.svg)
Hindu–German Conspiracy: Difference between revisions
m
→References: fixed cite for sfn anchor
Lucasraven12 (talk | contribs) (Created page with "{{short description|Pan-Indian rebellion against the British Raj during World War I}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}} {{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}} {{Anushilan S...") |
->Llammakey m (→References: fixed cite for sfn anchor) |
||
| Line 8: | Line 8: | ||
The '''Hindu–German Conspiracy'''<sup>[[#Note on the name|(Note on the name)]]</sup> was a series of attempts between 1914 and 1917 by [[Indian nationalist movement|Indian nationalist]] groups to create a Pan-Indian rebellion against the [[British Empire]] during [[World War I]]. This rebellion was formulated between the [[Indian revolutionary underground]] and exiled or self-exiled nationalists in the United States. It also involved the [[Ghadar Party]], and in Germany the [[Indian independence committee]] in the decade preceding the Great War.<ref name="Plowman 84">{{Harvnb|Plowman|2003|p=84}}</ref><ref name=Hoover252>{{Harvnb|Hoover|1985|p=252}}</ref><ref name=GBrown300>{{Harvnb|Brown|1948|p=300}}</ref> The conspiracy began at the start of the war, with extensive support from the [[Auswärtiges Amt|German Foreign Office]], the German consulate in [[San Francisco]], and some support from [[Ottoman Turkey]] and the [[Irish republicanism|Irish republican movement]]. The most prominent plan attempted to foment unrest and trigger a Pan-Indian [[mutiny]] in the [[British Indian Army]] from [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] to [[Singapore]]. It was to be executed in February 1915, and overthrow British rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The [[Ghadar Conspiracy|February mutiny]] was ultimately thwarted when British intelligence infiltrated the [[Ghadarite]] movement and arrested key figures. Mutinies in smaller units and garrisons within India were also crushed. | The '''Hindu–German Conspiracy'''<sup>[[#Note on the name|(Note on the name)]]</sup> was a series of attempts between 1914 and 1917 by [[Indian nationalist movement|Indian nationalist]] groups to create a Pan-Indian rebellion against the [[British Empire]] during [[World War I]]. This rebellion was formulated between the [[Indian revolutionary underground]] and exiled or self-exiled nationalists in the United States. It also involved the [[Ghadar Party]], and in Germany the [[Indian independence committee]] in the decade preceding the Great War.<ref name="Plowman 84">{{Harvnb|Plowman|2003|p=84}}</ref><ref name=Hoover252>{{Harvnb|Hoover|1985|p=252}}</ref><ref name=GBrown300>{{Harvnb|Brown|1948|p=300}}</ref> The conspiracy began at the start of the war, with extensive support from the [[Auswärtiges Amt|German Foreign Office]], the German consulate in [[San Francisco]], and some support from [[Ottoman Turkey]] and the [[Irish republicanism|Irish republican movement]]. The most prominent plan attempted to foment unrest and trigger a Pan-Indian [[mutiny]] in the [[British Indian Army]] from [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] to [[Singapore]]. It was to be executed in February 1915, and overthrow British rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The [[Ghadar Conspiracy|February mutiny]] was ultimately thwarted when British intelligence infiltrated the [[Ghadarite]] movement and arrested key figures. Mutinies in smaller units and garrisons within India were also crushed. | ||
The Indo-German [[alliance]] and conspiracy were the target of a worldwide British intelligence effort, which successfully prevented further attempts. American intelligence agencies arrested key figures in the aftermath of the ''Annie Larsen'' affair in 1917. The conspiracy resulted in the [[Lahore Conspiracy Case trial|Lahore conspiracy case]] trials in India as well as the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial]] — at the time the longest and most expensive trial ever held in the United States.<ref name="Plowman 84" /> | The Indo-German [[alliance]] and conspiracy were the target of a worldwide British intelligence effort, which successfully prevented further attempts. American intelligence agencies arrested key figures in the aftermath of the [[Annie Larsen affair|''Annie Larsen'' affair]] in 1917. The conspiracy resulted in the [[Lahore Conspiracy Case trial|Lahore conspiracy case]] trials in India as well as the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial]] — at the time the longest and most expensive trial ever held in the United States.<ref name="Plowman 84" /> | ||
This series of events was pivotal for the [[Indian independence movement]], and became a major factor in reforming the Raj's Indian policy.<ref name=Popplewell4>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=4}}</ref> Similar efforts were made during [[World War II]] in Germany and in Japanese-controlled [[Southeast Asia]]. [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] formed the [[Indische Legion]] and the [[Indian National Army]], and in Italy [[Mohammad Iqbal Shedai]] formed the [[Battaglione Azad Hindoustan]]. | This series of events was pivotal for the [[Indian independence movement]], and became a major factor in reforming the Raj's Indian policy.<ref name=Popplewell4>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=4}}</ref> Similar efforts were made during [[World War II]] in Germany and in Japanese-controlled [[Southeast Asia]]. [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] formed the [[Indische Legion]] and the [[Indian National Army]], and in Italy [[Mohammad Iqbal Shedai]] formed the [[Battaglione Azad Hindoustan]]. | ||
| Line 28: | Line 28: | ||
* the [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition|German mission to Kabul]], | * the [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition|German mission to Kabul]], | ||
* the mutiny of the [[Connaught Rangers]] in India | * the mutiny of the [[Connaught Rangers]] in India | ||
* by some accounts, the [[Black Tom explosion]] in 1916. | * by some accounts, the [[Black Tom explosion]] in 1916. | ||
Parts of the [[conspiracy]] also included efforts to subvert the [[British Indian Army]] in the [[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I]]. | Parts of the [[conspiracy]] also included efforts to subvert the [[British Indian Army]] in the [[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I]]. | ||
| Line 40: | Line 40: | ||
The controversial [[1905 partition of Bengal]] had a widespread political impact. Acting as a stimulus for radical nationalist opinion in India and abroad, it became a focal issue for Indian revolutionaries.<ref name=Bose117>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|1998|p=117}}</ref><ref name=Dutta135>{{Harvnb|Dutta|Desai|2003|p=135}}</ref><ref name=Bhatt83>{{Harvnb|Bhatt|2001|p=83}}</ref> Revolutionary organizations like [[Jugantar]] and [[Anushilan Samiti]] emerged in the 20th century. Significant events took place, including assassinations and attempted assassinations of [[Civil service|civil servants]], prominent public figures and Indian informants, including an attempt in 1907 to kill Bengal Lieutenant-Governor Sir [[Andrew Fraser (Governor of Bengal)|Andrew Fraser]]. Matters came to a head when the 1912 [[Delhi–Lahore Conspiracy]], led by erstwhile Jugantar member [[Rash Behari Bose]], attempted to assassinate the then-[[Viceroy of India]], [[Charles Hardinge]]. In the aftermath of this event, the British Indian police made concentrated efforts to destroy the Bengali and Punjabi revolutionary underground. Though the movement came under intense pressure for some time, [[Rash Behari Bose|Rash Behari]] successfully evaded capture for nearly three years. By the time World War I began in 1914, the revolutionary movement had revived in Punjab and Bengal. In Bengal the movement, with a safe haven in the French base of [[Chandernagore]], had sufficient strength to all but paralyze the state administration.<ref name=Gupta12>{{Harvnb|Gupta|1997|p=12}} | The controversial [[1905 partition of Bengal]] had a widespread political impact. Acting as a stimulus for radical nationalist opinion in India and abroad, it became a focal issue for Indian revolutionaries.<ref name=Bose117>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|1998|p=117}}</ref><ref name=Dutta135>{{Harvnb|Dutta|Desai|2003|p=135}}</ref><ref name=Bhatt83>{{Harvnb|Bhatt|2001|p=83}}</ref> Revolutionary organizations like [[Jugantar]] and [[Anushilan Samiti]] emerged in the 20th century. Significant events took place, including assassinations and attempted assassinations of [[Civil service|civil servants]], prominent public figures and Indian informants, including an attempt in 1907 to kill Bengal Lieutenant-Governor Sir [[Andrew Fraser (Governor of Bengal)|Andrew Fraser]]. Matters came to a head when the 1912 [[Delhi–Lahore Conspiracy]], led by erstwhile Jugantar member [[Rash Behari Bose]], attempted to assassinate the then-[[Viceroy of India]], [[Charles Hardinge]]. In the aftermath of this event, the British Indian police made concentrated efforts to destroy the Bengali and Punjabi revolutionary underground. Though the movement came under intense pressure for some time, [[Rash Behari Bose|Rash Behari]] successfully evaded capture for nearly three years. By the time World War I began in 1914, the revolutionary movement had revived in Punjab and Bengal. In Bengal the movement, with a safe haven in the French base of [[Chandernagore]], had sufficient strength to all but paralyze the state administration.<ref name=Gupta12>{{Harvnb|Gupta|1997|p=12}} | ||
</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=201}} | </ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=201}} | ||
</ref><ref name=Strachan795/> | </ref><ref name=Strachan795/> | ||
The earliest mention of a conspiracy for armed revolution in India appears in ''Nixon's Report on Revolutionary Organization'', which reported that [[Jatin Mukherjee]] (Bagha Jatin) and [[Naren Bhattacharya]] had met with the [[William, German Crown Prince|Crown Prince of Germany]] during the latter's visit to [[Calcutta]] in 1912, and received assurances that he would receive arms and ammunition<ref>''Terrorism in Bengal'', Compiled and Edited by A.K. Samanta, Government of West Bengal, 1995, Vol. II, p625. | The earliest mention of a conspiracy for armed revolution in India appears in ''Nixon's Report on Revolutionary Organization'', which reported that [[Jatin Mukherjee]] (Bagha Jatin) and [[Naren Bhattacharya]] had met with the [[William, German Crown Prince|Crown Prince of Germany]] during the latter's visit to [[Calcutta]] in 1912, and received assurances that he would receive arms and ammunition<ref>''Terrorism in Bengal'', Compiled and Edited by A.K. Samanta, Government of West Bengal, 1995, Vol. II, p625. | ||
| Line 61: | Line 61: | ||
{{See also|Har Dayal|Sohan Singh Bhakna|Tarak Nath Das}} | {{See also|Har Dayal|Sohan Singh Bhakna|Tarak Nath Das}} | ||
Large-scale Indian [[immigration]] to the [[Pacific coast]] of [[North America]] took place in the 20th-century, especially from Punjab, which faced an [[economic depression]]. The [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] met this influx with legislation aimed at limiting the entry of [[South Asia]]ns into [[Canada]] and at restricting the political rights of those already in the country. The Punjabi community had hitherto been an important loyal force for the [[British Empire]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. The community had expected that its commitment would be honored with the same welcome and rights which the British and colonial governments extended to British and white immigrants. The restrictive legislation fed growing discontent, [[ | Large-scale Indian [[immigration]] to the [[Pacific coast]] of [[North America]] took place in the 20th-century, especially from Punjab, which faced an [[economic depression]]. The [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] met this influx with legislation aimed at limiting the entry of [[South Asia]]ns into [[Canada]] and at restricting the political rights of those already in the country. The Punjabi community had hitherto been an important loyal force for the [[British Empire]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. The community had expected that its commitment would be honored with the same welcome and rights which the British and colonial governments extended to British and white immigrants. The restrictive legislation fed growing discontent, [[protest]]s and anti-colonial sentiments within the community. Faced with increasingly difficult situations, the community began organizing itself into political groups. Many Punjabis also moved to the United States, but they encountered similar political and social problems.<ref name=Strachan795>{{Harvnb|Strachan|2001|p=795}} | ||
</ref> Meanwhile, India House and nationalist activism of Indian students had begun declining on the east coast of North America towards 1910, but activity gradually shifted west to San Francisco. The arrival at this time of [[Har Dayal]] from Europe bridged the gap between the intellectual agitators in New York and the predominantly Punjabi labor workers and migrants in the west coast, and laid the foundations of the [[Ghadar Party|Ghadar movement]].<ref name="FischerTine335"/> | </ref> Meanwhile, India House and nationalist activism of Indian students had begun declining on the east coast of North America towards 1910, but activity gradually shifted west to San Francisco. The arrival at this time of [[Har Dayal]] from Europe bridged the gap between the intellectual agitators in New York and the predominantly Punjabi labor workers and migrants in the west coast, and laid the foundations of the [[Ghadar Party|Ghadar movement]].<ref name="FischerTine335"/> | ||
[[File:Ghadar di gunj.jpg|thumb|right|180px|''[[Ghadar di gunj]]'', an early Ghadarite compilation of [[nationalist]] and [[socialist]] literature, was banned in India in 1913.]] | [[File:Ghadar di gunj.jpg|thumb|right|180px|''[[Ghadar di gunj]]'', an early Ghadarite compilation of [[nationalist]] and [[socialist]] literature, was banned in India in 1913.]] | ||
| Line 73: | Line 73: | ||
{{Main|Berlin Committee}} | {{Main|Berlin Committee}} | ||
{{See also|Imperial Germany|Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg|Arthur Zimmermann|Franz von Papen}} | {{See also|Imperial Germany|Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg|Arthur Zimmermann|Franz von Papen}} | ||
With the onset of [[World War III|World War I]], an Indian revolutionary group called the [[Berlin Committee]] (later called the Indian Independence Committee) was formed in Germany. Its chief [[ | With the onset of [[World War III|World War I]], an Indian revolutionary group called the [[Berlin Committee]] (later called the Indian Independence Committee) was formed in Germany. Its chief [[architect]]s were [[Chempakaraman Pillai|C. R. Pillai]] and [[V. N. Chatterjee]].<ref name=Hoover251/><ref name=Strachan798>{{Harvnb|Strachan|2001|p=798}}</ref> The committee drew members from Indian students and erstwhile members of the India House including [[Abinash Chandra Bhattacharya|Abhinash Bhattacharya]], Dr. Abdul Hafiz, Padmanabhan Pillai, [[A. R. Pillai]], [[M. P. T. Acharya]] and Gopal Paranjape. Germany had earlier opened the [[Intelligence Bureau for the East]] headed by archaeologist and historian [[Max von Oppenheim]]. Oppenheim and [[Arthur Zimmermann]], the State Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the German Empire, actively supported the Berlin committee, which had links with [[Bagha Jatin|Jatin Mukherjee]]— a [[Jugantar Party]] member and at the time one of the leading revolutionary figures in Bengal.<ref name=Gupta12/><ref name=Bhavans/><ref name=Gupta11/><ref name="Puri 1980 p=60">{{Harvnb|Puri|1980|p=60}}</ref> The office of the 25-member committee at No.38 Wielandstrasse was accorded full embassy status.<ref name=Hopkirk96>{{Harvnb|Hopkirk|2001|p=96}}</ref> | ||
German [[Chancellor]] [[Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg]] authorized German activity against British India as World War I broke out in September 1914. Germany decided to actively support the Ghadarite plans.<ref name=Hoover251>{{Harvnb|Hoover|1985|p=251}}</ref> Using the links established between Indian and [[Irish people|Irish]] residents in Germany (including Irish nationalist and poet [[Roger Casement]]) and the German Foreign Office, Oppenheim tapped into the Indo-Irish network in the United States. Har Dayal helped organise the Ghadar party before his arrest in the United States in 1914. He jumped bail and made his way to Switzerland, leaving the party and its publications in the charge of [[Ram Chandra Bharadwaj]], who became the Ghadar president in 1914. The German [[consulate]] in San Francisco was tasked to make contact with Ghadar leaders in California. A [[Navy|naval]] [[lieutenant]] by the name of Wilhelm von Brincken with the help of the Indian nationalist [[journalist]] [[Tarak Nath Das]] and an intermediary by the name of Charles Lattendorf established links with Bharadwaj. Meanwhile, in Switzerland the Berlin committee was able to convince Har Dayal that organising a revolution in India was feasible.<ref name=Hoover252/> | German [[Chancellor]] [[Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg]] authorized German activity against British India as World War I broke out in September 1914. Germany decided to actively support the Ghadarite plans.<ref name=Hoover251>{{Harvnb|Hoover|1985|p=251}}</ref> Using the links established between Indian and [[Irish people|Irish]] residents in Germany (including Irish nationalist and poet [[Roger Casement]]) and the German Foreign Office, Oppenheim tapped into the Indo-Irish network in the United States. Har Dayal helped organise the Ghadar party before his arrest in the United States in 1914. He jumped bail and made his way to Switzerland, leaving the party and its publications in the charge of [[Ram Chandra Bharadwaj]], who became the Ghadar president in 1914. The German [[consulate]] in San Francisco was tasked to make contact with Ghadar leaders in California. A [[Navy|naval]] [[lieutenant]] by the name of Wilhelm von Brincken with the help of the Indian nationalist [[journalist]] [[Tarak Nath Das]] and an intermediary by the name of Charles Lattendorf established links with Bharadwaj. Meanwhile, in Switzerland the Berlin committee was able to convince Har Dayal that organising a revolution in India was feasible.<ref name=Hoover252/> | ||
| Line 81: | Line 81: | ||
[[File:Komogata Maru LAC a034014 1914.jpg|thumb|right|Punjabi [[Sikhs]] aboard the ''[[Komagata Maru]]'' in Vancouver's [[English Bay (Vancouver)|English Bay]], 23 May 1914. The Canadian government banned the passengers from landing in Canada and the ship was forced to return to India. The events surrounding the ''Komagata Maru'' incident served as a catalyst for the Ghadarite cause.]] | [[File:Komogata Maru LAC a034014 1914.jpg|thumb|right|Punjabi [[Sikhs]] aboard the ''[[Komagata Maru]]'' in Vancouver's [[English Bay (Vancouver)|English Bay]], 23 May 1914. The Canadian government banned the passengers from landing in Canada and the ship was forced to return to India. The events surrounding the ''Komagata Maru'' incident served as a catalyst for the Ghadarite cause.]] | ||
In May 1914, the Canadian government refused to allow the 400 Indian passengers of the ship ''[[Komagata Maru]]'' to disembark at [[Vancouver]]. The voyage had been planned by [[Baba Gurdit Singh|Gurdit Singh Sandhu]] as an attempt to circumvent Canadian exclusion laws that effectively prevented Indian immigration. Before the ship reached Vancouver, German radio announced its approach, and [[British Columbia]]n authorities prepared to prevent the passengers from entering Canada. The ship was escorted out of Vancouver by the [[protected cruiser]] {{HMCS|Rainbow|1891|6}} and returned to India. | In May 1914, the Canadian government refused to allow the 400 Indian passengers of the ship ''[[Komagata Maru]]'' to disembark at [[Vancouver]]. The voyage had been planned by [[Baba Gurdit Singh|Gurdit Singh Sandhu]] as an attempt to circumvent Canadian exclusion laws that effectively prevented Indian immigration. Before the ship reached Vancouver, German radio announced its approach, and [[British Columbia]]n authorities prepared to prevent the passengers from entering Canada. The ship was escorted out of Vancouver by the [[protected cruiser]] {{HMCS|Rainbow|1891|6}} and returned to India. | ||
The incident became a focal point for the Indian community in Canada, which rallied in support of the passengers and against the government's policies. After a two-month legal battle, 24 of the passengers were allowed to immigrate. On reaching Calcutta, the passengers were detained under the [[Defence of India Act 1915|Defence of India Act]] at [[Budge Budge]] by the British Indian government, which tried to forcibly transport them to Punjab. This caused rioting at Budge Budge, resulting in fatalities on both sides.<ref name=Ward79>{{Harvnb|Ward|2002|pp=79–96}}</ref> Ghadar leaders like Barkatullah and [[Tarak Nath Das]] used the inflammatory passions surrounding the ''Komagata Maru'' event as a rallying point and successfully brought many disaffected Indians in North America into the party's fold.<ref name="strachan796">{{Harvnb|Strachan|2001|p=796}}</ref> | The incident became a focal point for the Indian community in Canada, which rallied in support of the passengers and against the government's policies. After a two-month legal battle, 24 of the passengers were allowed to immigrate. On reaching Calcutta, the passengers were detained under the [[Defence of India Act 1915|Defence of India Act]] at [[Budge Budge]] by the British Indian government, which tried to forcibly transport them to Punjab. This caused rioting at Budge Budge, resulting in fatalities on both sides.<ref name=Ward79>{{Harvnb|Ward|2002|pp=79–96}}</ref> Ghadar leaders like Barkatullah and [[Tarak Nath Das]] used the inflammatory passions surrounding the ''Komagata Maru'' event as a rallying point and successfully brought many disaffected Indians in North America into the party's fold.<ref name="strachan796">{{Harvnb|Strachan|2001|p=796}}</ref> | ||
| Line 199: | Line 199: | ||
===Europe and the Middle East=== | ===Europe and the Middle East=== | ||
{{See also|John Wallinger|Indian Political Intelligence Office|East Persia Cordon}} | {{See also|John Wallinger|Indian Political Intelligence Office|East Persia Cordon}} | ||
By the time the war broke out, the [[Indian Political Intelligence Office]], headed by [[John Wallinger]], had expanded into Europe. In scale this office was larger than those operated by the British War Office, approaching the European intelligence network of the [[Secret Service Bureau]]. This network already had agents in Switzerland against possible German intrigues. After the outbreak of the war Wallinger, under the guise of an officer of the British General Headquarters, proceeded to France where he operated from Paris, working with the French political police, the [[Sûreté]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=216,217}}</ref> Among Wallinger's recruits in the network was [[Somerset Maugham]], who was recruited in 1915 and used his cover as an author to visit Geneva without Swiss interference.<ref name=Popplewell230>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=230}}</ref><ref name=Woods55>{{Harvnb|Woods|2007|p=55}}</ref> | By the time the war broke out, the [[Indian Political Intelligence Office]], headed by [[John Wallinger]], had expanded into Europe. In scale this office was larger than those operated by the British War Office, approaching the European intelligence network of the [[Secret Service Bureau]]. This network already had agents in Switzerland against possible German intrigues. After the outbreak of the war Wallinger, under the guise of an officer of the British General Headquarters, proceeded to France where he operated from Paris, working with the French political police, the [[Sûreté]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=216,217}}</ref> Among Wallinger's recruits in the network was [[Somerset Maugham]], who was recruited in 1915 and used his cover as an author to visit Geneva without Swiss interference.<ref name=Popplewell230>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=230}}</ref><ref name=Woods55>{{Harvnb|Woods|2007|p=55}}</ref> | ||
Among other enterprises, the European intelligence network attempted to eliminate some of the Indian leaders in Europe. A British agent named Donald Gullick was dispatched to assassinate [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] while the latter was on his way to Geneva to meet [[Mahendra Pratap]] to offer him [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm II]]'s invitation. It is said that Somerset Maugham based several of his stories on his first-hand experiences, modelling the character of [[John Ashenden]] after himself and Chandra Lal after Virendranath. The short story "Giulia Lazzari" is a blend of Gullick's attempts to assassinate Virendranath and [[Mata Hari]]'s story. [[Winston Churchill]] reportedly advised Maugham to burn 14 other stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=234}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Barooah|2004|p=}}</ref> | Among other enterprises, the European intelligence network attempted to eliminate some of the Indian leaders in Europe. A British agent named Donald Gullick was dispatched to assassinate [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] while the latter was on his way to Geneva to meet [[Mahendra Pratap]] to offer him [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm II]]'s invitation. It is said that Somerset Maugham based several of his stories on his first-hand experiences, modelling the character of [[John Ashenden]] after himself and Chandra Lal after Virendranath. The short story "Giulia Lazzari" is a blend of Gullick's attempts to assassinate Virendranath and [[Mata Hari]]'s story. [[Winston Churchill]] reportedly advised Maugham to burn 14 other stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=234}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Barooah|2004|p=}}</ref> | ||
| Line 244: | Line 244: | ||
| access-date=8 December 2007}}</ref> | | access-date=8 December 2007}}</ref> | ||
In the United States, the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial]] commenced in the District Court in San Francisco on 12 November 1917 following the uncovering of the Annie Larsen affair. One hundred and five people participated, including members of the Ghadar Party, the former German Consul-General and Vice-Consul, and other members of staff of the German consulate in San Francisco. The trial itself lasted from 20 November 1917 to 24 April 1918. The last day of the trial was notable for the sensational assassination in a packed courtroom of the chief accused, [[Ram Chandra Bharadwaj|Ram Chandra]], by a fellow defendant, Ram Singh, who believed he was a spy for the British. Singh himself was immediately shot dead by a [[US Marshal]]. | In the United States, the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial]] commenced in the District Court in San Francisco on 12 November 1917 following the uncovering of the Annie Larsen affair. One hundred and five people participated, including members of the Ghadar Party, the former German Consul-General and Vice-Consul, and other members of staff of the German consulate in San Francisco. The trial itself lasted from 20 November 1917 to 24 April 1918. The last day of the trial was notable for the sensational assassination in a packed courtroom of the chief accused, [[Ram Chandra Bharadwaj|Ram Chandra]], by a fellow defendant, Ram Singh, who believed he was a spy for the British. Singh himself was immediately shot dead by a [[US Marshal]]. | ||
In May 1917, eight Indian nationalists of the Ghadar Party were indicted by a federal grand jury on a charge of conspiracy to form a military enterprise against Britain. In later years the proceedings were criticised as being largely a [[show trial]] designed to appease the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]].<ref name=Fraser257/> The jury during the trial was carefully selected to exclude any Irish person with republican views or associations.<ref name=Jensen65/> <!--The British authorities hoped that the conviction of the Indians would result in their deportation from the United States back to India.--> Strong public support in favour of the Indians, especially the revived Anglophobic sentiments following the provisions of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] which were perceived as being overtly favorable towards Britain, allowed the Ghadarite movement to be revived despite British concerns.<ref name=Dignan75>{{Harvnb|Dignan|1971|p=75}}</ref> | In May 1917, eight Indian nationalists of the Ghadar Party were indicted by a federal grand jury on a charge of conspiracy to form a military enterprise against Britain. In later years the proceedings were criticised as being largely a [[show trial]] designed to appease the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]].<ref name=Fraser257/> The jury during the trial was carefully selected to exclude any Irish person with republican views or associations.<ref name=Jensen65/> <!--The British authorities hoped that the conviction of the Indians would result in their deportation from the United States back to India.--> Strong public support in favour of the Indians, especially the revived Anglophobic sentiments following the provisions of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] which were perceived as being overtly favorable towards Britain, allowed the Ghadarite movement to be revived despite British concerns.<ref name=Dignan75>{{Harvnb|Dignan|1971|p=75}}</ref> | ||
| Line 262: | Line 262: | ||
|author=Swami P | |author=Swami P | ||
|work=The Hindu | |work=The Hindu | ||
|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1422/14220500.htm | |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1422/14220500.htm | ||
|title=Jallianwala Bagh revisited | |title=Jallianwala Bagh revisited | ||
|date=1 November 1997 | |date=1 November 1997 | ||
|access-date=7 October 2007 | |access-date=7 October 2007 | ||
|url-status= | |url-status=usurped | ||
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128143651/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1422/14220500.htm | |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128143651/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1422/14220500.htm | ||
|archive-date=28 November 2007 | |archive-date=28 November 2007 | ||
}}</ref> The attempted mutinies in 1915 and the Lahore conspiracy trials still had the public's attention. News of young [[Muhajir people|Mohajirs]] who had fought on behalf of the Turkish Caliphate and later in the ranks of the [[Red Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]] had also begun to reach India. The Russian Revolution had also cast its long shadow into India.<ref>{{harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=177}}</ref> It was at this time that [[Mahatma Gandhi]], until then relatively unknown on the Indian political scene, began to emerge as a mass leader. | }}</ref> The attempted mutinies in 1915 and the Lahore conspiracy trials still had the public's attention. News of young [[Muhajir (Urdu-speaking people)|Mohajirs]] who had fought on behalf of the Turkish Caliphate and later in the ranks of the [[Red Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]] had also begun to reach India. The Russian Revolution had also cast its long shadow into India.<ref>{{harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=177}}</ref> It was at this time that [[Mahatma Gandhi]], until then relatively unknown on the Indian political scene, began to emerge as a mass leader. | ||
Ominously, in 1919, the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] began in the wake of Amir [[Habibullah Khan|Habibullah]]'s assassination and institution of [[Amānullāh Khān|Amanullah]] in a system blatantly influenced by the Kabul mission. In addition, in India, Gandhi's call for protest against the Rowlatt Act achieved an unprecedented response of furious unrest and protests. The situation, especially in Punjab, was deteriorating rapidly, with disruptions of rail, telegraph and communication systems. The movement was at its peak before the end of the first week of April, with some recording that "practically the whole of Lahore was on the streets, the immense crowd that passed through Anarkali was estimated to be around 20,000."<ref name=FLJR/> In [[Amritsar]], over 5,000 people gathered at [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre|Jallianwala Bagh]]. This situation deteriorated perceptibly over the next few days. Michael O'Dwyer is said to have been of the firm belief that these were the early and ill-concealed signs of a conspiracy for a coordinated uprising around May, on the lines of the [[1857 revolt]], at a time when the British would have withdrawn to the hills for the summer. The [[Amritsar massacre]], as well as responses before and after it, was the end result of a concerted plan of response from the Punjab administration to suppress such a conspiracy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cell|2002|p=67}}</ref> [[James Houssemayne Du Boulay]] is said to have ascribed a direct relationship between the fear of a Ghadarite uprising in the midst of an increasingly tense situation in Punjab, and the British response that ended in the massacre.<ref name=Brown1973>{{Harvnb|Brown|1973|p=523}}</ref> | Ominously, in 1919, the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] began in the wake of Amir [[Habibullah Khan|Habibullah]]'s assassination and institution of [[Amānullāh Khān|Amanullah]] in a system blatantly influenced by the Kabul mission. In addition, in India, Gandhi's call for protest against the Rowlatt Act achieved an unprecedented response of furious unrest and protests. The situation, especially in Punjab, was deteriorating rapidly, with disruptions of rail, telegraph and communication systems. The movement was at its peak before the end of the first week of April, with some recording that "practically the whole of Lahore was on the streets, the immense crowd that passed through Anarkali was estimated to be around 20,000."<ref name=FLJR/> In [[Amritsar]], over 5,000 people gathered at [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre|Jallianwala Bagh]]. This situation deteriorated perceptibly over the next few days. Michael O'Dwyer is said to have been of the firm belief that these were the early and ill-concealed signs of a conspiracy for a coordinated uprising around May, on the lines of the [[1857 revolt]], at a time when the British would have withdrawn to the hills for the summer. The [[Amritsar massacre]], as well as responses before and after it, was the end result of a concerted plan of response from the Punjab administration to suppress such a conspiracy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cell|2002|p=67}}</ref> [[James Houssemayne Du Boulay]] is said to have ascribed a direct relationship between the fear of a Ghadarite uprising in the midst of an increasingly tense situation in Punjab, and the British response that ended in the massacre.<ref name=Brown1973>{{Harvnb|Brown|1973|p=523}}</ref> | ||
| Line 325: | Line 325: | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Horst von der Goltz]] | * [[Horst von der Goltz]] | ||
==Notes and references== | ==Notes and references== | ||
| Line 340: | Line 333: | ||
{{Refbegin|24em}} | {{Refbegin|24em}} | ||
* {{Citation | * {{Citation | ||
|first=Alexandre | |||
|last=Andreyev | |||
| year = 2003 | | year = 2003 | ||
| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=MqXnOBX4dREC | | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=MqXnOBX4dREC | ||
| Line 879: | Line 873: | ||
| first1 = B. K. | | first1 = B. K. | ||
| date= March 1921 | | date= March 1921 | ||
| title = | | title = Reviewed work: A History of the Indian Nationalist Movement., Verney Lovett | ||
| journal = Political Science Quarterly | | journal = Political Science Quarterly | ||
| volume=36 | | volume=36 | ||
| issue=1 | | issue=1 | ||
| Line 889: | Line 883: | ||
| jstor = 2142669 | | jstor = 2142669 | ||
| hdl = 2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t3nw01g05 | | hdl = 2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t3nw01g05 | ||
| url = | | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofindiann00loveiala | ||
| hdl-access = free | | hdl-access = free | ||
}} | }} | ||
| Line 932: | Line 926: | ||
* {{Citation | * {{Citation | ||
| date = November 1971 | | date = November 1971 | ||
| title = A New Source for the History of the Revolutionary Movement in India, 1907– 1917. | | title = A New Source for the History of the Revolutionary Movement in India, 1907– 1917. | ||
|volume=31 | |volume=31 | ||
|issue=1 | |issue=1 | ||
| Line 1,075: | Line 1,069: | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{Refend}} | {{Refend}} | ||
==Further reading== | |||
* Tadhg Foley (Editor), Maureen O'Connor (Editor), [https://books.google.ca/books?id=vQduAAAAMAAJ Ireland and India - Colonies, Culture and Empire], [[Irish Academic Press]], {{ISBN|9780716528371}} | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| Line 1,083: | Line 1,080: | ||
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/gadarcol.html The Hindustan Ghadar Collection], Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley | *[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/gadarcol.html The Hindustan Ghadar Collection], Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley | ||
*[http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/subject/hindu-german-conspiracy-trial Hindu-German Conspiracy Trial on] [[South Asian American Digital Archive]] (SAADA) | *[http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/subject/hindu-german-conspiracy-trial Hindu-German Conspiracy Trial on] [[South Asian American Digital Archive]] (SAADA) | ||
{{s-start}} | |||
{{succession box| title= [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence]] | years = |before =[[India House]], [[Anushilan samiti]], [[Jugantar]] | after = [[Indian independence movement|Gandhian movement]], [[Hindustan Socialist Republican Army]], [[Jugantar]], [[Indian National Army]] }} | |||
{{s-end}} | |||
{{Hindu-German Conspiracy|state=expanded}} | {{Hindu-German Conspiracy|state=expanded}} | ||