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'''Aihole''' (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as '''Aivalli''', '''Ahivolal''' or '''Aryapura''', is a historic site of ancient and medieval era [[Buddhist]], [[Hindu]] and [[Jain]] monuments in [[Karnataka, India]] that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth century CE.<ref name="Ray2010p17">{{cite book|author=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Archaeology and Text: The Temple in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgFPAQAAIAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-806096-3|pages=17–18, 27}}</ref>{{sfn|Heather Elgood|2000|p=151}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|author-link=Jeffery D. Long|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkkFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-7960-7|page=29}}, Quote: "AIHOLE. Pronounced "Eye-ho-lé", village in northern Karnataka that, from the fourth to the sixth centuries CE, was a major city (...)"</ref> Most of the surviving monuments at the site date from the 7th to 10th centuries.<ref>Michell, George (1990), ''The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu'', pp. 331–335, 1990, Penguin Books, {{ISBN|0140081445}}</ref> Located around an eponymous small village surrounded by farmlands and sandstone hills, Aihole is a major archaeological site featuring over one hundred and twenty stone and cave temples spread along the [[Malaprabha River|Malaprabha river]] valley, in [[Bagalakote]] district.[[Hunagunda]] Taluk Distance 35km <ref name="ForteCampana2010343">{{cite book|author1=Maurizio Forte|author2=Stefano Campana|author3=Claudia Liuzza|title=Space, Time, Place: Third International Conference on Remote Sensing in Archaeology|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=cTcqAQAAMAAJ | year =2010|publisher =Archaeopress|isbn=978-1-4073-0659-9|pages=343–344}}</ref> | '''Aihole''' (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as '''Aivalli''', '''Ahivolal''' or '''Aryapura''', is a historic site of ancient and medieval era [[Buddhist]], [[Hindu]] and [[Jain]] monuments in [[Karnataka, India]] that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth century CE.<ref name="Ray2010p17">{{cite book|author=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Archaeology and Text: The Temple in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgFPAQAAIAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-806096-3|pages=17–18, 27}}</ref>{{sfn|Heather Elgood|2000|p=151}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|author-link=Jeffery D. Long|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkkFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-7960-7|page=29}}, Quote: "AIHOLE. Pronounced "Eye-ho-lé", village in northern Karnataka that, from the fourth to the sixth centuries CE, was a major city (...)"</ref> Most of the surviving monuments at the site date from the 7th to 10th centuries.<ref>Michell, George (1990), ''The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu'', pp. 331–335, 1990, Penguin Books, {{ISBN|0140081445}}</ref> Located around an eponymous small village surrounded by farmlands and sandstone hills, Aihole is a major archaeological site featuring over one hundred and twenty stone and cave temples spread along the [[Malaprabha River|Malaprabha river]] valley, in [[Bagalakote]] district. [[Hunagunda]] Taluk Distance 35km <ref name="ForteCampana2010343">{{cite book|author1=Maurizio Forte|author2=Stefano Campana|author3=Claudia Liuzza|title=Space, Time, Place: Third International Conference on Remote Sensing in Archaeology|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=cTcqAQAAMAAJ | year =2010|publisher =Archaeopress|isbn=978-1-4073-0659-9|pages=343–344}}</ref> | ||
[[File:A sculpture of sleeping Vishnu Hindu deity at Museum CSMVS Mumbai.jpg|thumb|Relief of sleeping Vishnu, now in Mumbai]] | [[File:A sculpture of sleeping Vishnu Hindu deity at Museum CSMVS Mumbai.jpg|thumb|Relief of sleeping Vishnu, now in Mumbai]] | ||
Aihole is {{convert|35|km||abbr=}} from | Aihole is {{convert|35|km||abbr=}} from [[Badami]] and about {{convert|9.7|km||abbr=}} from [[Pattadakal]], both of which are major centres of historically important [[Badami Chalukya architecture|Chalukya monuments]]. Aihole, along with nearby Badami (Vatapi), emerged by the 6th century as the cradle of experimentation with temple architecture, stone artwork, and construction techniques. This resulted in 16 types of free-standing temples and 4 types of rock-cut shrines.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5972/|title=Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami- Pattadakal|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> The experimentation in architecture and arts that began in Aihole yielded the [[Pattadakal|group of monuments at Pattadakal]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref name=asipatta>[http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_pattadakkal_intro.asp World Heritage Sites – Pattadakal – More Detail], Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India (2012)</ref>{{Sfn|Michell|2017|pp=12–29, 78–86}} | ||
Over one hundred Aihole temples are [[Hindu]], a few are [[Jain]] and one is [[Buddhist]]. These were built and coexisted in close proximity. The site is spread over about {{convert|5|km2}}.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Maurizio Forte|author2=Stefano Campana|author3=Claudia Liuzza|title=Space, Time, Place: Third International Conference on Remote Sensing in Archaeology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTcqAQAAMAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Archaeopress|isbn=978-1-4073-0659-9|pages=343–344}}</ref> The Hindu temples are dedicated to [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Durga]], [[Surya]] and other Hindu deities. The Jain Basadi temples are dedicated to [[Mahavira]], [[Parshvanatha]], [[Neminatha]] and other Jain Tirthankaras.{{Sfn|Michell|2017|pp=12–19}} The Buddhist monument is a temple and small monastery. Both Hindu and Jain monuments include monasteries, as well as social utilities such as [[stepwell]] water tanks with artistic carvings near major temples.{{Sfn|Michell|2017|pp=12–29, 78–86}}<ref name="Himanshu Prabha Ray 2010 24–26">{{cite book|author=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Archaeology and Text: The Temple in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgFPAQAAIAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-806096-3|pages=24–26}}</ref> | Over one hundred Aihole temples are [[Hindu]], a few are [[Jain]] and one is [[Buddhist]]. These were built and coexisted in close proximity. The site is spread over about {{convert|5|km2}}.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Maurizio Forte|author2=Stefano Campana|author3=Claudia Liuzza|title=Space, Time, Place: Third International Conference on Remote Sensing in Archaeology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTcqAQAAMAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Archaeopress|isbn=978-1-4073-0659-9|pages=343–344}}</ref> The Hindu temples are dedicated to [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Durga]], [[Surya]] and other Hindu deities. The Jain Basadi temples are dedicated to [[Mahavira]], [[Parshvanatha]], [[Neminatha]] and other Jain Tirthankaras.{{Sfn|Michell|2017|pp=12–19}} The Buddhist monument is a temple and small monastery. Both Hindu and Jain monuments include monasteries, as well as social utilities such as [[stepwell]] water tanks with artistic carvings near major temples.{{Sfn|Michell|2017|pp=12–29, 78–86}}<ref name="Himanshu Prabha Ray 2010 24–26">{{cite book|author=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Archaeology and Text: The Temple in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgFPAQAAIAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-806096-3|pages=24–26}}</ref> | ||
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Aihole monuments preserve evidence of North Indian temple architecture styles that are missing elsewhere. The Gaudar Gudi{{refn|group=note|Gudi means "shrine" in Kannada, and regionally used to connote a [[Hindu temple]].}} temple mimics a wooden temple design with stone, with no superstructure but a flat temple raised on a plinth with stairs, square sanctum, a [[circumambulatory]] path and southern style columned hall with northern style shrine niches.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103–104}} The roof mimics sloping wooden version and has log-like stone strips.{{sfn|Michell|2017|p=88}} The Chikki temple is another such example, that innovates by adding stone screens for light inside the temple.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103–104}} The stone temples are dated to the first quarter of the 5th-century, suggesting the prior temples to centuries before.<ref>{{cite book|author=Herbert Härtel|title=South Asian Archaeology 1981|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3gFuAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Brill Academic|pages=455–456|isbn=9783496001584}}</ref> | Aihole monuments preserve evidence of North Indian temple architecture styles that are missing elsewhere. The Gaudar Gudi{{refn|group=note|Gudi means "shrine" in Kannada, and regionally used to connote a [[Hindu temple]].}} temple mimics a wooden temple design with stone, with no superstructure but a flat temple raised on a plinth with stairs, square sanctum, a [[circumambulatory]] path and southern style columned hall with northern style shrine niches.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103–104}} The roof mimics sloping wooden version and has log-like stone strips.{{sfn|Michell|2017|p=88}} The Chikki temple is another such example, that innovates by adding stone screens for light inside the temple.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103–104}} The stone temples are dated to the first quarter of the 5th-century, suggesting the prior temples to centuries before.<ref>{{cite book|author=Herbert Härtel|title=South Asian Archaeology 1981|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3gFuAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Brill Academic|pages=455–456|isbn=9783496001584}}</ref> | ||
Aihole was a meeting place of styles but one of several around the 6th | Aihole was a meeting place of styles but one of several around the 6th century CE, that were on "their way to development elsewhere". They became preserved in Aihole probably because building and cultural activity stopped there around the 12th century. Though excavations have yielded evidence that scholars disagree in dating, states Harle, it is probable that the earliest surviving temples in Aihole are from the 6th century and later.<ref name="Harle1994p166"/> | ||
Gary Tartakov links the temples at Aihole to 2nd century CE style and arts found in the [[Ajanta Caves]], adding that while the Ajanta and Aihole monuments share some organizational features, there are distinct differences that suggest a "leap in time" and parallel developments in cave-based Ajanta and Aihole stone temple designs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gary Michael Tartakov|title=The Durga Temple at Aihole: A Historiographical Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7uzVAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-563372-6|pages=33–45, 54–55}}</ref> | Gary Tartakov links the temples at Aihole to 2nd century CE style and arts found in the [[Ajanta Caves]], adding that while the Ajanta and Aihole monuments share some organizational features, there are distinct differences that suggest a "leap in time" and parallel developments in cave-based Ajanta and Aihole stone temple designs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gary Michael Tartakov|title=The Durga Temple at Aihole: A Historiographical Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7uzVAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-563372-6|pages=33–45, 54–55}}</ref> | ||
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==Hindu monuments== | ==Hindu monuments== | ||
[[File:Huchimalligudi Aihole Karnataka.jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|left|The floor plan of Huchimalligudi temple, Aihole.]] | |||
Aihole was an early medieval era meeting place and a cradle for experimentation of Hindu arts, particularly temple architecture.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|author-link=Alain Daniélou|title=A Brief History of India|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133 |year=2003 |publisher= Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-59477-794-3|page=133}}</ref><ref name="Harle1994p166">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/166 166]–178}}</ref>{{sfn|Vinayak Bharne|Krupali Krusche|2014|pp=80-95}} The regional artisans and architects of Aihole region created prototypes of 16 types of free-standing temples and 4 types of rock-cut shrines to express in stone the theology of Hinduism.<ref name=unescoevol>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5972/ Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami- Pattadakal], UNESCO (2015)</ref> Though there is a sprinkling of Jaina monuments in Aihole, the temples and relief artworks are predominantly Hindu.<ref name="Harle1994p166"/> | Aihole was an early medieval era meeting place and a cradle for experimentation of Hindu arts, particularly temple architecture.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|author-link=Alain Daniélou|title=A Brief History of India|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133 |year=2003 |publisher= Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-59477-794-3|page=133}}</ref><ref name="Harle1994p166">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/166 166]–178}}</ref>{{sfn|Vinayak Bharne|Krupali Krusche|2014|pp=80-95}} The regional artisans and architects of Aihole region created prototypes of 16 types of free-standing temples and 4 types of rock-cut shrines to express in stone the theology of Hinduism.<ref name=unescoevol>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5972/ Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami- Pattadakal], UNESCO (2015)</ref> Though there is a sprinkling of Jaina monuments in Aihole, the temples and relief artworks are predominantly Hindu.<ref name="Harle1994p166"/> | ||
The Aihole temples experimented with two layouts: {{transl|hi|sandhara}} (with circumambulatory path) and {{transl|hi|nirandhara}} (without circumambulatory path).<ref name=unescoevol/> In terms of towers above the sanctum, they explored several superstructures: shikhara (tapering superstructure of discrete squares), ''mundamala'' (temple without superstructure, literally, garland with shaved head), ''rekhaprasada'' (smooth curvilinear superstructure also based on squares prevalent in northern and central India), Dravidian vimana (pyramidal style of southern India) and Kadamba-Chalukya Shikhara (a fusion style).<ref name=unescoevol/> The layout typically followed squares and rectangles (fused squares), but the Aihole artists also tried out prototypes of an apsidal layout (like a Buddhist or Church hall). In addition, they experimented with layout of | The Aihole temples experimented with two layouts: {{transl|hi|sandhara}} (with circumambulatory path) and {{transl|hi|nirandhara}} (without circumambulatory path).<ref name=unescoevol/> In terms of towers above the sanctum, they explored several superstructures: shikhara (tapering superstructure of discrete squares), ''mundamala'' (temple without superstructure, literally, garland with shaved head), ''rekhaprasada'' (smooth curvilinear superstructure also based on squares prevalent in northern and central India), Dravidian vimana (pyramidal style of southern India) and Kadamba-Chalukya Shikhara (a fusion style).<ref name=unescoevol/> The layout typically followed squares and rectangles (fused squares), but the Aihole artists also tried out prototypes of an apsidal layout (like a Buddhist or Church hall). In addition, they experimented with layout of mantapa within the shrines, the pillars, different types of windows to let light in, reliefs and statues, artwork on mouldings and pillars, bracket designs, ceiling, structure interlocking principles and styles of friezes. In some temples they added subsidiary shrines such as ''Nandi-mantapa'', a {{transl|hi|prakara}} (wall) and styles of {{transl|hi|pratoli}} (gateway).<ref name="Harle1994p166"/><ref name=unescoevol/> | ||
===Durga temple complex=== | ===Durga temple complex=== | ||
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[[File:Durga temple Aihole.jpg|thumb|Durga temple Aihole - Another view]] | [[File:Durga temple Aihole.jpg|thumb|Durga temple Aihole - Another view]] | ||
[[File:8th century Durga temple exterior Kama panel illustration, Aihole Hindu temples and monuments.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|An amorous couple at the Durga temple.]] | [[File:8th century Durga temple exterior Kama panel illustration, Aihole Hindu temples and monuments.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|An amorous couple at the Durga temple.]] | ||
The Durga temple is the principal attraction for Aihole visitors and iconic in its apsidal layout.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=82–83}}{{refn|group=note|name=plan1|For the temple's detailed schematic plan, see Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche's ''Rediscovering the Hindu Temple'',{{sfn|Vinayak Bharne|Krupali Krusche|2014|pp=80–81}} and Christopher Tadgell's ''The East''.<ref name="Tadgell2015p91"/>}} This shape is similar to 2nd or 1st century BCE Buddhist chaitya halls found in [[Ajanta Caves]]. The Durga temple stands on a high moulded '' | The Durga temple is the principal attraction for Aihole visitors and iconic in its apsidal layout.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=82–83}}{{refn|group=note|name=plan1|For the temple's detailed schematic plan, see Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche's ''Rediscovering the Hindu Temple'',{{sfn|Vinayak Bharne|Krupali Krusche|2014|pp=80–81}} and Christopher Tadgell's ''The East''.<ref name="Tadgell2015p91"/>}} This shape is similar to 2nd or 1st century BCE Buddhist chaitya halls found in [[Ajanta Caves]]. The Durga temple stands on a high moulded ''[[adhisthana]]'' and a damaged tower that had a curvilinear shikhara. The damaged tower's ''amalaka'' crown lies on the ground.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=83–84}} A colonnaded and covered ambulatory passage with major carvings runs around the sanctum. The ''mukha mantapa'' (main hall) and the ''sabha mantapa'' (community hall for functions) show intricate carvings.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=82–84}} | ||
The Durga temple reverentially displays gods and goddesses from [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaktism]] traditions of Hinduism. The included near life-size statues include [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Harihara]] (half Shiva, half Vishnu), [[Durga]] in her Mahishasuramardini form killing the buffalo demon, goddesses [[Ganga]] and [[Yamuna]], [[Brahma]], [[Surya]], avatars of Vishnu such as [[Varaha]] and [[Narasimha]].<ref name="Dalal2010p110"/>{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=82–86}} The temple has friezes to tell the story of the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]''. Further, the temple has artwork showing scenes of daily life and couples, including several amorous couples in various stages of courtship and [[mithuna]].<ref name="Dalal2010p110"/>{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=84–86}} | The Durga temple reverentially displays gods and goddesses from [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaktism]] traditions of Hinduism. The included near life-size statues include [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Harihara]] (half Shiva, half Vishnu), [[Durga]] in her Mahishasuramardini form killing the buffalo demon, goddesses [[Ganga]] and [[Yamuna]], [[Brahma]], [[Surya]], avatars of Vishnu such as [[Varaha]] and [[Narasimha]].<ref name="Dalal2010p110"/>{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=82–86}} The temple has friezes to tell the story of the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]''. Further, the temple has artwork showing scenes of daily life and couples, including several amorous couples in various stages of courtship and [[mithuna]].<ref name="Dalal2010p110"/>{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=84–86}} | ||
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| footer = Stone beams mimicking logs on Lad Khan temple roof (left); Nandi facing the Shiva linga inside.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|p=107}} | | footer = Stone beams mimicking logs on Lad Khan temple roof (left); Nandi facing the Shiva linga inside.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|p=107}} | ||
}} | }} | ||
The [[Lad Khan Temple]] is near the Durga temple and has been variously dated to "about 450 CE",<ref>{{cite journal | last=Tartakov | first=Gary Michael | title=The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone | jstor= 3250008| journal= Artibus Asiae | volume=42 | issue=1 | year=1980 | doi=10.2307/3250008 | pages=39–40}}</ref> or from 6th to 8th centuries.<ref name="Harle1994p172">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/172 172]–174 with Figure 130}}, Quote: "Figure 130. Aihole. Lad Khan temple. Late sixth/seventh century."</ref>{{sfn|Michell|2017|p=87, "Ladkhan temple (...) This early 8th-century monument..."}}{{sfn|Vinayak Bharne|Krupali Krusche|2014|pp=x, 81}} The temple is named after the Muslim commander under Adil Shahi Sultan who briefly stayed here about a thousand years after it was built. He used it to coordinate his military campaign in the region. The temple embeds three concentric squares,{{refn|group=note|name=plan1}} facing the sanctum with a Shiva Linga. Inside the inner third square is a seated Nandi. The two square [[mandapa]]s surrounding it create the ''sabha | The [[Lad Khan Temple]] is near the Durga temple and has been variously dated to "about 450 CE",<ref>{{cite journal | last=Tartakov | first=Gary Michael | title=The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone | jstor= 3250008| journal= Artibus Asiae | volume=42 | issue=1 | year=1980 | doi=10.2307/3250008 | pages=39–40}}</ref> or from 6th to 8th centuries.<ref name="Harle1994p172">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/172 172]–174 with Figure 130}}, Quote: "Figure 130. Aihole. Lad Khan temple. Late sixth/seventh century."</ref>{{sfn|Michell|2017|p=87, "Ladkhan temple (...) This early 8th-century monument..."}}{{sfn|Vinayak Bharne|Krupali Krusche|2014|pp=x, 81}} The temple is named after the Muslim commander under Adil Shahi Sultan who briefly stayed here about a thousand years after it was built. He used it to coordinate his military campaign in the region. The temple embeds three concentric squares,{{refn|group=note|name=plan1}} facing the sanctum with a Shiva Linga. Inside the inner third square is a seated Nandi. The two square [[mandapa|mantapa]]s surrounding it create the ''sabha mantapa'' or community hall, providing ample space for devotees and community to gather for functions. The second concentric square is supported by a set of 12 intricately carved pillars. The wall has floral designs. The temple inside is lit with natural sunlight coming in from lattice windows of the north Indian style. The temple roof stones include log-shaped stone strips suggestive of an attempt to mimic more ancient timber temple construction.<ref name="Harle1994p172"/>{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=87–88}}{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=18–21}} | ||
The Ladkhan temple includes iconography from the [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaktism]] traditions of Hinduism. On the lintel of the sanctum with Shiva Linga, for example, is a Garuda image who carries Vishnu. The temple has reliefs showing goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, as well as other deities.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=87–88}} A set of stone stairs connect the lower level to the second floor whereupon is a damaged square shrine. On three sides of this upper level are Vishnu, Surya and | The Ladkhan temple includes iconography from the [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaktism]] traditions of Hinduism. On the lintel of the sanctum with Shiva Linga, for example, is a Garuda image who carries Vishnu. The temple has reliefs showing goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, as well as other deities.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=87–88}} A set of stone stairs connect the lower level to the second floor whereupon is a damaged square shrine. On three sides of this upper level are Vishnu, Surya and Ardhanareshvara (half [[Shiva]], half [[Parvati]]).{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=87–88}} Like other Aihole Hindu temples, the temple includes scenes from daily life, including amorous couple in courtship and kama scenes.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=87–88}} | ||
[[File:Le temple Gaudara Gudi (Aihole, Inde) (14383019304).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Gaudargudi temple experiments an open structure.]] | [[File:Le temple Gaudara Gudi (Aihole, Inde) (14383019304).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Gaudargudi temple experiments an open structure.]] | ||
Gaudargudi temple stands next to the Ladkhan temple, built on the lines of Ladkhan temple but more open from all sides. According to George Michell, the temple is older than the Ladkhan temple.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=88–89}} It too has log-shaped stones, where its timber like form is integrated to serve its structural function. The sanctum is empty but has a Gajalakshmi on its lintel. An inscription engraved on the lintel states that the temple has been dedicated to goddess Gauri (an aspect of Parvati). There is evidence that the sanctum, the inside | Gaudargudi temple stands next to the Ladkhan temple, built on the lines of Ladkhan temple but more open from all sides. According to George Michell, the temple is older than the Ladkhan temple.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=88–89}} It too has log-shaped stones, where its timber like form is integrated to serve its structural function. The sanctum is empty but has a Gajalakshmi on its lintel. An inscription engraved on the lintel states that the temple has been dedicated to goddess Gauri (an aspect of Parvati). There is evidence that the sanctum, the inside mantapa, and niches on outer walls had carved statues, but these are now empty.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=88–89}} Gaudargudi was among the earliest temples when architects included ''pradakshina patha'' (circumambulatory path) in Hindu temple design.{{sfn|Gupte|1967|p=47}} | ||
Next to the Gaudargudi (also spelled Gaudergudi) temple is a large [[stepwell]] for utility water storage whose walls have ancient carved sculptures. This stepwell is between the Gaudargudi and Chakragudi temple.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=88–89}} According to Himanshu Ray, the stepwell with its Hindu shrine was likely added in the 10th or 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Archaeology and Text: The Temple in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgFPAQAAIAAJ |year=2010| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-806096-3| page=31}}</ref> The Chakragudi is notable for its preserved 7th or 8th century Nagara-style tower superstructure. The temple shows signs of later addition of a | Next to the Gaudargudi (also spelled Gaudergudi) temple is a large [[stepwell]] for utility water storage whose walls have ancient carved sculptures. This stepwell is between the Gaudargudi and Chakragudi temple.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=88–89}} According to Himanshu Ray, the stepwell with its Hindu shrine was likely added in the 10th or 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Archaeology and Text: The Temple in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgFPAQAAIAAJ |year=2010| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-806096-3| page=31}}</ref> The Chakragudi is notable for its preserved 7th or 8th century Nagara-style tower superstructure. The temple shows signs of later addition of a mantapa, whose style suggests 9th-century Rashtrakuta extension. To the southwest of the Durga temple complex is the Badigargudi (also spelled Badigergudi) temple with pyramidal tower that explores a squat and shrinking discrete squares-topped design with a large cubical ''sukanasa'' containing a Surya (Sun god) icon. Much of the Badigargudi relief artwork has been damaged and eroded.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=88–89}}<ref>[http://www.william-voirol.ch/In/15/0/13/G.html?lng=0 Karnataka, Aihole, Badiger Gudi], Aihole archives, Switzerland</ref> | ||
The Durga temple complex houses the Aihole Museum and Art Gallery, managed by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]. The museum has outdoor display of excavated statues, artwork, hero stones, and temple parts demolished in past. It also has an indoor collection with best-preserved pieces of statues and temple parts found in the region. The collection includes images of Shiva, Parvati, Vishnu, Lakshmi, Brahma, Saraswati, Durga, Saptamatrika, Surya, Indra, and others. The life-size Lajja Gauri with lotus head, found in Aihole, is a part of the indoor collection.<ref>[http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_aihole.asp Museum and Art Gallery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326202129/http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_aihole.asp |date=26 March 2014 }}, ASI Aihole</ref> | The Durga temple complex houses the Aihole Museum and Art Gallery, managed by the [[Archaeological Survey of India|Archeological Survey of India]]. The museum has outdoor display of excavated statues, artwork, hero stones, and temple parts demolished in past. It also has an indoor collection with best-preserved pieces of statues and temple parts found in the region. The collection includes images of Shiva, Parvati, Vishnu, Lakshmi, Brahma, Saraswati, Durga, Saptamatrika, Surya, Indra, and others. The life-size Lajja Gauri with lotus head, found in Aihole, is a part of the indoor collection.<ref>[http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_aihole.asp Museum and Art Gallery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326202129/http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_aihole.asp |date=26 March 2014 }}, ASI Aihole</ref> | ||
===Ravana Phadi cave=== | ===Ravana Phadi cave=== | ||
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The Meguti Jain temple is on the level-topped Meguti hill, surrounded by the [[Aihole fort]]. The north-facing temple is dedicated to a Jain Tirthankara [[Mahavira]].{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=79–80}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meguti Jain temple of Aihole - Jain Glory - was an era ...|url=http://www.jainglory.com/research/meguti|access-date=2020-08-02|website=www.jainglory.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rao|first=B. S. L. Hanumantha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tpDAAAAIAAJ&q=Meguti+Jain+Temple|title=Religion in Āndhra: A Survey of Religious Developments in Āndhra from Early Times Upto A.D. 1325|date=1973|publisher=Welcome Press|language=en}}</ref> The word "Meguti" is a corruption of the word "Megudi" and means "upper temple".{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} | The Meguti Jain temple is on the level-topped Meguti hill, surrounded by the [[Aihole fort]]. The north-facing temple is dedicated to a Jain Tirthankara [[Mahavira]].{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=79–80}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meguti Jain temple of Aihole - Jain Glory - was an era ...|url=http://www.jainglory.com/research/meguti|access-date=2020-08-02|website=www.jainglory.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rao|first=B. S. L. Hanumantha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tpDAAAAIAAJ&q=Meguti+Jain+Temple|title=Religion in Āndhra: A Survey of Religious Developments in Āndhra from Early Times Upto A.D. 1325|date=1973|publisher=Welcome Press|language=en}}</ref> The word "Meguti" is a corruption of the word "Megudi" and means "upper temple".{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} | ||
[[File:Meguti temple Aihole Karnataka.jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|left|Floor plan of Meguti temple.]] | |||
The temple has an open portico, leading the devotee into a mandapa and the sanctum. The entire temple sits on a raised platform like many of the Hindu temples in the village. However, the layout inside is distinct. It has a pillared square ''mukhya-mandapa'' (main hall), which enters into a narrower square ''antarala'' divided into two compartments at different levels.{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} A stair connects the slightly higher level, which leads to the larger square-shaped chamber and sanctum. This section consists of two concentric squares, the inner square being the sanctum, and the space between the outer square and inner square being the ''pradakshina patha'' (circumambulation path).{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} However, in the back of this path, a later construction sealed the circumambulation passage, making it more suitable for storage. Inside the inner square is a relatively crude carving of a Tirthankara. In contrast to the crudeness of this carving is the intricate carving of [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]] with attendant female Jaina deities and her lion mount below of the temple, now preserved in the ASI museum in Aihole. A similar carving is found attending the [[Mahavira]] in Jain [[Ellora Caves]], and it is therefore likely that this temple was a dedication to the Mahavira.{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} The temple includes a stone stair connecting the lower level to its upper. Though badly damaged, the upper level has a Jain image. It is also a viewpoint to look over the fort as well to watch the Aihole village below.{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} | The temple has an open portico, leading the devotee into a mandapa and the sanctum. The entire temple sits on a raised platform like many of the Hindu temples in the village. However, the layout inside is distinct. It has a pillared square ''mukhya-mandapa'' (main hall), which enters into a narrower square ''antarala'' divided into two compartments at different levels.{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} A stair connects the slightly higher level, which leads to the larger square-shaped chamber and sanctum. This section consists of two concentric squares, the inner square being the sanctum, and the space between the outer square and inner square being the ''pradakshina patha'' (circumambulation path).{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} However, in the back of this path, a later construction sealed the circumambulation passage, making it more suitable for storage. Inside the inner square is a relatively crude carving of a Tirthankara. In contrast to the crudeness of this carving is the intricate carving of [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]] with attendant female Jaina deities and her lion mount below of the temple, now preserved in the ASI museum in Aihole. A similar carving is found attending the [[Mahavira]] in Jain [[Ellora Caves]], and it is therefore likely that this temple was a dedication to the Mahavira.{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} The temple includes a stone stair connecting the lower level to its upper. Though badly damaged, the upper level has a Jain image. It is also a viewpoint to look over the fort as well to watch the Aihole village below.{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–44}} | ||
The temple foundation moldings rhythmically project the plastered walls of the temple. The temple is not complete, as the niches and walls where carvings would be, are either cut but empty or left uncut and left raised.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=79–80}} The temple had a tower, but it is lost and has been replaced by a rooftop watch room like empty chamber added much later and that does not flow with the rest of temple.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=79–80}}{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–48, 112–113}} The mouldings around the foundation have carvings of Jaina motifs such as seated Jinas meditating. | The temple foundation moldings rhythmically project the plastered walls of the temple. The temple is not complete, as the niches and walls where carvings would be, are either cut but empty or left uncut and left raised.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=79–80}} The temple had a tower, but it is lost and has been replaced by a rooftop watch room like empty chamber added much later and that does not flow with the rest of temple.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=79–80}}{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–48, 112–113}} The mouldings around the foundation have carvings of Jaina motifs such as seated Jinas meditating. | ||
[[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb | [[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|Aihole [[Sanskrit]] inscription from 634 CE.]] | ||
====Meguti Aihole inscription==== | ====Meguti Aihole inscription==== | ||
The Meguti temple is historically important for its Aihole Prashasti inscription. A slab on the outer side wall of the temple is in Sanskrit language and Old Kannada script. It is dated to Saka 556 (634 CE), and is a poem | {{main|Aihole inscription}} | ||
The Meguti temple is historically important for its Aihole Prashasti inscription. A slab on the outer east side wall of the temple is inscribed in Sanskrit language and Old Kannada script. It is dated to Saka 556 (634 CE), and is a poem by Jain poet Ravikirti. He was in the court of king [[Pulakeshin II]].<ref name="Himanshu Prabha Ray 2010 24–26"/> This inscription opens with the equivalent of "Jai Jinendra" salutation in Sanskrit.<ref>{{Cite book|last=TL|first=Prabhu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CenDwAAQBAJ&q=Meguti+Jain+Temple&pg=PT677|title=Majestic Monuments of India: Ancient Indian Mega Structures|date=2019-08-04|publisher=Prabhu Thankaraju|language=en}}</ref> The inscription is a panegyric by the Jain poet wildly praising his patron Pulakesin II, comparing him to Hindu deities and Kalidasa legends, thanking him for his support in the construction of the Meguti Jain temple.{{sfn|Michell|2017|pp=79–80}}{{sfn|Gupte|1967|pp=43–48, 112–113}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Gary Michael Tartakov|title=The Durga Temple at Aihole: A Historiographical Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7uzVAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-563372-6|page=46}}; For original paper, see F. Kielhorn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PWhDAAAAYAAJ Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II, Saka Samvat 556]'', Epigraphica Indica Volume 6 (1981, Original: 1901), pp. 1–11</ref> | |||
===Jain cave temple=== | ===Jain cave temple=== | ||
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The matha consists of twin ''basadi'' with one porch serving both, with each housing 12 Tirthankars. An inscription here records the date of construction as 1120 CE.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} | The matha consists of twin ''basadi'' with one porch serving both, with each housing 12 Tirthankars. An inscription here records the date of construction as 1120 CE.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} | ||
==Aihole dolmens and inscriptions== | ==Other monuments== | ||
===Aihole dolmens and inscriptions=== | |||
Scattered in the prehistoric period megalithic site behind the Meguti temple are many dolmens, numbering about 45 and more are destroyed by treasure hunters. | Scattered in the prehistoric period megalithic site behind the Meguti temple are many dolmens, numbering about 45 and more are destroyed by treasure hunters. Local people call it Morera mane (Morera tatte) or Desaira Mane. Each dolmen has three sides upright square slabs and large flat slab on top forms roof, front side upright slab had circular hole.{{cn|date=August 2021}} | ||
===Inscriptions=== | ===Inscriptions=== | ||
[[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb| | {{main|Aihole inscription}} | ||
[[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb|[[Aihole inscription]]: poetry on stone at the Meguti temple Aihole]] | |||
Many inscriptions are found at Aihole, the inscription at the Meguti Temple, popularly known as ''Aihole inscription'', or ''Aihole Prashasti'', is the most important and is an eulogy to the Chalukya king Pulakeshi-II.<ref>{{cite web|title=Project South Asia |url=http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.htm |work=South Dakota State University - Be Great. Start Here. |publisher=SDSU South Dakota State University |access-date=27 May 2012 |author=Project South Asia |year=2000–2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204151016/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.htm |archive-date=4 February 2009 }}</ref> Written by the royal poet, Ravikriti, the inscription praises the Chalukya king in verse. Though using the [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]], the inscription uses the [[Kannada]] script.<ref name="script1">Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World, Volume 1, p.252, Gaṅgā Rām Garg, Concept Publishing Company, 1992, India, {{ISBN|81-7022-374-1}}</ref><ref name="script2">Kamlesh Kapur, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Chapter 35, The Chalukyas of Badami, Brief history of the Chalukyas, New Delhi, {{ISBN|978 81 207 5212 2}}</ref> | Many inscriptions are found at Aihole, the inscription at the Meguti Temple, popularly known as ''Aihole inscription'', or ''Aihole Prashasti'', is the most important and is an eulogy to the Chalukya king Pulakeshi-II.<ref>{{cite web|title=Project South Asia |url=http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.htm |work=South Dakota State University - Be Great. Start Here. |publisher=SDSU South Dakota State University |access-date=27 May 2012 |author=Project South Asia |year=2000–2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204151016/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.htm |archive-date=4 February 2009 }}</ref> Written by the royal poet, Ravikriti, the inscription praises the Chalukya king in verse. Though using the [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]], the inscription uses the [[Kannada]] script.<ref name="script1">Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World, Volume 1, p.252, Gaṅgā Rām Garg, Concept Publishing Company, 1992, India, {{ISBN|81-7022-374-1}}</ref><ref name="script2">Kamlesh Kapur, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Chapter 35, The Chalukyas of Badami, Brief history of the Chalukyas, New Delhi, {{ISBN|978 81 207 5212 2}}</ref> | ||
The inscription details the military victories of Pulikeshi II. His defeat of King [[Harshavardhana]], | The inscription details the military victories of Pulikeshi II. His defeat of King [[Harshavardhana]], his victory over the [[Pallavas]], [[Mangalesa|Mangalesha]]'s (Paramabhagavat) victory over the [[Kalachuris]], and the conquest of Revatidvipa (Present-day [[Redi Port]]). It also mentions the shifting of the capital from Aihole to [[Badami]] by Pulikeshi-II. The poet [[Kalidasa]] is also mentioned in the inscription.<ref>{{cite web|title=HISTORY - EARLY CHALUKYAS|url=http://ratnagiri.nic.in/Gazetter/GOM/his_chalukyas.html|work=Welcome to the Gazetteers Department|publisher=Maharashtra State Gazetteers|access-date=27 May 2012|author=Unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410103024/http://ratnagiri.nic.in/Gazetter/GOM/his_chalukyas.html|archive-date=10 April 2009|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Another inscription at Aihole, that of [[Amoghavarsha I]], mentions his new administration (navarajyam geyye).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Indian Analyst : South Indian Inscriptions : BOMBAY-KARNATAKA INSCRIPTIONS VOLUME I - Part I|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_11/introduction.html|work=WhatIsIndia.com|publisher=What Is India Publishers (P) Ltd|access-date=27 May 2012|author=Unknown}}</ref> | ||
[[File:Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg|thumb|[[Chalukya]] Territories during [[Pulakeshi II]] c. 640 C.E.]] | [[File:Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg|thumb|[[Chalukya]] Territories during [[Pulakeshi II]] c. 640 C.E.]] | ||
==Significance== | ==Significance== | ||
The Hindu temples at Aihole reflect a "meeting and fragmentation of styles", one that became a creative cradle for new experiments in construction and architecture yielding their local variants, states George Michell. These ideas ultimately influenced and became a part of both the northern and southern styles of Hindu arts.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103}} They are also a possible mirror to early wood-based temples whose natural decay led to innovations with stone, where the early stone temples preserved the heritage, the form and the function of their timber ancestors.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103–104}} The early temples at Aihole may also be a window into the more ancient Indian society, where temples were built around and integrated into the "santhagara village meeting hall" as the mandapa.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|editor=J. E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw|title=South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the Third International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2GW1PTHQ1YC |year=1979|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-05996-2|pages=135–141}}</ref> | The Hindu temples at Aihole reflect a "meeting and fragmentation of styles", one that became a creative cradle for new experiments in construction and architecture yielding their local variants, states George Michell. These ideas ultimately influenced and became a part of both the northern and southern styles of Hindu arts.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103}} They are also a possible mirror to early wood-based temples whose natural decay led to innovations with stone, where the early stone temples preserved the heritage, the form and the function of their timber ancestors.{{sfn|George Michell|1977|pp=103–104}} The early temples at Aihole may also be a window into the more ancient Indian society, where temples were built around and integrated into the "santhagara village meeting hall" as the mandapa.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|editor=J. E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw|title=South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the Third International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2GW1PTHQ1YC |year=1979|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-05996-2|pages=135–141}}</ref> | ||
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The Jain temples of Aihole are significant in helping decipher the spread, influence, and interaction of Jainism and Hinduism traditions in the Deccan region. According to Lisa Owen, the comparison of the artwork in Aihole-Badami Jain monuments and other sites such as the Ellora Caves, particularly the attendants, deities, and demons provides a means to decipher the development of Jain mythology and the significance of the shared iconography.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC&pg=PA24|year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20629-8|pages=24–25, 45–58, 69–72}}</ref> | The Jain temples of Aihole are significant in helping decipher the spread, influence, and interaction of Jainism and Hinduism traditions in the Deccan region. According to Lisa Owen, the comparison of the artwork in Aihole-Badami Jain monuments and other sites such as the Ellora Caves, particularly the attendants, deities, and demons provides a means to decipher the development of Jain mythology and the significance of the shared iconography.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC&pg=PA24|year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20629-8|pages=24–25, 45–58, 69–72}}</ref> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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*[[Aihole inscriptions]] | *[[Aihole inscriptions]] | ||
| | | | ||
*[[Sudi]] | *[[Sudi, India|Sudi]] | ||
*[[Gajendragad]] | *[[Gajendragad]] | ||
*[[Ainnurruvar]] | *[[Ainnurruvar]] | ||
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* {{cite book|author=Adam Hardy|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C |year=1995|publisher= Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-312-0}} | * {{cite book|author=Adam Hardy|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C |year=1995|publisher= Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-312-0}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Hindu Temple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-aS52MgIkMC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0224-7}} | * {{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Hindu Temple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-aS52MgIkMC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0224-7}} | ||
* {{cite journal | last=Lippe | first=Aschwin | title=Some Sculptural Motifs on Early Calukya Temples | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=29 | issue=1 | year=1967 | | * {{cite journal | last=Lippe | first=Aschwin | title=Some Sculptural Motifs on Early Calukya Temples | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=29 | issue=1 | year=1967 | pages=5–24 | doi=10.2307/3250288 | jstor=3250288 }} | ||
* {{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1}} | * {{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1}} | ||
* {{cite book| author=George Michell|title=Pattadakal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcgYAAAAYAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565651-0}} | * {{cite book| author=George Michell|title=Pattadakal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcgYAAAAYAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565651-0}} | ||