Annexation of Goa: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Indian Army operation in December 1961 to annex Goa into Indian Republic}}

| commander2        = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Américo Tomás]] |{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[António de Oliveira Salazar|A. O. Salazar]] |{{flagicon|Portugal}}  [[Manuel António Vassalo e Silva|M. A. Vassalo e Silva]]^a |{{flagicon|Portugal}} {{ill|Francisco Xavier da Cunha Aragão|lt=Cunha Aragão|pt}}}}

| casus            = After [[Indian Independence]] from the United Kingdom, [[Portuguese India]] remained Portuguese colonies. They included the provinces of Goa, Daman and Diu, as well as the Anjidiv Islands on the west coast of the Indian Peninsula. India claimed the Portuguese territories by military power means after the refusal of the Portuguese authorities to leave.

The '''Annexation of Goa''' was the process in which the [[India|Republic of India]] annexed ''{{lang|pt|[[Estado da India]]}}'', the then [[Portuguese India]]n territories of [[Goa, Daman and Diu]], starting with the armed action carried out by the [[Indian Armed Forces]] in December 1961. In India, this action is referred to as the "'''Liberation of Goa'''". In [[Portugal]], it is referred to as the "'''Invasion of Goa'''".

The "armed action" was code named '''Operation Vijay''' (meaning "Victory") by the Indian Armed Forces. It involved air, sea and land strikes for over 36 hours, and was a decisive victory for India, ending 451 years of rule by Portugal over its remaining [[Portuguese India|exclaves in India]]. The engagement lasted two days, and twenty-two Indians and thirty Portuguese were killed in the fighting.<ref name="Major K C Praval" /> The brief conflict drew a mixture of worldwide praise and condemnation. In India, the action was seen as a liberation of historically Indian territory, while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against its national soil and citizens.

Following the end of Portuguese rule in 1961, Goa was placed under military administration headed by [[Kunhiraman Palat Candeth]] as lieutenant governor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2003 |title=Obituary of Lt-Gen K. P. Candeth |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/lt-gen-k-p-candeth-36784.html |access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> On 8 June 1962, military rule was replaced by civilian government when the Lieutenant Governor nominated an informal [[Goa Legislative Assembly|Consultative Council]] of 29 nominated members to assist him in the administration of the territory.<ref>http://goaassembly.gov.in/goa-legislative-assembly-infrastructure_1.php</ref>

After India's independence from the [[British Empire]] in August 1947, Portugal continued to hold a handful of [[exclave]]s on the Indian subcontinent—the districts of [[Goa]], [[Daman and Diu]] and [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]—collectively known as the ''[[Estado da Índia]]''. Goa, Daman and Diu covered an area of around {{convert|1540|sqmi|km2}} and held a population of 637,591.<ref>Numbers from 1955, thus excluding Dadra and Nagar-Haveli.  The bulk (547,448) was in Goa (composed of the districts of Old and New Goa, Bardez, Mormugão and Salsete, and the offshore island of Anjediva), the remainder in Damman (69,005) and Diu (21,138).  See Kay (1970) ''Salazar and Modern Portugal'', New York: Hawthorn, p. 295.</ref>  The Goan [[diaspora]] was estimated at 175,000 (about 100,000 within the Indian Union, mainly in Bombay).<ref name="Kay">H. Kay (1970) ''Salazar and Modern Portugal'', New York: Hawthorn.</ref>  Religious distribution was 61% Hindu, 36.7% Christian (mostly Catholic) and 2.2% Muslim.<ref name="Kay" /> The economy was primarily based on agriculture, although the 1940s and 1950s saw a boom in mining—principally [[iron ore]] and some [[manganese]].<ref name="Kay" />

In addition to non-violent protests, armed groups such as the Azad Gomantak Dal (The Free Goa Party) and the United Front of Goans conducted violent attacks aimed at weakening Portuguese rule in Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Liberation From Lies By Prabhakar Sinari |url=http://www.countercurrents.org/comm-sinari061103.htm |access-date=9 November 2009 |publisher=Countercurrents.org}}</ref> The [[Government of India|Indian government]] supported the establishment of armed groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal, giving them full financial, logistic and armament support. The armed groups acted from bases situated in Indian territory and under cover of Indian police forces. The Indian government—through these armed groups—attempted to destroy economic targets, telegraph and telephone lines, road, water and rail transport, in order to impede economic activity and create conditions for a general uprising of the population.<ref>Francisco Monteiro, Chronology of Freedom Struggle Activities Unleashed by the Indian Union Against the Territories of Goa, Damão and Diu [http://www.colaco.net/1/India-ter.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205346/http://www.colaco.net/1/India-ter.htm |date=23 September 2015 }}</ref> A Portuguese army officer stationed with the army in Goa, Captain Carlos Azaredo, stated in 2001 in the Portuguese newspaper ''[[Expresso (newspaper)|Expresso]]'': "To the contrary to what is being said, the most evolved guerilla warfare which our Armed Forces encountered was in Goa. I know what I'm talking about, because I also fought in Angola and in Guiné. In 1961 alone, until December, around 80 policemen died. The major part of the freedom fighters of Azad Gomantak Dal were not Goans. Many had fought in the [[British Army]], under [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|General Montgomery]], against the [[Afrika Korps|Germans]]."<ref name="Azaredo">{{Cite news |last=Castanheira |first=José Pedro |date=8 December 2001 |title=Passagem para a Índia |language=pt |trans-title=Passage to India |work=Expresso |department=Revista |location=Paço d'Arcos |url=http://semanal.expresso.pt/revista/artigos/interior.asp?edicao=1519&id_artigo=ES44188 |access-date=20 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011209004006/http://semanal.expresso.pt/revista/artigos/interior.asp?edicao=1519&id_artigo=ES44188 |archive-date=9 December 2001}}</ref>

On 15 August 1955, 3000–5000 unarmed Indian activists<ref>Sankar Ghose (1993) ''Jawaharlal Nehru: A biography''. Mumbai: Allied. p.282</ref> attempted to enter Goa at six locations and were violently repulsed by Portuguese police officers, resulting in the deaths of between 21<ref>"Indian Volunteers Invade Goa; 21 Die; Unarmed Indians March into Goa", ''New York Times'', 15 August 1955</ref> and 30<ref>Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Published by Columbia University Press, 1998</ref> people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 August 1955 |title=India: Force & Soul Force |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,823878,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215050523/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,823878,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 December 2008 |access-date=8 May 2015 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> The news of the incident built public opinion in India against the presence of the Portuguese in Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Super User |title=Ancient Goan History – GOACOM – Goa – India – Information and Services in Goa. Goa News, Goa Konkani News, Goa Sunaparant News, Goan Konakani News, Goa Video News, Goa Yellow Pages |url=http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214125132/http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html |archive-date=14 February 2012 |access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> On 1 September 1955, India shut its consul office in Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Francisco Monteiro – India supported banditry in Goa |url=http://www.colaco.net/1/India-ter.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205346/http://www.colaco.net/1/India-ter.htm |archive-date=23 September 2015 |access-date=8 May 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Prime Minister Salazar, alarmed by India's hinted threats at armed action against Portugal's presence in Goa, first asked the United Kingdom to mediate, then protested through [[Brazil]] and eventually asked the [[United Nations Security Council]] to intervene.<ref name="ComradesatOdds">{{harvp|Rotter|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uPx4vb99RUoC&pg=PA185 185]}}</ref> [[Mexico]] offered the Indian government its influence in Latin America to bring pressure on the Portuguese to relieve tensions.<ref>US Department of State, Central Files, 753D.00/12 – 561. [https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/46453.htm] Document 66,</ref> Meanwhile, [[Krishna Menon]], India's defence minister and head of India's UN delegation, stated in no uncertain terms that India had not "abjured the use of force" in Goa.<ref name=ComradesatOdds/> The US ambassador to India, [[John Kenneth Galbraith]], requested the Indian government on several occasions to resolve the issue peacefully through mediation and consensus rather than armed conflict.<ref>US Department of State, Central Files, 753D.00/12 – 1161 [https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/46453.htm] Document 68</ref><ref>US Department of State, Central Files, 753D.00/12 – 1261 [https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/46453.htm] Document 69</ref>

The hostilities between India and Portugal started seven years before the annexation of Goa, when [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]] were invaded and occupied by pro-Indian forces with the support of the Indian authorities.

The Indian government started to develop isolation actions against Dadra and Nagar Haveli already in 1952, including the creation of impediments to the transit of persons and goods between the two landlocked enclaves and Daman. In July 1954, pro-Indian forces, including members of organisations like the United Front of Goans, the National Movement Liberation Organisation, the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] and the Azad Gomantak Dal, with the support of Indian Police forces, began to launch assaults against Dadra and Nagar Haveli. On the night of 22 July, UFG forces stormed the small Dadra police station, killing Police Sergeant Aniceto do Rosário and Constable António Fernandes, who resisted the attack. On 28 July, RSS forces took Naroli police station.

Meanwhile, the Portuguese authorities asked the Indian Government for permission to cross the Indian territory with reinforcements to Dadra and Nagar Haveli, but no permission was given. Surrounded and prevented from receiving reinforcements by the Indian authorities, the Portuguese Administrator and police forces in Nagar Haveli eventually surrendered to the Indian police forces on 11 August 1954. Portugal appealed to the [[International Court of Justice]], which, in a decision dated 12 April 1960,<ref>[http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/32/4521.pdf "Case Concerning Right of Passage Over Indian Territory"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220044651/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/32/4521.pdf |date=20 December 2011 }}</ref> stated that Portugal had sovereign rights over the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli but India had the right to deny passage to armed personnel of Portugal over Indian territories. Therefore, the Portuguese authorities could not legally pass through Indian territory.

Portuguese military preparations began in earnest in 1954, following the Indian economic blockade, the beginning of the anti-Portuguese attacks in Goa and the annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Three light infantry battalions (one each sent from Portugal, Angola and  Mozambique) and support units were transported to Goa, reinforcing a locally raised battalion and increasing the Portuguese military presence there from almost nothing to 12,000 men.<ref name="Azaredo" /> Other sources state that, at the end of 1955, Portuguese forces in India represented a total of around 8,000 men (Europeans, Africans and Indians), including 7,000 in the land forces, 250 in the naval forces, 600 in the police and 250 in the Fiscal Guard, split between the districts of Goa, Daman and Diu.<ref name="Alves Lopes" /> Following the annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, the Portuguese authorities markedly strengthened the garrison of Portuguese India, with units and personnel sent from the [[Metropole]] and from the Portuguese African provinces of [[Portuguese Angola|Angola]] and [[Portuguese Mozambique|Mozambique]].

At 18:00, the Portuguese commanders agreed in a meeting that in view of repeated military advances with naval and air strikes, along with the inability to establish contact with headquarters in Goa or Lisbon, there was no way to pursue an effective defence and decided to surrender to the Indian military.<ref name="invasao6" /> On 19 December, by 12:00, the Portuguese formally surrendered. The Indians took 403 prisoners, which included the Governor of the island along with 18 officers and 43 sergeants.<ref name="shore" />

When surrendering to the Indians, the Diu Governor stated that he could have stalled the army's advances for a few days to weeks, but he had no answer to the Indian Air Force and Navy. The Indian Air Force was also present at the ceremony and was represented by Gp Capt Godkhindi, Wing Cmdr Micky Blake and Sqn Ldr Nobby Clarke.<ref name="bhargava" /> 7 Portuguese soldiers were killed in the battle.<ref name="bhargava" />

Lisbon went virtually into mourning, and Christmas celebrations were extremely muted. Cinemas and theatres shut down as tens of thousands of Portuguese marched in a silent parade from Lisbon's city hall to the cathedral, escorting the relics of St. [[Francis Xavier]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 December 1961 |title=India: End of an Image |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,827193-2,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120143937/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,827193-2,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 November 2011 |access-date=8 May 2015 |work=Time}}</ref>

The Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons [[Hugh Gaitskell]] of the Labour Party also expressed "profound regret" that India should have resorted to force in her dispute with Portugal, although the Opposition recognised that the existence of Portuguese colonies on the Indian mainland had long been an anachronism and that Portugal should have abandoned them long since in pursuance of the example set by Britain and France. Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom to the United Nations, Sir [[Patrick Dean]], stated in the UN that Britain had been "shocked and dismayed" at the outbreak of hostilities.<ref name="Keesing">{{Cite web |title=International Reactions to Indian Attack on Goa. - Soviet Veto of Western Cease-fire Resolution in security Council |url=http://web.stanford.edu/group/tomzgroup/pmwiki/uploads/1074-1962-03-KS-b-RCW.pdf |publisher=Keesing's Worldwide, LLC}}</ref>

* {{Citation |last=Fernandes |first=Aureliano |title=Political Transition in Post-Colonial Societies: Goa in Perspective |url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/luso_1257-0273_2000_num_7_1_1381 |work=Lusotopie |volume=7 |year=2000 |pages=341–358}}