within the Household". Social Scientist. 21 (9/11): 47–73. doi:10.2307/3520426. ISSN 0970-0293. JSTOR 3520426. In Rajasthan, they were bards and 'literateurs', but also warriors and jagirdars, holders of land and power over men; the dependents of Rajputs, their equals and their teachers. On my initial visit and subsequently, I was assured of this fact vis-a-vis Panchwas and introduced to the thakurs, who in life-style, the practice of female seclusion, and various reference points they alluded to appeared as Rajputs. While other villagers insisted that Rajputs and Charans were all the same to them, the Charans, were not trying to pass themselves off as Rajputs, but indicating that they were as good as Rajputs if not ritually superior....most of the ex-landlord households, the Charans and one Pathan, remained in the middle and upper ranks of village society
  2. ↑ Paul, Kim (1993-01-01). "Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 16 (sup001): 49–60. doi:10.1080/00856409308723191. ISSN 0085-6401. In the past some Charans were agriculturalists, engaged in farming lands which were divided equally between male descendants of the lineage. Others were cowherds and caravan escorts....
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Harald Tambs-Lyche (9 August 2017). Transaction and Hierarchy: Elements for a Theory of Caste. Routledge. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-351-39396-6. Charans are affiliated, by their past history as buffalo herders, to the pastoralist estate. Some Charans, indeed, still herd buffaloes." "Their vegetarian, non-violent and economically puritan ethos conflicts with the Charan tradition, marked by the aristocratic values...Some Charan bards received lands in jagir for their services, and in parts of Marwar, certain Charan families were effectively Darbars.
  4. ↑ Marcus, George E. (1983). Elites, Ethnographic Issues. University of New Mexico Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-8263-0658-6. Charans were court poets and historians, "bards".
  5. ↑ Shah, P. R. (1982). Raj Marwar During British Paramountcy: A Study in Problems and Policies Up to 1923. Sharda Publishing House. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-7855-1985-0. The Charans constituted a body of faithful companions of the Rajputs. They composed poems in praise of the heroic deeds of the Rajputs, and thus inspired them with courage and fortitude. They also guarded the mansions of their patrons, gave protection to their women and children during emergency and also acted as tutors for the young ones. In return land gifts and honours were conferred upon them. The Charans, who could not devote themselves to intellectual pursuits, took to trade. They also protected merchants and travellers passing through desolate regions and forests.
  6. ↑ Gupta, Saurabh (2015-10-01). Politics of Water Conservation: Delivering Development in Rural Rajasthan, India. Springer. p. 42. ISBN 978-3-319-21392-7. Sharma (ibid) argues that the ex-Zamindars (or landlords) who own big landholdings even today are influential but those who do not retain it are not only less influential but have also slid down the scale of status hierarchy. The families most affected by this belong to the Rajputs, Jats, Charans and Brahmins (all traditionally powerful caste groups).
  7. ↑ Matheson, Sylvia A. (1984). Rajasthan, Land of Kings. Vendome Press. ISBN 978-0-86565-046-6.
  8. ↑ Hastings, James M. (2002). Poets, Sants, and Warriors: The Dadu Panth, Religious Change and Identity Formation in Jaipur State Circa 1562-1860 Ce. University of Wisconsin--Madison. p. 23. In Rajasthan, the Charans are a highly esteemed caste seen as occupying a social position slightly lower than that of Brahmins but above that of Rajputs, with whom they maintain a symbiotic relationship...Like Rajputs, with whom they often shared company, Charans would eat meat, drink liquor and engage in martial activities...Although, in a way, poetic composition and recitation was for them a "pastime" subordinate to the primary income producing occupations of military service, agriculture, and horse and cattle trading...
  9. ↑ Sharma, K. L. (2019-02-02). Caste, Social Inequality and Mobility in Rural India: Reconceptualizing the Indian Village. SAGE Publishing India. pp. 322–323. ISBN 978-93-5328-202-8. "Charans, a landowning caste (ex-zamindars), Brahmins and Banias were at the centre of the village...the upper castes, namely, Brahmins, Charans and Banias were dominant and grabbed new jobs and opportunities.
  10. ↑ Patel, Tulsi (2006-11-30). Fertility Behaviour: Population and Society in a Rajasthan Village. OUP India. ISBN 978-0-19-568706-4. The jagir was held by members of the Charan caste...By this criterion most of the vegetarian castes enjoy a high rank while the non-vegetarian castes belong to the lower category, except Charan and Rajput who belong to the highest category, despite being non-vegetarian and non-teetotaler...While the abolition of feudal land tenures has led to downward mobility of Charans and Rajputs, it has helped upward mobility of Patels and Jats...Except for Charans and Rajputs, all others cultivate land as tenants and sharecroppers, especially if their own holding is small...However, Brahmins do take up wage labour in agriculture, unlike Banias, Charans and Rajputs...My entry into homes of higher castes, especially those of Charans and Rajputs, was not easy either.
  11. ↑ Matheson, Sylvia A. (1984). Rajasthan, Land of Kings. Vendome Press. ISBN 978-0-86565-046-6.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Living goddesses, past and present in North-west India, German Scholars on India – Global InCH- International Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage". Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Chandra, Yashaswini (2021-01-22). The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-93-89109-92-4.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Kothiyal, Tanuja (2016-03-14). Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-67389-8.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Hooja, Rima (2006). A History of Rajasthan. Rupa & Company. ISBN 978-81-291-0890-6.
  16. ↑ "Rajasthan, District Gazetteers: Pali". INDIAN CULTURE. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  17. ↑ "The Rajput States and the East India Company". INDIAN CULTURE. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  18. ↑ Paul, Kim (1993-01-01). "Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 16 (sup001): 49–60. doi:10.1080/00856409308723191. ISSN 0085-6401.
  19. ↑ Hunter, William Wilson (2020-11-19). The Imperial Gazetteer Of India (Volume Xxi) Pushkar To Salween. Alpha Editions. ISBN 978-93-5421-782-1.
  20. ↑ Sahai, Nandita Prasad (2006). Politics of Patronage and Protest: The State, Society, and Artisans in Early Modern Rajasthan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-567896-3.
  21. ↑ Jansen, Jan; Maier, Hendrik M. J. (2004). Epic Adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents. Lit. ISBN 978-3-8258-6758-4.
  22. ↑ Deva, B. Chaitanya (1992). INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN MUSIC. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. ISBN 978-81-230-2103-4.
  23. ↑ Social Scientist. Indian School of Social Sciences. 2005.
  24. ↑ Dutson, Judith (2012-05-07). Storey's Illustrated Guide to 96 Horse Breeds of North America. Storey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60342-918-4.
  25. ↑ Kamphorst, Janet (2008). In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia). Leiden: Leiden University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-0603-3. OCLC 614596834.
  26. ↑ Saxena, Rajendra Kumar (2002). Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana. Publication Scheme. ISBN 978-81-86782-75-0.
  27. ↑ Romila Thapar (14 October 2013). The Past Before Us. Harvard University Press. pp. 81–. ISBN 978-0-674-72651-2.
  28. ↑ Sumit Guha (1 November 2019). History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000. University of Washington Press. pp. 56–. ISBN 978-0-295-74623-4.
  29. ↑ Cynthia Talbot (2016). The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj Cauhan and the Indian Past, 1200–2000. Cambridge University Press. pp. 163–. ISBN 978-1-107-11856-0.
  30. ↑ Rosa Maria Perez (2004). Kings and Untouchables: A Study of the Caste System in Western India. Orient Blackswan. pp. 75–. ISBN 9788180280146.
  31. ↑ Shah, A. M.; Shroff, R. G. (1958). "The Vahivanca Barots of Gujarat: A Caste of Genealogists and Mythographers". Journal of American Folk-Lore. 71 (281): 246–276. doi:10.2307/538561. JSTOR 538561.
  32. ↑ "Cāraṇ, Hindu caste". Britannica.com.
  33. ↑ Thomson, G. R. (1991). "Charans of Gujarat: Caste Identity, Music and Cultural Change". Ethnomusicology. 35 (3): 381–391. doi:10.2307/851968. JSTOR 851968.
  34. ↑ Banerjee, Anil Chandra. (1983). Aspects of Rajput State and Society. pp. 124–125. OCLC 12236372.
  35. ↑ Sharma, G. N. (1968). Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan. Agra: Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher. p. 111.
  36. ↑ Singh, Khushwant (1982). We Indians. Delhi: Orient Paperbacks. OCLC 10710940.
  37. ↑ Harlan L (2003). Goddesses' Henchmen - Gender in Hero Worship. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 258.
  38. ↑ "Matanamadh, Desh Devi Ashapura". Matanamadh Jagir, Kachchh, India. 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-08-08. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Meghani, Z. (1943). Charano and Charani Sahitya. Ahmedabad.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Sharma, G. N. (1968). Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan. Agra: Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher. pp. 94–96.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Smith, J. D. (1974). "An introduction to language of the historical documents from Rajasthan". Modern Asian Studies. 9 (4): 433–464. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00012841. S2CID 145590691.

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