Reverted 2 edits by 181.188.84.174 (talk): Unhelpful. - TW
m (→top: clean up) |
(Reverted 2 edits by 181.188.84.174 (talk): Unhelpful. - TW) |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{# | {{cleanup|reason=|date=March 2018}} | ||
| | '''Hinduism''' is not only a religion but also a way of life.{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} Hinduism is widely practiced in [[South Asia]] mainly in [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world,{{refn|group=note|See: | ||
| | * Fowler: "probably the oldest religion in the world" ({{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=1}}) | ||
| | * Klostermaier: The "oldest living major religion" in the world ({{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=1}}) | ||
* Kurien: "There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..." <ref>{{cite journal | last=Kurien | first=Prema | title=Multiculturalism and American Religion: The Case of Hindu Indian Americans| journal=Social Forces | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | volume=85 | issue=2 | year=2006 | pages=723–741 | doi=10.1353/sof.2007.0015 }}</ref> | |||
* Bakker: "it [Hinduism] is the oldest religion".<ref>{{cite journal| author=FL Bakker| title= Balinese Hinduism and the Indonesian State: Recent Developments| journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|year=1997| volume=Deel 153, 1ste Afl.|pages= 15–41|publisher= Brill|jstor= 27864809}}</ref> | |||
* Noble: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."<ref>{{cite journal | last=Noble | first=Allen | title=South Asian Sacred Places | journal=Journal of Cultural Geography | volume=17 | publisher=Routledge | issue=2 | year=1998 | pages=1–3 | doi=10.1080/08873639809478317 }}</ref>}} and Hindus refer to it as ''[[Sanātanī|{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}]]'', "the eternal tradition," or the "eternal way," beyond human history.{{sfn|Knott|1998|pp=5, Quote: "Many describe Hinduism as ''sanatana dharma'', the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history"}}<ref>{{harvnb|Bowker|2000}}; {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}</ref> Scholars regard Hinduism as a combination{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=193}} of different Indian cultures and traditions,<ref name="Hiltebeitel 2007 12">{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}</ref> with diverse roots.{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{refn|group=note| Among its roots are the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] of the late [[Vedic period]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans ({{harvnb|Samuel|2010|pp=48–53}}), but also the religions of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] ({{harvnb|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=xviii}}) the [[Sramana]] or renouncer traditions of [[Maurya Empire|north-east India]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Gomez|2013|p=42}}) and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]" ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}).}} Hinduism has no founder and origins of Hinduism is unknown.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}}. Hinduism has roots in [[Indus Valley civilization]].<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA50#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> There was no concept of religion in India and Hinduism was not a religion. Hinduism as a religion started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} after the [[Vedic period]] (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} | |||
Hinduism contains a wide range of philosophies, and is linked by the concepts, like rituals, [[Hindu cosmology|cosmology]], Texts, and [[Pilgrimage|pilgrimage to sacred sites]]. [[Hindu texts]] are divided into [[Śruti]] ("heard") and [[Smriti|Smṛti]] ("remembered"). These texts discuss [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]], [[Hindu mythology|mythology]], [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[yajna]], [[Yoga]], [[Āgama (Hinduism)|agamic]] [[ritual]]s, and [[Hindu temple|temple building]], and many more.{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Major scriptures in Hinduism include the [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishads]], the [[Bhagavad Gita]], and the [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Zaehner| first = R. C.| title = Hindu Scriptures| year = 1992| publisher = Penguin Random House| isbn = 978-0-679-41078-2| pages = 1–7 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book| last = Klostermaier| first = Klaus| title = A Survey of Hinduism| url = https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos| edition = 3rd| year = 2007| publisher = State University of New York Press| isbn = 978-0-7914-7082-4| pages = [https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos/page/n64 46]–52, 76–77 }}</ref><ref name="frazierintrop2">{{cite book| last1 = Frazier| first1 = Jessica| last2 = Flood| first2 = Gavin| title = The Continuum companion to Hindu studies| url = https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz| date = 2011| publisher = Continuum| location = London| isbn = 978-0-8264-9966-0| pages = [https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/1 1]–15 }}</ref> | |||
There are 4 goals or aims of human life, namely [[Dharma]] (duties), [[Artha]] (prosperity), [[Kama]] (desires/passions), [[Moksha]] (liberation/freedom/salvation);<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103">{{cite book|title=Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges|last=|first=|publisher=|year=2007|isbn=|editor-last=Bilimoria | display-authors = etal|location=|page=103|quote=|via=}} See also {{cite journal|last=Koller|first=John|year=1968|title=Puruṣārtha as Human Aims|url=|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=18|issue=4|pages=315–319|via=|doi=10.2307/1398408|jstor=1398408}}</ref><ref name="Gavin Flood 1997 pages 11">{{cite book| last = Flood| first = Gavin| editor-last = Lipner| editor-first = Julius J.| title = The Bhagavadgita for Our Times| year = 1997| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-565039-6| pages = 11–27| chapter = The Meaning and Context of the Puruṣārthas }}</ref> [[karma]] (action, intent and consequences), [[Saṃsāra]] (cycle of rebirth), and the various [[Yoga]]s (paths or practices to attain moksha).<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} Hindu rituals include [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] (worship) and recitations, meditation, family-oriented [[Sanskara (rite of passage)|rites of passage]], annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Some Hindus leave their social world and become sanyasi to achieve Moksha.<ref name="ellinger70">{{cite book| last = Ellinger| first = Herbert| title = Hinduism| url = https://books.google.com/?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ| year = 1996| publisher = Bloomsbury Academic| isbn = 978-1-56338-161-4| pages = 69–70 }}</ref> Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, non-violence ([[ahimsa]]), patience, self-restraint, and compassion, among others.<ref name="EB-sanatana dharma">{{cite book|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma|title=sanatana dharma {{!}} Hinduism|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2016-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=History of Dharmasastra|last=Dharma|first=Samanya|last2=Kane|first2=P. V.|publisher=|isbn=|volume=2|location=|pages=4–5|quote=|via=}} See also {{cite journal|last=Widgery|first=Alban|year=1930|title=The Priniciples of Hindu Ethics|url=|journal=International Journal of Ethics|volume=40|issue=2|pages=232–245|via=|doi=10.1086/intejethi.40.2.2377977}}</ref> The four largest sects of Hinduism are the [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Smarta Tradition|Smartism]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Lipner| first = Julius| title = Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices| year = 2009| publisher = Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices| isbn = 978-0-415-45677-7| page = 377 }}</ref> | |||
Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, There are approximately 1.15 billion Hindus which are 15-16% of the global population.<ref group="web">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx|title=The Global Religious Landscape - Hinduism|last=|first=|publisher=Pew Research Foundation|work=A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010|accessdate=31 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf|title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact|publisher=gordonconwell.edu|date= January 2015 |accessdate=2015-05-29}}</ref> The vast majority of Hindus live in [[India]], [[Nepal]] and [[Mauritius]]. Hindus are also found in other countries.<ref>{{cite book| last = Vertovec| first = Steven| title = The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns| url = https://books.google.com/?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ| year = 2013| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-1-136-36705-2| pages = 1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|title=Hindus|date=18 December 2012|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=14 February 2015}};<br/>{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers (2010)|date=18 December 2012|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=14 February 2015|archive-date=1 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201224548/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
{{TOC limit|limit=3}} | |||
== Etymology == | |||
The word ''Hindu'' is taken from the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=3}}/[[Sanskrit]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} word ''Sindhu'', which is Sanskrit name for the [[Indus River]] which lies on the border of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{refn|group=note|The Sanskrit word ''Sindhu'' means "river", "ocean".{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=3}} The Sindhu-area is part of [[Āryāvarta]], "the land of the Aryans".}} According to [[Gavin Flood]], The word Hindu was used by Persians for the people who live beyond the Indus River,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} Inscription of Darius I which was written around 550–486 BCE also refer Hindu as the people who live beyond the Indus River.<ref name="arvindsharmahhhh">Arvind Sharma (2002), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270470 On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva] Numen, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1, pages 2-3</ref> These records didn't refer '''Hindu''' as a religion.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} The earliest record which refer ''Hindu'' as religion may be the 7th-century CE Chinese text ''Record of the Western Regions'' by [[Xuanzang]],<ref name="arvindsharmahhhh" /> and 14th-century Persian text ''Futuhu's-salatin'' by 'Abd al-Malik [[Isami (historian)|Isami]].{{refn|group=note|There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion: | |||
# Gavin Flood (1996) states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century".({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}) | |||
# [[Arvind Sharma]] (2002) and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar [[Xuanzang]], whose 17 year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in Chinese language, uses the transliterated term ''In-tu'' whose "connotation overflows in the religious".<ref name=arvindsharmahhhh/> Xuanzang describes [[Hindu temple|Hindu Deva-temple]]s of the early 7th century CE, worship of [[Surya|Sun]] deity and [[Shiva]], his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at [[Nalanda]].<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Gosch| first1 = Stephen Spencer| last2 = Stearns| first2 = Peter N.| title = Premodern Travel in World History| year = 2008| publisher = Psychology Press| isbn = 978-0-415-22941-8| pages = 88-99 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Sharma| first = Arvind| title = Hinduism as a Missionary Religion| year = 2011| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 1-4384-3211-9| pages = 5-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Bonnie G. Smith| author2 = Marc Van De Mieroop, Richard von Glahn, Kris Lane| title = Crossroads and Cultures, Combined Volume: A History of the World's Peoples| year = 2012| publisher = Macmillan| isbn = 0-312-41017-4| pages = 321-324 }}</ref> | |||
# Arvind Sharma (2002) also mentions the use of word ''Hindu'' in Islamic texts such those relating to 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text ''Tarikh Al-Hind'', and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term ''Hindu'' retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".<ref name="arvindsharmahhhh2">Arvind Sharma (2002), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270470 On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva] Numen, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1, pages 5-9</ref> | |||
# [[David Lorenzen]] (2006) states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, ''Futuhu's-salatin'', composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".<ref>{{cite book| last = Lorenzen| first = David N.| title = Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History| year = 2006| publisher = Yoda Press| isbn = 978-81-902272-6-1| page = 33 }}</ref> | |||
# David Lorenzen (2006) also mentions other non-Persian texts such as ''Prithvíráj Ráso'' by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lorenzen| first = David N.| title = Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History| year = 2006| publisher = Yoda Press| isbn = 978-81-902272-6-1| pages = 32-33 }}</ref> One of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lorenzen| first = David N.| title = Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History| year = 2006| publisher = Yoda Press| isbn = 978-81-902272-6-1| page = 15 }}</ref>}} This is because the name if the religion is called Hinduism, not Hindu. | |||
The Arabic term ''al-Hind'' referred to the people who live across the River Indus.{{sfn|Thapar|1993|p=77}} It means "Land of Hindus" which is what it stood for until Muslims started to come into India. | |||
The term ''Hindu'' was later used in some Sanskrit texts such as the later ''[[Rajatarangini]]s'' of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th- to 18th-century [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] texts including ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita]]'' and ''[[Chaitanya Bhagavata]]''. These texts used to distinguish Hindus from Muslims who are called [[Yona#Later meanings|Yavanas]] (foreigners) or [[Mleccha]]s (barbarians), with the 16th-century ''Chaitanya Charitamrita'' text and the 17th century ''Bhakta Mala'' text using the phrase "''Hindu dharma''".<ref>{{cite news|title=The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts| author = O'Conell, Joseph T.| journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society| volume= 93| number =3 | year =1973| pages=340–344| doi=10.2307/599467}}</ref> In the end of the 18th century the European merchants and colonists began to call followers of Indian religions collectively as ''Hindus''. The term ''Hinduism'', then spelled ''Hindooism'', was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.<ref>{{cite book| last = Sweetman| first = Will| title = Mapping Hinduism: 'Hinduism' and the Study of Indian Religions, 1600-1776| year = 2003| publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag| isbn = 978-3-931479-49-7| page = 163 }}</ref> | |||
== Definitions == | |||
Hinduism is diverse on ideas on [[Spirituality#Hinduism|spirituality]] and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.<ref name="Lipner 2009 8">{{cite book| last = Lipner| first = Julius| title = Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices| year = 2009| publisher = Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices| isbn = 978-0-415-45677-7| page = 8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Kurtz| first = Lester R.| title = Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict| year = 2008| isbn = 978-0-12-369503-1 }}</ref><ref>MK Gandhi, [http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism], Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref> Because of the wideness and openness of Hinduism, arriving at a definition is difficult.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} <ref>{{cite book| last = Knott| first = Kim| title = Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction| year = 1998| publisher = Oxford University press| location = Oxford| isbn = 978-0-19-285387-5| page = 117 }}</ref> Hinduism has been defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life."{{sfn|Sharma|2003|p=12-13}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"|Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" ({{harvnb|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in {{harvnb|Flood|2008|pp=1–17}}}} From a Western point of view, Hinduism like other faiths is referred to as a religion. In India the term ''dharma'' is preferred, which is broader than the western term ''religion''. | |||
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.<ref>{{harvnb|Sweetman|2004}}; {{harvnb|King|1999}}</ref> Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{Refn|group=note|Sweetman mentions: | |||
* Wilhelm Halbfass (1988), ''India and Europe'' | |||
* IXth European Conference on Modern Asian Studies in Heidelberg (1989), ''Hinduism Reconsidered'' | |||
* [[Ronald Inden]], ''Imagining India'' | |||
* [[Carol Breckenridge]] and [[Peter van der Veer]], ''Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament'' | |||
* Vasudha Dalmia and [[Heinrich von Stietencron]], ''Representing Hinduism'' | |||
* [[S.N. Balagangadhara]], ''The Heathen in his Blindness...'' | |||
* [[Thomas Trautmann]], ''Aryans and British India'' | |||
* Richard King (1989), ''Orientalism and religion''}} and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.{{sfn|Nussbaum|2009}}{{refn|group=note|See [[Rajiv Malhotra]] and [[Being Different]] for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, [[Invading the Sacred]], and [[Hindu studies]].}} | |||
== Beliefs == | |||
[[File:Halebid3.JPG|thumb|right|200px| Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] in [[Halebidu]], representing the [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]].]] | |||
Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties), [[Samsara|{{IAST|Samsāra}}]] (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (Every action has a reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara or liberation in this life), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} | |||
=== Purusharthas (objectives of human life) === | |||
{{Main|Purusharthas}} | |||
{{see also|Initiation_in_Hinduism|l1=Initiation|Dharma|l2=Dharma|Artha|l3=Artha|Kama|l4=Kāma|Moksha#Hinduism|l5=Mokṣa}} | |||
Hindism have accepted four proper goals or aims of human life: [[Dharma]], [[Artha]], [[Kama]] and [[Moksha]]. These are known as the [[Puruṣārtha]]s:<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103"/><ref name="Gavin Flood 1997 pages 11"/> | |||
==== Dharma (righteousness, ethics) ==== | |||
Dharma is considered one of the most important goal of a human being in Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lipner| first = Julius| title = The Fruits of Our Desiring: An Enquiry Into the Ethics of the Bhagavadgita for Our Times : Essays from the Inaugural Conference of the Dharam Hinduja Institute of Indic Research, Cambridge University| year = 1997| publisher = Bayeux Arts Incorporated| isbn = 978-1-896209-30-2| pages = 16-21 }}</ref> Dharma is considered Important because it is dharma which makes running of Universe and life possible,<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, ''Dharma''], The [[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."</ref> and includes duties, virtues and "right way of living".<ref name="tce">{{cite book| last = University| first = Columbia| title = The Columbia Encyclopedia| url = https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga| year = 2000| publisher = Visible Ink Press| isbn = 978-0-7876-5015-5 }}</ref> Hindu Dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref name=tce/> The [[Brihadaranyaka|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] states it as: | |||
{{quote|Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv <ref>{{cite book| last = Johnston| first = Charles| title = The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom| year = 2014| publisher = Createspace Independent Publishing Platform| isbn = 978-1-4959-4653-0| pages = 478-505 }}</ref><ref>Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), ''From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma'', Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol 32, pages 423–448, (2004)</ref>}} | |||
In the [[Mahabharata]], [[Krishna]] says it is Dharma which is holding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word ''Sanātana'' means ''eternal'', ''perennial'', or ''forever''; thus, ''Sanātana Dharma'' means that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.<ref>{{cite book| author = His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada| title = Bhagavad-gita As It Is| url = https://books.google.com/?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&pg=PA16| year = 1986| publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust| isbn = 978-91-7149-534-1| page = 16 }}</ref> | |||
==== Artha (livelihood, wealth) ==== | |||
Artha is second goal of life in Hinduism which means pursuit of wealth for livelihood, and economic prosperity. It includes political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The Artha includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.<ref name="johnk">John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315-319</ref> The aim of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lochtefeld| first = James G.| title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism| year = 2002| isbn = 978-0-8239-2287-1| pages = 55-56 }}</ref><ref name="bruces">{{cite book| last = Sullivan| first = Bruce M.| title = Historical Dictionary of Hinduism| url = https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000sull| year = 1997| publisher = Scarecrow Press| isbn = 978-0-8108-3327-2| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000sull/page/29 29]-30 }}</ref> | |||
==== Kāma (sensual pleasure) ==== | |||
{{Main|Kama}} | |||
Kāma ([[Sanskrit]], [[Pali]]; [[Devanagari]]: काम) means desire, wish, passion, pleasure of the [[senses]], the enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macy |first1=Joanna |year=1975 |title=The Dialectics of Desire |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–60 |publisher=BRILL |jstor=3269765 |doi=10.2307/3269765}}</ref><ref name="mmwse">Monier Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html काम, kāma] Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column</ref> In Hinduism, Kama is considered an important and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing Dharma, Artha and Moksha.<ref>See: | |||
* The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925), [https://archive.org/stream/kamasutraofvatsy00vatsuoft#page/8/mode/2up The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana], University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8; | |||
* A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University, {{ISBN|978-99936-24-31-8}}, pp 9-12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 140-142; | |||
* A. Sharma (1999), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism], The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223-256; | |||
* Chris Bartley (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Editor: Oliver Learman, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, pp 443</ref> | |||
==== Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara) ==== | |||
{{Main|Moksha}} | |||
Moksha ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|मोक्ष}} ''{{IAST|mokṣa}}'') or '''mukti''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|मुक्ति}}) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. In one school Moksha means liberation from sorrow, suffering and saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle).<ref>R.C. Mishra, Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp 23, 27</ref><ref>J. A. B. Van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 33-40</ref> In other schools of Hinduism, such as monistic, moksha means self-realization,"realizing the whole universe as the Self".<ref name="E. Deutsch pp 343-360">{{cite book| last = Perrett| first = Roy W.| title = Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics| year = 2001| publisher = Taylor & Francis| isbn = 978-0-8153-3608-2| pages = 343-360 }}</ref><ref>see: | |||
* Karl Potter, Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1958), pp. 49-63 | |||
* Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 41-48; | |||
* Klaus Klostermaier, Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp. 61-71</ref> | |||
=== Karma and samsara === | |||
{{Main|Karma}} | |||
''Karma'' means ''action'', ''work'', or ''deed'',<ref>* {{Citation|last=Apte|given1=Vaman S|year=1997|title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary|place= Delhi|edition=New | |||
| publisher=Motilal Banarsidas|isbn=978-81-208-0300-8}}</ref> and also the vedic theory of cause and effect".<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1991|p=64}}</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1964), The Naturalistic Principle of Karma, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr., 1964), pp. 39-49</ref> The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be moral or non-moral; (2) moralization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.<ref name="wdointro">{{cite book| last1 = Doniger| first1 = Wendy| last2 = O'Flaherty| first2 = Wendy Doniger| title = Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions| year = 1980| publisher = University of California Press| isbn = 978-0-520-03923-0 }}</ref> Karma theory means <nowiki>''Whatever experience currently a man have is due to his/her past work''. These actions may be in a person'</nowiki>s current life, or, in some schools of Hinduism, actions in their past lives.<ref name=wdointro/><ref>{{cite book| last1 = Doniger| first1 = Wendy| last2 = O'Flaherty| first2 = Wendy Doniger| title = Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions| url = https://archive.org/details/karmarebirthclas00ofla| year = 1980| publisher = University of California Press| isbn = 978-0-520-03923-0| pages = [https://archive.org/details/karmarebirthclas00ofla/page/n241 241]-267 }}</ref> This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called ''samsara''. Liberation from samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|1996|p=254}}</ref><ref>See {{Citation|last= Vivekananda|first=Swami|authorlink=Swami Vivekananda|year=2005|title=Jnana Yoga|publisher= Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4254-8288-6}} pages 301-302 (8th Printing 1993)</ref> Hindu scriptures teach that the future depends on the current action and our past deeds. | |||
=== Moksha === | |||
The ultimate goal of life,according to Hinduism is ''moksha'', ''[[nirvana]]'' or ''[[Samādhi|samadhi]]'', but is understood in different ways in different schools.For example, Advaita Vedanta says that after attaining moksha a person knows their "soul, self" and identifies it as one with Brahman (Ultimate reality or cause of everything).<ref name="karlpotter">see: | |||
* Karl Potter, Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1958), pp. 49-63 | |||
* Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 41-48</ref><ref name="klausklost">Klaus Klostermaier, Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp. 61-71</ref> The followers of [[Dvaita]] (dualistic) schools,state that after attaining moksha a person identify "soul, self" different from Brahman but very close to Brahman, and after attaining moksha one will spend eternity in a [[loka]] (higher planes). According to theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is liberation from samsara, while for other schools such as the monistic school, moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept. | |||
=== Concept of God === | |||
{{Main|Ishvara|God in Hinduism}} | |||
Hinduism is diverse and Hinduism include [[monotheism]], [[polytheism]], [[panentheism]], [[Hindu views on Pantheism|pantheism]], [[pandeism]], [[monism]], and [[Atheism in Hinduism|atheism]] among others;<ref name="Lipner 2009 8"/><ref>{{cite book| last = Chakravarti| first = Sitansu S.| title = Hinduism, a Way of Life| url = https://books.google.com/?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71| year = 1991| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.| isbn = 978-81-208-0899-7| page = 71 }}</ref><ref group=web name="EBpolytheism">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |title=Polytheism|accessdate= 5 July 2007 |year=2007 |author =Ninian Smart | work= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> Basically it depends on individuals choice and that's why sometimes Hinduism is referred to as [[henotheistic]] (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an over generalization.<ref name="heno">See {{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=xiv}} and {{cite web |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |title=Henotheism |accessdate=5 July 2007 |last=Gill |first= N.S |publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]] }}</ref> | |||
{{Infobox | |||
| title = [[Deva (Hinduism)|Gods and Goddesses]] in Hinduism | |||
| image = | |||
{{image array|perrow=2|height=120|width=100 | |||
| image1 = MurudeshwarStatue.JPG | alt1=Shiva | link1 = Shiva | |||
| image2 = Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG | alt2=Durga | link2 = Durga | |||
| image3 = A powerful deity in her own right, Shri Lakshmi herself.jpg | alt3=Lakshmi | link3=Lakshmi | |||
| image4 = God_Vishnu.jpg | alt4=Vishnu | link4=Vishnu | |||
}} | }} | ||
< | }} | ||
Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul or true "self" of every living being is called the ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]]''. The soul is believed to be eternal.<ref name="monierwilliams2037">{{harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}}</ref> According to the monistic/pantheistic ([[Nondualism|non-dualist]]) theologies of Hinduism (such as [[Advaita Vedanta]] school), this Atman is indistinct from [[Brahman]].<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvnb | Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.<ref>{{harvnb|Vivekananda|1987}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1 = Meister| first1 = Chad V.| last2 = Copan| first2 = Paul| title = The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion| year = 2012| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 0-415-78294-5| pages = 99-107 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1 = Fort| first1 = Andrew O.| last2 = Mumme| first2 = Patricia Y.| title = Living Liberation in Hindu Thought| year = 1996| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 978-0-7914-2706-4| pages = 38-39 }}</ref> [[Dualistic]] schools (see [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhakti]]) sees Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">{{cite book| last = Prasad| first = Rajendra| title = A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals| year = 2009| publisher = Concept Publishing Company| isbn = 978-81-8069-595-7| pages = 345-347 }}</ref> They worship the Supreme Being variously as [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]], depending upon the sect. God is called ''[[Ishvara]]'', ''[[Bhagavan]]'', ''[[Parameshwara (God)|Parameshwara]]'', ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devadu]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'', and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Eliade| first1 = Mircea| last2 = Trask| first2 = Willard Ropes| last3 = White| first3 = David Gordon| title = Yoga: Immortality and Freedom| year = 2009| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-0-691-14203-6| pages = 73-76 }}</ref><ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-01958-1}}, pages 37-39, 401-403, 498-503</ref><ref name="MW Sanskrit dict.">{{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001}}</ref> Devi is typically used when refereeing to a female goddess. | |||
<ref name="Wallin1999p64">{{cite book| last1 = Buttimer| first1 = Anne| last2 = Wallin| first2 = L.| title = Nature and Identity in Cross-Cultural Perspective| url = https://books.google.com/?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC| year = 1999| publisher = Springer| isbn = 978-0-7923-5651-6| pages = 64–68 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Mabry| first = John R.| title = Noticing the Divine: An Introduction to Interfaith Spiritual Guidance| url = https://books.google.com/?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C| year = 2006| publisher = New York: Morehouse| isbn = 978-0-8192-2238-1| pages = 32–33 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1 = Samovar| first1 = Larry A.| last2 = Porter| first2 = Richard E.| last3 = McDaniel| first3 = Edwin R.| last4 = Roy| first4 = Carolyn Sexton| title = Communication Between Cultures| url = https://books.google.com/?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ| year = 2016| publisher = Cengage| isbn = 978-1-305-88806-7| pages = 140–144 }}</ref> | |||
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (or ''[[Devi|{{IAST|devī}}]]'' in feminine form; ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' used synonymously for ''Deva'' in Hindi), which in English means demi-''gods'' or ''heavenly beings''.{{refn|group=note|For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: {{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=492}}. For translation of ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' as "godhead, divinity", see: {{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=495}}.}} The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through [[icon]]s, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in [[Indian epic poetry]] and the [[Puranas]]. They are, however, often distinguished from [[Ishvara]], a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their ''{{IAST|[[iṣṭa devatā]]}}'', or chosen ideal.{{Sfn|Werner|2005|pp=9, 15, 49, 54, 86}}<ref>{{harvnb|Renou|1964|p= 55}}</ref> The choice is a matter of individual preference,<ref name="harman1">{{Harvnb |Harman |2004|pp=104–106}}</ref> and of regional and family traditions.<ref name=harman1/>{{refn|group=note|Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are called ''Kuldevis'' or ''Kuldevata''.<ref>{{cite book| author = Lindsey Harlan| author2 = Professor of Religious Studies Lindsey Harlan| title = Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives| url = https://books.google.com/?id=7HLrPYOe38gC| year = 1992| publisher = University of California Press| isbn = 978-0-520-07339-5| pages = 19–20, 48 with footnotes }}</ref>}} The multitude of Devas are considered as manifestations of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|name=avatars| | |||
* {{cite book|title=Achieving Cultural Competency|author=Lisa Hark, Lisa Hark, R.D., Horace DeLisser, MD|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|date=7 September 2011|quote=Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman.}} | |||
* {{harvnb|Toropov|Buckles|2011}}: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality. | |||
* {{cite book|year=2007|title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies|author1=Orlando O. Espín |author2=James B. Nickoloff |publisher=Liturgical Press|quote=The devas are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas.}}}} | |||
== Main traditions == | |||
{{Main|Hindu denominations}} | |||
[[File:Ganesha pachayatana.jpg|thumb|A Ganesha-centric [[Panchayatana puja|Panchayatana]] ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): [[Ganesha]] (centre) with [[Shiva]] (top left), [[Devi]] (top right), [[Vishnu]] (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.]] | |||
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular sect or tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}}</ref> Four major sects in Hinduism are: ''Vaishnavism'', ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'' and ''Smarthism''.<ref name="lancenelson">{{cite book| last1 = Espin| first1 = Orlando O.| last2 = Nickoloff| first2 = James B.| title = An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies| year = 2007| publisher = Liturgical Press| isbn = 978-0-8146-5856-7| pages = 562-563 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=113, 134, 155-161, 167-168}} | |||
[[Vaishnavism]] is the tradition that worships [[Vishnu]]<ref>{{cite book| last = Beck| first = Guy L.| title = Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity| year = 2006| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 978-0-7914-6416-8| page = 65 }}</ref> and his avatars, such as [[Krishna]] and [[Rama]].<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Bryant| first1 = Edwin| last2 = Ekstrand| first2 = Maria| title = The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant| url = https://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC| year = 2013| publisher = Columbia University Press| isbn = 978-0-231-50843-8| pages = 15–17 }}</ref> The people of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic.<ref name="sskumar">{{cite book| last = Kumar| first = Samrat Schmiem| title = Bhakti - The Yoga of Love: Trans-Rational Approaches to Peace Studies| year = 2010| publisher = LIT Verlag Münster| isbn = 3-643-50130-7| pages = 35-36 }}</ref> These practices include community dancing, singing of [[Kirtan]]s and [[Bhajan]]s, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.<ref name="edwinb">{{cite book| last1 = Bryant| first1 = Edwin| last2 = Bryant| first2 = Edwin Francis| last3 = Ekstrand| first3 = Maria| title = The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant| url = https://archive.org/details/harekrishnamovem00brya| year = 2004| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6| pages = [https://archive.org/details/harekrishnamovem00brya/page/38 38]-43 }}</ref> | |||
[[Shaivism]] is the tradition that focuses on [[Shiva]]. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.<ref name=sskumar/> Their practices include Bhakti-style devotion but they leaned to philosply such as Advaita and [[Raja yoga|Yoga]].<ref name=lancenelson/><ref name=edwinb/> Some Shaivas worship in temples, but some practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.<ref>{{cite book| last = Dalal| first = Roshen| title = The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths| url = https://books.google.com/?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC| year = 2010| publisher = Penguin Books| isbn = 978-0-14-341517-6| page = 209 }}</ref> Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a combination of the male and female principles ([[Ardhanarishvara]]). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as wife of Shiva.<ref name=lancenelson/> Shaivism is mainly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.<ref>{{cite book| last = Isaeva| first = N.V.| title = From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta| year = 1995| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 978-0-7914-2449-0| pages = 141-145 }}</ref> | |||
[[Shaktism]] focuses on goddess worship of [[Shakti]] or Devi as cosmic mother,<ref name=sskumar/> and it is mainly worshipped in northeastern and eastern states of India such as [[Assam]] and [[West Bengal|Bengal]]. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like [[Parvati]], the consort of Shiva; or, as warrior goddesses like [[Kali]] and [[Durga]].<ref>Massimo Scaligero (1955), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29753633 The Tantra and the Spirit of the West], East and West, Vol. 5, No. 4, pages 291-296</ref> Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.<ref>{{cite book| last = Monaghan| first = Patricia| title = Goddesses in World Culture| year = 2011| publisher = ABC-CLIO| isbn = 978-0-313-35465-6| pages = 1-18 }}</ref> | |||
[[Smartism]] worship all the major Hindu deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, [[Ganesha]], [[Surya]] and [[Kartikeya|Skanda]].{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |authorlink=Alf Hiltebeitel |year=2013 |chapter=Hinduism|editor-last=Kitagawa|editor-first=Joseph|title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture|publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ}}</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996}} The Smarta tradition is very much same as [[Advaita Vedanta]], and consider [[Adi Shankara]] as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes (saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).<ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 17, 2015)</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1 = Murthy| first1 = U.R. Anantha| last2 = Anantamurthy| first2 = U.R.| title = Samskara: A Rite for a Dead Man| year = 1978| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 978-0-19-561079-6| page = 150 }}</ref> | |||
== Hindu texts == | |||
Hindu text are world's oldest and had been written in [[Sanskrit]] and Tamil. The oldest Text is Rig Veda which is about 4000 years old.Hindu Texts can be divided in two parts: | |||
* [[Shruti]] (what is heard) | |||
* [[Smriti]] (what is remembered) | |||
=== Shruti === | |||
'''Shruti''' or '''Shruthi''' (Sanskrit: श्रुति; IAST: ''Śruti''; IPA/Sanskrit: [ʃrut̪i]) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" These ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism includes the four Vedas including its four types of attached texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads | |||
===Smriti=== | |||
'''Smriti''' (Sanskrit: स्मृति, IAST: ''Smṛti''), means "that which is remembered" are a body of Hindu texts. Smriti were the texts which were remembered and were spread through mouth from generation to generation. Smriti includes (the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana), the Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras (or Smritiśāstras), the Arthasaśāstras, the Purānas, the Kāvya or poetical literature. | |||
==Festivals== | |||
There are many [[Hindu]] Festivals celebrated throughout the world but mainly in [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. These festivals include worship, offerings to deities, fasting, rituals, fairs, charity, celebrations, Puja, etc. The festivals mainly celebrate events from Hindu mythology, changes in season, changes in Solar System. Different sects celebrate different festivals but festivals like Diwali, Holi, Shivratri, Raksha Bandhan, Janamashtmi etc. are celebrated by the majority of Hindus. | |||
==History== | |||
===Periodisation=== | |||
Hinduism can be divided in following ages | |||
* Prevedic religions (pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation; until c. 1500 BCE); | |||
* Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE); | |||
* "Second Urbanisation" (c. 500–200 BCE); | |||
* Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE);[note 20] | |||
* Pre-classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-300 CE); | |||
* "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE); | |||
* Late-Classical Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650–1100 CE); | |||
* Islam and sects of Hinduism (c. 1200–1700 CE); | |||
* Modern Hinduism (from c. 1800). | |||
===Origins=== | |||
[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Pashupati]]'' seal, [[Indus Valley civilization]]]] | |||
The origins of Hinduism are unknown but the earliest traces of Hinduism come from Mesolithic in the sites such as the rock paintings of [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older,{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Doniger|2010|p=66}}: "Much of what we now call Hinduism may have had roots in cultures that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence. Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c. 30,000 BCE in [[Bhimbetka rock shelters|Bhimbetka]], near present-day Bhopal, in the Vindhya Mountains in the province of Madhya Pradesh."}} as well as neolithic times.{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=xvii}}: "Some practices of Hinduism must have originated in Neolithic times (c. 4000 BCE). The worship of certain plants and animals as sacred, for instance, could very likely have very great antiquity. The worship of goddesses, too, a part of Hinduism today, may be a feature that originated in the Neolithic."}} Some of the religious practices can be considered to have originated in 4000 BCE. Several [[Tribal religions in India|tribal religions]] still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.<ref group=web>[http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/india/tribal.html PHILTAR, Division of Religion and Philosophy, University of Cumbria, ''Tribal Religions of India'']</ref> | |||
==Varna== | |||
According to one view, the Varna, which later transformed into [[caste]] system during the British rule, shows how strongly many have felt about each person following his or her dharma, or destined path. Many Hindus say it goes against the true meaning of dharma. However, Varna plays a big role in Hindu society. It's later transformation as Caste system by the British rule of India lost favor and became illegal after the independence of India. | |||
==Temples== | |||
Puja (worship) takes place in the Mandir (temple). Mandirs vary in size from small village shrines to large buildings, surrounded by walls. People can also visit the Mandir at any time to pray and participate in the bhajans (religious songs). Hindus also worship at home and often have a special room with a shrine to particular gods. | |||
Temple construction in India started nearly 2000 years ago. The oldest temples that were built of brick and wood no longer exist. Stone later became the preferred material. Temples marked the transition of Hinduism from the Vedic religion of ritual sacrifices to a religion of Bhakti or love and devotion to a personal deity. Temple construction and mode of worship is governed by ancient Sanskrit scriptures called agamas, of which there are several, which deal with individual deities. There are substantial differences in architecture, customs, rituals and traditions in temples in different parts of India. During the ritual consecration of a temple, the presence of the universal all-encompassing Brahman is invoked into the main stone deity of the temple, through ritual, thereby making the deity and the temple sacred and divine | |||
== Alternative cultures of worship == | |||
=== The Bhakti schools === | |||
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many gods and goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. They can rightly be said to have affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient times. | |||
The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has been through ''puja'', or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. | |||
Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (praise), and [[arti]] (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the ''bhakta'', through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to avoid all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth. | |||
Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries. See [[bhakti yoga]] for more. | |||
=== Tantrism === | |||
{{Main|Tantra}} | |||
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: 'For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.") | |||
The word "[[tantra]]" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the late Middle Ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]]. | |||
== Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism == | |||
=== Ahimsa and the cow === | |||
Many Hindus are vegetarians (do not eat meat) because of their respect for life. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], in certain northerly states like Gujarat, and in many [[Brahmin]] areas around the subcontinent, are vegetarian. | |||
Most [[Hindus]] who do eat meat do not eat [[beef]]. Some do not even use [[leather]] products. This is most likely because many Hindus have relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost motherly figure. Thus, while most Hindus do not worship the cow, and rules against eating beef arose long after the [[Veda]]s had been written, it still has an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that [[Krishna]] is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of [[India]]. | |||
=== Hindu symbols === | |||
Hindus use many symbols and signs. The two most important symbols used by Hindus are the "[[Aum]]" and the "[[Swastika (Hinduism)]]". | |||
=== Forms of worship: murtis and mantras === | |||
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither [[polytheism|polytheistic]] nor strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. The various [[Hindu gods]] and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere god and as a formless Divine Ground ([[Brahman]]), akin but not limited to [[monism]], or as one monotheistic principle like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]]. | |||
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal god (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a god or goddess. | |||
While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of [[Vishnu]] (known as ''[[Vaishnav]]s'') to be at 80% and those of [[Shiva]] (called ''[[Shaivaites]]'') and [[Devi|Shakti]] at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth. Among the most popular are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]]. | |||
Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (''murti'') which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to ''be'' the concept or entity itself. Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of [[icon]]olatry, in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to [[idolatry]], a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus. For more details on this form of worship, see [[murti]]. | |||
=== Mantra === | |||
Hindus use several prayers and group of words. Some group of words are called [[mantra]]s. | |||
These words are said to give the speaker a deeper concentration and understanding, thus coming closer to [[Brahman]]. | |||
A well known mantra is ''om'' or ''aum''. It symbolizes Brahman, and is often the opening word in many prayers. | |||
To pronounce a mantra well, you should say it slowly, and in a deep voice. | |||
==Geographic distribution== | |||
The nations of [[India]], [[Mauritius]], and [[Nepal]] as well as the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Bali]] have more people who are Hindus than people who are not Hindus.In these nations, specially [[Nepal]] and [[India]] Hinduism is very popular. | |||
These countries also have many Hindus: | |||
* [[Bangladesh]] (12 million), | |||
* [[Sri Lanka]] (2.5 million), | |||
* the [[United States]] (2.0 million) | |||
* [[Pakistan]] (3.3 million), | |||
* [[South Africa]] (1.2 million), | |||
* the [[United Kingdom]] (1.2 million), | |||
* [[Malaysia]] (1.1 million), | |||
* [[Canada]] (0.7 million), | |||
* [[Fiji]] (0.5 million), | |||
* [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (0.5 million), | |||
* [[Guyana]] (0.4 million), | |||
* the [[Netherlands]] (0.4 million), | |||
* [[Singapore]] (0.3 million) | |||
* [[Myanmar]] (0.3 million), | |||
* [[Suriname]] (0.2 million), | |||
* [[Australia]] (0.1 Million). | |||
There are also strong Hindu communities in the countries of the ex-Soviet Union, especially in [[Russia]] and [[Poland]]. The Indonesian islands of [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Borneo]] also have big native Hindu populations. In its [[Yoga]] stream, Hinduism is even more widespread all over the world with 30 million (less than one percent can not be 30 million for US population) Hindus in the [[United States]] alone. | |||
== References == | |||
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
<references/> | |||
==Notes== | |||
<references group="note"/> | |||
* [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia] | |||
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050228222350/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html |date=2005-02-28 }} | |||
* Sâdhus, Going beyond the dreadlocks, by Patrick Levy, published by Prakash Books, Delhi, 2010. | |||
==Web notes== | |||
{{Reflist|group=web}} | |||
==Further reading== | |||
* Chopra, R.M., "Hinduism Today", Kolkata, 2009. | |||
== Other websites == | |||
{{Commons category|Hinduism}} | |||
* [http://ompage.net/Text/hindutimeline.htm Hindu Timeline] | |||
* [http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2003/10-12/44-49_four_sects.shtml http://www.hinduism-today.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108063824/http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2003/10-12/44-49_four_sects.shtml |date=2009-01-08 }} | |||
* [http://www.freebsd.nfo.sk/hinduism/ Some nice info about Hinduism in general including its all most important gods, festivals, personalities, demons, etc.] | |||
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hinduism.htm/ Religious Tolerance- Hinduism] | |||
{{Religions}} | |||
[[Category:Hinduism| ]] | |||
[[Category:Indian religions]] | |||