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In the light of the below discussion, the station of the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]] towards the [[Indus Valley]] becomes comprehensible, | In the light of the below discussion, the station of the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]] towards the [[Indus Valley]] becomes comprehensible, | ||
== Chandragupta II's Expeditions == | |||
=== Battle of Begram === | |||
[[File:Kushanshas-Hepthalites 565ad.jpg|thumb|The Kushano-Hephthalites & the Kushanshas in 565 AD.]] | |||
References to Kāpiši wine persist in literary works like Dhanapala's Tilakamanjari, describing it as a favored royal beverage with a reddish hue akin to a woman's eyes filled with resentment or the petals of a red lotus. Archaeological findings at [[Begram]] reveal ceramic motifs illustrating wine production, featuring jars, vines, grape bunches, and birds, reminiscent of Pompeii's artistry. Additionally, plaster medallions depict symmetrical arches formed by grape leaves and bunches, indicating Begram's historical significance as a grape-growing hub and wine production center.{{sfn|Prakash|1962|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=BqI5AQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y]337-338}} | |||
[[File:Kapisa in Afghanistan.svg|thumb|Kapisa in Afghanistan]] | |||
Recent archaeological endeavors uncovered a sizable wine cellar in [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]], the former [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] capital near modern-day [[Ashkabad]], containing nearly 200,000 liters of wine stored in clay pitchers. Inscriptions on broken pieces of pitchers suggest wine distribution to significant establishments like Nisa's prominent slave-owning palace and temple. The mention of grape wine in the [[Raghuvamsa]] underscores the poet's geographical awareness of [[Kapisi]]'s significance along land routes during Raghu's Persian campaign. After having crossed swords with the [[Yavanas]]. Raghu ([[Chandragupta II]]) fought a battle against the Parasikas ([[Persians]]) somewhere at the valley of Kāpiśi.{{sfn|Prakash|1962|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=BqI5AQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y]337-338}} | |||
=== Battle of Sistan and the Submission of Varahran === | |||
[[File:SakastanMap.jpg|thumb|left|Map of [[Sistan]] (labelled Sakastan) in c. 100 BC.]] | |||
[[File:Southeastern part of the Sasanian Empire.jpg|thumb|right|Map of [[Sakastan (Sasanian Province)|Sakastan]] under the [[Sasanians]].]] | |||
After the ([[Persians|Persian]]) [[Sasanians]] suffered defeat in the battle of [[Sistan]], which demorilzed the [[Persians|Persian]] contingents in present day [[Afghanistan]]. As the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] Army marched northwards to [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisa Province]], Varahran was quick to grasp the political realities and offered his submission to the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] Emperor [[Chandragupta II]].{{sfn|Prakash|1962|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=BqI5AQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y]Chapter XIII and Chapter XIV}} | |||
=== Gupta cavalry's arrival by the Oxus river === | |||
[[File:ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg|thumb|left|An 8 gram gold coin featuring [[Chandragupta II]] astride a caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand. The name Cha-gu-pta appears in the upper left quadrant.<ref>*{{British-Museum-db|1910,0403.26|C_1910-0403-26}}</ref>]] | |||
[[Bactria]] was under the [[Huna people|Huna]] occupation in the last quarter of the fourth century AD.{{efn|"Taking [[Kalidasa|Kālidāsa]] to be a contemporary of [[Chandragupta II]], we can conclude that the [[Huna people|Hūṇas]] had occupied [[Bactria]] in the last quarter of the fourth century AD." {{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&vq=Oxus%23v%3Dsnippet&source=gbs_navlinks_s]240}}}} The sudden attack into the [[Oxus river|Oxus valley]] caught the [[Transoxiana]] alliance off-guard. The [[Pamir Mountains]] [[Tocharians]] were unable to combine with the [[Huna people|Hunas]] ([[Hephtalites]]). On hearing the news of the [[Gupta Empire]] advanced, the [[Hephtalites]] resorted to a tactical retreat to the north of the [[Oxus River]] into the plains of southern [[Uzbekistan]]. When the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] cavalry arrived by the [[Oxus river]] on the southern banks, they camped there. [[Kalidasa]] poetically described how the cavalry camped on the banks of the river [[Oxus|Vankshu]] in the midst of saffron fields in a verse of his [[Raghuvamsa]]: | |||
{{quote|"...His horses, that had lessened their fatigues of the road by turning from side to side on the banks of the river Vankshu ([[Oxus]]), shook their shoulders to which were clung the filaments of saffron..."}} | |||
[[File:Aral Sea watershed.png|thumb|Map showing the location of the [[Aral Sea]] and the watersheds of the [[Amu Darya]] (orange) and [[Syr Darya]] (yellow) which flow into the lake. National capitals in bold.]] | |||
Historians studied this as a description of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] cavalry camping on the banks of the [[Oxus]] during [[Chandragupta II]]'s expedition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Raghuvamsa Of Kalidasa. With The Commentary Of Mallinatha by Nandargikar, Gopal Raghunath: used/Good rebound full cloth (1982) {{!}} Prabhu Book Exports |url=https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Raghuvamsa-Kalidasa-Commentary-Mallinatha-Nandargikar-Gopal/30959799154/bd |access-date=22 March 2024 |website=www.abebooks.co.uk |language=en-GB|page=verse 66, Chapter XIII}}</ref>{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&q=Oxus&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=Oxus&f=false]166}} | |||
=== Kidara's conquest of Gandhara 356 CE and the Battle of the Oxus 399 CE === | |||
{{multiple image | |||
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| header="Kushan" coins of Kidara | |||
| total_width=230 | |||
| image1 = HUNNIC TRIBES Kidarites Kidara Circa CE 350-385.jpg | |||
| caption1 = {{Center|[[Kidara]] gold coin, circa 350–385 CE, derived from the [[Kushans]]. Vertical [[Brahmi]] legends from right to left:<br />''Kushana'' ([[File:Gupta allahabad ku.jpg|14px]] [[File:Gupta gujarat ss.svg|14px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka nn.svg|14px]] ''Ku-shā-ṇa'')<br />''Kidara'' ([[File:Gupta allahabad ki.jpg|16px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad d.svg|14px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka r.svg|14px]] ''Ki-da-ra'')<br />''Kushana'' ([[File:Gupta allahabad ku.jpg|14px]] [[File:Gupta gujarat ss.svg|14px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka nn.svg|14px]] ''Ku-shā-ṇa'')<br />Goddess [[Ardoxsho]] on the back.}} | |||
| image2 = Kushana in Brahmi script (diagonal).jpg | |||
| caption2 = {{Center|The word "Kushana" in [[Brahmi script]] ([[File:Gupta allahabad ku.jpg|14px]] [[File:Gupta gujarat ss.svg|14px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka nn.svg|14px]] ''Ku-shā-ṇa'') as it appeared on the bottom left corner of Kidarite coins circa 350 CE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tandon |first1=Pankaj |title=An Important New Copper Coin of Gadahara |journal=Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society |date=2009 |issue=200 |page=19 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2771790 |language=en}}</ref>}} | |||
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}} | |||
'''Kidara I''' (Late [[Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta allahabad ki.jpg|16px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad d.svg|14px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka r.svg|14px]] ''Ki-da-ra''; [[Floruit|fl.]] 350-390 CE) was the first major ruler of the [[Kidarite Kingdom]], which replaced the [[Indo-Sasanians]] in northwestern [[India]], in the areas of [[Kushanshahr]], [[Gandhara]], [[Kashmir]] and [[Punjab]].<ref name="HCCE 38">History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Ahmad Hasan Dani, B. A. Litvinsky, [[Unesco]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA38 p.38 sq]</ref> | |||
However, Altekar suggests that [[Chandragupta II|Candragupta II]] attacked the [[Kidarites|Kidara Kushans]]. But in the situation also prevailing it isn't insolvable that [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta]] really raided [[Balkh]] or [[Bactria]] appertained to as [[Bahlikas]] in the inscription. We already saw that [[Bactria]] was enthralled by the [[Hepthalites]] in about 350 A.D. ([[Kalidasa]] refers to the [[Hunas]] on the [[Oxus]]) and therefore had led to the eventual subjection of [[Gandhara]] by [[Kidara I|Kidara]] by 356 A.D., the contemporary (Daivaputrashātā of [[Samudragupta]]). After [[Kidara I|Kidara]], his successors were known as little [[Yuechi|Yue-chi]]. As we have seen [[Samudragupta]] was satisfied with the offer of submission of [[Kidara I|Kidara]], and he also claims to have entered the submission of Shāhānushāhī (the [[Sasanian]] emperor), substantially to consolidate his vanquishing in the country, and to have some share and control over the renowned [[Silk Road|Silk-route]].{{efn|"However, Altekar suggests that Candra Gupta attacked the Kidara Kushāṇas. But in the situation then prevailing it is not impossible that Candra Gupta really invaded Balkh or Bactria referred to as Bāhlika in the inscription. We have seen that Bactria was occupied by the Epthalites in about 350 A.D. (Kalidasa refers to the Hūņas on the Oxus) and thus had led to the eventual conquest of Gandhara by Kidāra by 356 A. D., the contemporary (Daivaputrashātā of Samudra Gupta). After Kidāra, his successors were known as little Yue-chi. As we have seen Samudra Gupta was satisfied with the offer of submission of Kidāra, and he also claims to have received the submission of Shāhānushāhī, (the Sassanian emperor), mainly to consolidate his conquests in the country, and to have some share and control over the famous Silk-route. The Hūṇas in Bactria were not a peaceful community and because a danger to both Iran and India, and they might have tried to pursue Kidāra or his successors in Gandhara, and Fa-hsien refers to Epthalite king trying to remove Buddha's bowl from Purushapur. This may indicate Hūṇa inroad in Gandhāra some time before Fa-hsien concluded his travels in India. It is held that Kidāra towards the end of the 4th century had to proceed N. W. against the Hūṇas leaving his son Piro at Peshwar. It is possible that Kidāra might have received some help from the Gupta emperor. It is therefore possible that Candra Gupta II led an expedition to Bactria through Gandhāra against the Hūṇas, and this may be referred to as his crossing of the seven rivers of Sindhu and conquering Bāhlika in the Mehrauli Pillar Inscription. This event may be placed towards the end of the 4th century A. D."{{sfn|Sinha|1974|p=[https://books.google.mu/books/about/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar.html?id=2WlDAAAAYAAJ&redir_esc=y 50–51]}}}} | |||
[[File:Chandra on the Iron Pillar of Delhi.jpg|thumb|The name "Candra" ([[File:Gupta allahabad c.svg|10px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad ndr.jpg|14px]]</sub>) on the iron pillar of Delhi, thought to represent [[Chandragupta II]]. [[Gupta script]]: letter "Ca" [[File:Gupta allahabad c.svg|12px]], followed by the [[conjunct consonant]] "ndra" formed of the vertical combination of the three letters ''n'' [[File:Gupta allahabad n.svg|14px]] ''d'' [[File:Gupta allahabad d.svg|14px]] and ''r'' [[File:Gupta ashoka r.svg|14px]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bandela |first1=Prasanna Rao |title=Coin Splendour: A Journey into the Past |date=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=9788170174271 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mUg2BBJr7kC&pg=PA11 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Allen|1914|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214/page/n166 24]}}]] | |||
The [[Hunas]] in [[Bactria]] were not a peaceful community and because they posed peril to both [[Iran]] and [[India]], and they might have tried to pursue [[Kidara I|Kidara]] or his successors in [[Gandhara]], and [[Faxian|Fa-hsien]] refers to [[Hepthalite]] king trying to remove [[Buddha]]'s coliseum from [[Peshawar|Purushapur]]. This may indicate [[Huna people|Huna]] invasion in [[Gandhara]] some time before [[Faxian|Fa-hsien]] concluded his peregrination in [[India]]. It is said that [[Kidara I|Kidara]] towards the end of the 4th century had to go northwestwards against the [[Hunas]], leaving his son Piro at [[Peshawar]]. It's possible that [[Kidara I|Kidara]] might have gained some help from the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] emperor. It is thus possible that [[Chandragupta II]] led an adventure to [[Bactria]] through [[Gandhara]] against the [[Hunas]], and this may be appertained to as his crossing of the seven rivers of [[Sindhu]] and conquering [[Bahlikas|Bahlika]] in the [[Iron pillar of Delhi|Mehrauli Pillar Inscription]]. This event may be placed towards the end of the 4th century A.D. [[Chandragupta II]]'s [[Bactria]]n expedition also led to the battle of the [[Oxus]] with his [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] cavalry against the Hunas, who were defeated and the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] emperor having planted the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] flag on the banks of the river of [[Oxus]].{{efn|"However, Altekar suggests that Candra Gupta attacked the Kidara Kushāṇas. But in the situation then prevailing it is not impossible that Candra Gupta really invaded Balkh or Bactria referred to as Bāhlika in the inscription. We have seen that Bactria was occupied by the Epthalites in about 350 A.D. (Kalidasa refers to the Hūņas on the Oxus) and thus had led to the eventual conquest of Gandhara by Kidāra by 356 A. D., the contemporary (Daivaputrashātā of Samudra Gupta). After Kidāra, his successors were known as little Yue-chi. As we have seen Samudra Gupta was satisfied with the offer of submission of Kidāra, and he also claims to have received the submission of Shāhānushāhī, (the Sassanian emperor), mainly to consolidate his conquests in the country, and to have some share and control over the famous Silk-route. The Hūṇas in Bactria were not a peaceful community and because a danger to both Iran and India, and they might have tried to pursue Kidāra or his successors in Gandhara, and Fa-hsien refers to Epthalite king trying to remove Buddha's bowl from Purushapur. This may indicate Hūṇa inroad in Gandhāra some time before Fa-hsien concluded his travels in India. It is held that Kidāra towards the end of the 4th century had to proceed N. W. against the Hūṇas leaving his son Piro at Peshwar. It is possible that Kidāra might have received some help from the Gupta emperor. It is therefore possible that Candra Gupta II led an expedition to Bactria through Gandhāra against the Hūṇas, and this may be referred to as his crossing of the seven rivers of Sindhu and conquering Bāhlika in the Mehrauli Pillar Inscription. This event may be placed towards the end of the 4th century A. D."{{sfn|Sinha|1974|p=[https://books.google.mu/books/about/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar.html?id=2WlDAAAAYAAJ&redir_esc=y 50–51]}}}}{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&vq=Oxus&source=gbs_navlinks_s]240 & 264}} | |||
[[File:Inscription on Iron Pillar, Delhi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.27|The inscription of [[Chandragupta II]]]] | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||