Hinduism: Difference between revisions

* Noble: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."<ref>{{cite journal | last=Noble | first=Allen | title=South Asian Sacred Places | journal=Journal of Cultural Geography | volume=17 | publisher=Routledge | issue=2 | year=1998 | pages=1–3 | doi=10.1080/08873639809478317 }}</ref>}} and Hindus refer to it as ''[[Sanātanī|{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}]]'', "the eternal tradition," or the "eternal way," beyond human history.{{sfn|Knott|1998|pp=5, Quote: "Many describe Hinduism as ''sanatana dharma'', the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history"}}<ref>{{harvnb|Bowker|2000}}; {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}</ref> Scholars regard Hinduism as a combination{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=193}} of different Indian cultures and traditions,<ref name="Hiltebeitel 2007 12">{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}</ref> with diverse roots.{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{refn|group=note| Among its roots are the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] of the late [[Vedic period]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans ({{harvnb|Samuel|2010|pp=48–53}}), but also the religions of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] ({{harvnb|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=xviii}}) the [[Sramana]] or renouncer traditions of [[Maurya Empire|north-east India]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Gomez|2013|p=42}}) and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]" ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}).}} Hinduism has no founder and origins of Hinduism is unknown.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}}. Hinduism has roots in [[Indus Valley civilization]].<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA50#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> There was no concept of religion in India and Hinduism was not a religion. Hinduism as a religion started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} after the [[Vedic period]] (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}}

# [[Arvind Sharma]] (2002) and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar [[Xuanzang]], whose 17 year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in Chinese language, uses the transliterated term ''In-tu'' whose "connotation overflows in the religious".<ref name=arvindsharmahhhh/> Xuanzang describes [[Hindu temple|Hindu Deva-temple]]s of the early 7th century CE, worship of [[Surya|Sun]] deity and [[Shiva]], his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at [[Nalanda]].<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Gosch| first1 = Stephen Spencer| last2 = Stearns| first2 = Peter N.| title = Premodern Travel in World History| year = 2008| publisher = Psychology Press| isbn = 978-0-415-22941-8| pages = 88-99 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Sharma| first = Arvind| title = Hinduism as a Missionary Religion| year = 2011| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 1-4384-3211-9| pages = 5-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Bonnie G. Smith| author2 = Marc Van De Mieroop, Richard von Glahn, Kris Lane| title = Crossroads and Cultures, Combined Volume: A History of the World's Peoples| year = 2012| publisher = Macmillan| isbn = 0-312-41017-4| pages = 321-324 }}</ref>

# David Lorenzen (2006) also mentions other non-Persian texts such as ''Prithvíráj Ráso'' by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lorenzen| first = David N.| title = Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History| year = 2006| publisher = Yoda Press| isbn = 978-81-902272-6-1| pages = 32-33 }}</ref> One of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lorenzen| first = David N.| title = Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History| year = 2006| publisher = Yoda Press| isbn = 978-81-902272-6-1| page = 15 }}</ref>}} This is because the name if the religion is called Hinduism, not Hindu.

Dharma is considered one of the most important goal of a human being in Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lipner| first = Julius| title = The Fruits of Our Desiring: An Enquiry Into the Ethics of the Bhagavadgita for Our Times : Essays from the Inaugural Conference of the Dharam Hinduja Institute of Indic Research, Cambridge University| year = 1997| publisher = Bayeux Arts Incorporated| isbn = 978-1-896209-30-2| pages = 16-21 }}</ref> Dharma is considered Important because it is dharma which makes running of Universe and life possible,<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, ''Dharma''], The [[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."</ref> and includes duties, virtues and "right way of living".<ref name="tce">{{cite book| last = University| first = Columbia| title = The Columbia Encyclopedia| url = https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga| year = 2000| publisher = Visible Ink Press| isbn = 978-0-7876-5015-5 }}</ref> Hindu Dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref name=tce/> The [[Brihadaranyaka|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] states it as:

{{quote|Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv <ref>{{cite book| last = Johnston| first = Charles| title = The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom| year = 2014| publisher = Createspace Independent Publishing Platform| isbn = 978-1-4959-4653-0| pages = 478-505 }}</ref><ref>Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), ''From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma'', Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol 32, pages 423–448, (2004)</ref>}}

Artha is second goal of life in Hinduism which means pursuit of wealth for livelihood, and economic prosperity. It includes political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The Artha includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.<ref name="johnk">John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315-319</ref> The aim of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lochtefeld| first = James G.| title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism| year = 2002| isbn = 978-0-8239-2287-1| pages = 55-56 }}</ref><ref name="bruces">{{cite book| last = Sullivan| first = Bruce M.| title = Historical Dictionary of Hinduism| url = https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000sull| year = 1997| publisher = Scarecrow Press| isbn = 978-0-8108-3327-2| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000sull/page/29 29]-30 }}</ref>

Moksha ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|मोक्ष}} ''{{IAST|mokṣa}}'') or '''mukti''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|मुक्ति}}) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. In one school Moksha means liberation from sorrow, suffering and saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle).<ref>R.C. Mishra, Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp 23, 27</ref><ref>J. A. B. Van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 33-40</ref> In other schools of Hinduism, such as monistic, moksha means self-realization,"realizing the whole universe as the Self".<ref name="E. Deutsch pp 343-360">{{cite book| last = Perrett| first = Roy W.| title = Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics| year = 2001| publisher = Taylor & Francis| isbn = 978-0-8153-3608-2| pages = 343-360 }}</ref><ref>see:

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul or true "self" of every living being is called the ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]]''. The soul is believed to be eternal.<ref name="monierwilliams2037">{{harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}}</ref> According to the monistic/pantheistic ([[Nondualism|non-dualist]]) theologies of Hinduism (such as [[Advaita Vedanta]] school), this Atman is indistinct from [[Brahman]].<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvnb | Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.<ref>{{harvnb|Vivekananda|1987}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1 = Meister| first1 = Chad V.| last2 = Copan| first2 = Paul| title = The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion| year = 2012| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 0-415-78294-5| pages = 99-107 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1 = Fort| first1 = Andrew O.| last2 = Mumme| first2 = Patricia Y.| title = Living Liberation in Hindu Thought| year = 1996| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 978-0-7914-2706-4| pages = 38-39 }}</ref> [[Dualistic]] schools (see [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhakti]]) sees Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">{{cite book| last = Prasad| first = Rajendra| title = A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals| year = 2009| publisher = Concept Publishing Company| isbn = 978-81-8069-595-7| pages = 345-347 }}</ref> They worship the Supreme Being variously as [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]], depending upon the sect. God is called ''[[Ishvara]]'', ''[[Bhagavan]]'', ''[[Parameshwara (God)|Parameshwara]]'', ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devadu]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'', and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Eliade| first1 = Mircea| last2 = Trask| first2 = Willard Ropes| last3 = White| first3 = David Gordon| title = Yoga: Immortality and Freedom| year = 2009| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-0-691-14203-6| pages = 73-76 }}</ref><ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-01958-1}}, pages 37-39, 401-403, 498-503</ref><ref name="MW Sanskrit dict.">{{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001}}</ref> Devi is typically used when refereeing to a female goddess.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular sect or tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}}</ref> Four major sects in Hinduism are: ''Vaishnavism'', ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'' and ''Smarthism''.<ref name="lancenelson">{{cite book| last1 = Espin| first1 = Orlando O.| last2 = Nickoloff| first2 = James B.| title = An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies| year = 2007| publisher = Liturgical Press| isbn = 978-0-8146-5856-7| pages = 562-563 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=113, 134, 155-161, 167-168}}

[[Vaishnavism]] is the tradition that worships [[Vishnu]]<ref>{{cite book| last = Beck| first = Guy L.| title = Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity| year = 2006| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 978-0-7914-6416-8| page = 65 }}</ref> and his avatars, such as [[Krishna]] and [[Rama]].<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Bryant| first1 = Edwin| last2 = Ekstrand| first2 = Maria| title = The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant| url = https://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC| year = 2013| publisher = Columbia University Press| isbn = 978-0-231-50843-8| pages = 15–17 }}</ref> The people of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic.<ref name="sskumar">{{cite book| last = Kumar| first = Samrat Schmiem| title = Bhakti - The Yoga of Love: Trans-Rational Approaches to Peace Studies| year = 2010| publisher = LIT Verlag Münster| isbn = 3-643-50130-7| pages = 35-36 }}</ref> These practices include community dancing, singing of [[Kirtan]]s and [[Bhajan]]s, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.<ref name="edwinb">{{cite book| last1 = Bryant| first1 = Edwin| last2 = Bryant| first2 = Edwin Francis| last3 = Ekstrand| first3 = Maria| title = The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant| url = https://archive.org/details/harekrishnamovem00brya| year = 2004| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6| pages = [https://archive.org/details/harekrishnamovem00brya/page/38 38]-43 }}</ref>

[[Shaivism]] is the tradition that focuses on [[Shiva]]. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.<ref name=sskumar/> Their practices include Bhakti-style devotion but they leaned to philosply such as Advaita and [[Raja yoga|Yoga]].<ref name=lancenelson/><ref name=edwinb/> Some Shaivas worship in temples, but some practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.<ref>{{cite book| last = Dalal| first = Roshen| title = The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths| url = https://books.google.com/?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC| year = 2010| publisher = Penguin Books| isbn = 978-0-14-341517-6| page = 209 }}</ref> Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a combination of the male and female principles ([[Ardhanarishvara]]). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as wife of Shiva.<ref name=lancenelson/> Shaivism is mainly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.<ref>{{cite book| last = Isaeva| first = N.V.| title = From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta| year = 1995| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 978-0-7914-2449-0| pages = 141-145 }}</ref>

[[Shaktism]] focuses on goddess worship of [[Shakti]] or Devi as cosmic mother,<ref name=sskumar/> and it is mainly worshipped in northeastern and eastern states of India such as [[Assam]] and [[West Bengal|Bengal]]. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like [[Parvati]], the consort of Shiva; or, as warrior goddesses like [[Kali]] and [[Durga]].<ref>Massimo Scaligero (1955), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29753633 The Tantra and the Spirit of the West], East and West, Vol. 5, No. 4, pages 291-296</ref> Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.<ref>{{cite book| last = Monaghan| first = Patricia| title = Goddesses in World Culture| year = 2011| publisher = ABC-CLIO| isbn = 978-0-313-35465-6| pages = 1-18 }}</ref>