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{{Short description|A Hindu mercantile caste}}
{{Short description|Hindu mercantile caste}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
{{Infobox ethnic group
| image = Annamalai Chettiar.jpg
| image           = Chettinad palace.jpg
| caption = Raja 'Sir' Annamalai Chettiar, [[Raja of Chettinad]]
| caption         =  
| group = Nagarathar
| group           = Nagarathar
| poptime =  
| poptime         =  
| population      = [[Wiktionary:circa|c.]] 110,000-125,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/nagarathars-in-north-america/article5459738.ece|title=Nagarathars in North America|date=14 December 2013|work=The Hindu|first=S.|last=Muthiah}}</ref>
| population      = [[Wiktionary:circa|c.]] 75,000-1,00,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/nagarathars-in-north-america/article5459738.ece|title=Nagarathars in North America|date=14 December 2013|work=The Hindu|first=S.|last=Muthiah}}</ref>{{efn|This number is for the population of Nattukottai Nagarathars. The exact population of the other Nagarathar communities is unknown.}}
| popplace = [[India]]: [[Chettinad]] region of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Chennai]]
| popplace         = [[India]]: [[Chettinad]] region of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Chennai]]
| langs = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| langs           = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| rels = [[Hinduism]]
| rels             = [[Saivam]]
| related = [[Tamil people]], [[Dravidian people]]
| related         = [[Tamil people]]
| native_name =  
| native_name     = நகரத்தார்
| native_name_lang =  
| native_name_lang =  
}}
}}


The '''Nagarathar''' (also known as '''Nattukottai Chettiar''') is a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] caste found native in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. They are a [[mercantile]] community who are traditionally involved in [[commerce]], banking and [[Money-Lending|money lending]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Asian Trade Routes|last=Haellquist|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136100741|pages=150|language=en}}</ref>
'''Nagarathar''' (நகரத்தார்) is a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] caste found native in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. The Nagarathar community was not originally a single caste, but developed from an assortment of related sub-castes, which over time became known under the umbrella term Nagarathar.


They use the title [[Chettiar]] and are traditionally concentrated in modern region [[Chettinad]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sociolinguistics and Dialectology: Seminar Papers|last1=Agesthialingom|first1=Shanmugam|last2=Karunakaran|first2=K.|date=1980|publisher=Annamalai Univ|pages=417|language=en}}</ref> They have since the 19th century been prominent [[Entrepreneurship|entrepreneurs]] who funded and built several [[Hindu temple]]s, schools, [[college]]s and [[University|universities]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Parrys 200: A Saga of Resilience|last=Ramaswami|first=N. S.|date=1988|publisher=Affiliated East-West Press|isbn=9788185095745|pages=193|language=en}}</ref>
Notable castes that use the name Nagarathar include: [[:ta:நாட்டுக்கோட்டை நகரத்தார்|Nattukottai Nagarathar]], [[:ta:அருவியூர்_நகரத்தார்|
Aruviyur Nagarathar]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drbtheni.net/doc_pdf/subcaste.pdf|title=தமிழ்நாடு அரசு இடவொதுக்கீட்டுப் பட்டியல்|date=12 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/aruviyur-vadakku-valavu-nagarathar-kural-book-may-2025-kural-book | title=Aruviyur Vadakku Valavu Nagarathar Kural Book May 2025 Kural Book }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSj296Lm7ogC|title=[History of Aruviyur Nagarathar Part1 from 2897BC to till date]|publisher=Alangar Manickam|via=Google Books}}</ref> [[:ta:உறுதிக்கோட்டை நகரத்தார்|Uruthikottai Nagarathar]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%93%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF.jpg|title=தமிழ்: உறுதிக்கோட்டை நகரத்தார் ஓலை சுவடி|date=6 November 2019|via=Wikimedia Commons}}</ref> [[Elur Chetty]] Nagarathar, [[Vallanattu Chettiar|Vallanattu Nagarathar Chettiar]], Sundarapattina Nagarathar,<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Pattu Veshti Ramanathan|first=Chettiar|title=Analytical History of Nagarathar (நகரத்தார்களின் பகுத்தாய்ந்த வரலாறு)|publisher=Surya Print Solutions|year=2015|location=Sivakasi}}</ref> Muraiyur Nagarathar,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/book-detail?id=jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZY2kJpd&tag=%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%20%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%20%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D#book1/ | title=செட்டி நாடும் செந்தமிழும் }}</ref> Attangudi Nagarathar, Palaaiyapatti Nagarathar, Dhanavanikar Nagarathar, Nattarasankottai Nagarathar, 96 Oor Nagarathar and Naana Desikal.
 
A few subsects of the Nagarathar community, such as the Nattukottai Nagarathar,  were traditionally wealthy landlords and money lenders.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/nattukottai-chettiars-traced-to-more-than-65000-years-ago/|title=Nattukottai chettiars traced to more than 65,000 years ago|first=M. T.|last=Saju|work=The Times of India}}</ref>
Nagarathars are a [[merchant|mercantile community]] who are traditionally involved in [[commerce]], [[banking]] and [[Money-Lending|money lending]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Asian Trade Routes|last=Haellquist|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136100741|pages=150|language=en}}</ref> They use the title [[Chettiar]] and are traditionally concentrated in modern region [[Chettinad]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sociolinguistics and Dialectology: Seminar Papers|last1=Agesthialingom|first1=Shanmugam|last2=Karunakaran|first2=K.|date=1980|publisher=Annamalai Univ|pages=417|language=en}}</ref> They are prominent philanthropists who funded and built several [[Hindu temple]]s, [[Choultry|choultries]], [[school]]s, [[college]]s and [[University|universities]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Parrys 200: A Saga of Resilience|last=Ramaswami|first=N. S.|date=1988|publisher=Affiliated East-West Press|isbn=9788185095745|pages=193|language=en}}</ref>


== Etymology ==
== Etymology ==
The term ''Nagarathar'' literally means "town-dweller".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Contributions to Indian Sociology|date=2002|publisher=Mouton|volume=36|location=Contributions to Indian Sociology: Occasional Studies|pages=344|language=en}}</ref> Their title, [[Chettiar]], is a generic term used by several [[mercantile]] groups which is derived from the ancient Tamil term ''etti'' (bestowed on [[merchant]]s by the Tamil monarchs).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=West Rudner|first=David|date=1987|title=Religious Gifting and Inland Commerce in Seventeenth-Century South India|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=46|issue=2|at=p. 376|doi=10.2307/2056019|jstor=2056019|s2cid=162764761 }}</ref>
The term ''Nagarathar'' literally means "town-dweller".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Contributions to Indian Sociology|date=2002|publisher=Mouton|volume=36|location=Contributions to Indian Sociology: Occasional Studies|pages=344|language=en}}</ref>


Nagarathars are also known as ''Nattukottai Chettiar''.<ref name=":2" /> The term ''Nattukottai'' literally means "country-fort" in reference to their fort-like mansions.<ref name=":1" />
Nattukottai Nagarathars are also known as ''Nattukottai Chettiar''.<ref name=":2" /> The term ''Nattukottai'' literally means "country-fort" in reference to their fort-like [[Chettinad Mansions|mansions.]]<ref name=":1" /> Their title, [[Chettiar]], is a generic term used by several [[mercantile]] groups which is derived from the ancient Tamil term ''etti'' (bestowed on [[merchant]]s by the Tamil monarchs).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=West Rudner|first=David|date=1987|title=Religious Gifting and Inland Commerce in Seventeenth-Century South India|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=46|issue=2|at=p. 376|doi=10.2307/2056019|jstor=2056019|s2cid=162764761 }}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
Nattukottai Nagarathars were originally from [[Naga Nadu|Naganadu]]. This ancient land [[Naga Nadu|Naganadu]] is believed to be destroyed (either in an earthquake or floods) and this place was either North or North West of [[Kanchipuram]].
Nattukottai Nagarathars were originally from the ancient land of [[Naga Nadu|Naganadu]], which is believed to be destroyed (either in an earthquake or floods) and this place was either north or northwest of [[Kanchipuram]].


Nagarathars migrated and lived in the following places:
Nagarathars migrated and lived in the following places:
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·        [[Karaikudi]] ([[Pandya dynasty|Pandiya Kingdom]]) – From 707 AD onwards.
·        [[Karaikudi]] ([[Pandya dynasty|Pandiya Kingdom]]) – From 707 AD onwards.


When they were in Naganadu these Dhana Vaishyas had three different divisions:
When they were in Naganadu these Dhana [[Vaishyas]] had three different divisions:


1.   ''Aaru (Six) Vazhiyar''
1. ''Aaru (Six) Vazhiyar''


2.   ''Ezhu (Seven) Vazhiyar''
2. ''Ezhu (Seven) Vazhiyar''


3.   ''Nangu (Four) Vazhiyar''
3. ''Nangu (Four) Vazhiyar''


All these three divisions were devoted to Emerald Ganesha (மரகத விநாயகர்). Only after they migrated to the [[Pandya kingdom (Mahabharata)|Pandya_Kingdom]] they were called as Ariyurar, Ilayatrangudiyar, and Sundrapattanathar.
All these three divisions were devoted to [[Emerald|Maragatha]] [[Ganesha|Vinayagar]]. Only after they migrated to the [[Pandya kingdom (Mahabharata)|Pandya Kingdom]] they were called as Ariyurar, Ilayatrangudiyar, and Sundrapattanathar. They celebrate Pillaiyar Nonbu in honor of Vinayagar based on the communal legend that their ancestors got lost at sea at Kaveripoompatinam and prayed for 21 days before reaching a shore.<ref>{{Cite web |title=தொன்மையும், பழமையும் நிறைந்த பிள்ளையார் நோன்பு |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/devotional/devotionaltopnews/2019/01/12111723/1222487/pillayar-nonbu.vpf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130062815/https://www.maalaimalar.com/devotional/devotionaltopnews/2019/01/12111723/1222487/pillayar-nonbu.vpf |archive-date=30 January 2022 |access-date=30 January 2022 |work=[[Maalaimalar]] |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vikatan.com/spiritual/gods/144502-glory-of-pillayar-festival|title=களங்கம் போக்கும், கவலைகள் தீர்க்கும் பிள்ளையார் நோன்பு!|language=ta|work=[[Ananda Vikatan]]|date=13 December 2018 |access-date=30 January 2022|archive-date=30 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130062812/https://www.vikatan.com/spiritual/gods/144502-glory-of-pillayar-festival|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=பொருள் வரவை பெருக்கும் பிள்ளையார் நோன்பு |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/devotional/devotionaltopnews/2018/04/20140718/1158008/vinayagar-viratham.vpf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130062814/https://www.maalaimalar.com/devotional/devotionaltopnews/2018/04/20140718/1158008/vinayagar-viratham.vpf |archive-date=30 January 2022 |access-date=20 April 2018 |work=[[Maalaimalar]] |language=ta}}</ref>


Nagarathars of Ilayatrangudiyar were later called as Nattukottai Nagarathar. Ariyurar Nagarathars further split into 3 divisions: Vadakku Valavu, Therku Valavu and [[Elur Chetty]] ([[Nagercoil]]). Sundrapattanathar Nagarathars migrated to Kollam district in [[Kerala]] and their history is completely lost now since there was no record keeping.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Pattu Veshti Ramanathan|first=Chettiar|title=Analytical History of Nagarathar(நகரத்தார்களின் பகுத்தாய்ந்த வரலாறு)|publisher=Surya Print Solutions|year=2015|location=Sivakasi}}</ref>
Nagarathars of Ilayatrangudiyar were later called as Nattukottai Nagarathar. Ariyurar (Aruviyur) Nagarathars further split into 3 divisions: Vadakku Valavu (North),<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/aruviyur-vadakku-valavu-nagarathar-kural-book-may-2025-kural-book/page/n7/mode/2up | title=Aruviyur Vadakku Valavu Nagarathar Kural Book May 2025 Kural Book }}</ref> Therku Valavu (South) and [[Elur Chetty]]. Sundrapattanathar Nagarathars migrated to Kollam district in [[Kerala]] and their history is completely lost now since there was no record keeping.<ref name=":13"/>


The Nagarathar or Nattukkottai Chettiar were originally salt traders and historically an itinerant community of merchants and claim [[Chettinad]] as their traditional home.<ref name="Routledge">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-chmCgAAQBAJ&q=nattukottai+salt+traders&pg=PT143|title=A New Economic History of Colonial India|last1=Chaudhary|first1=Latika|last2=Gupta|first2=Bishnupriya|last3=Roy|first3=Tirthankar|last4=Swamy|first4=Anand V.|date=2015-08-20|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317674320|language=en}}</ref> How they reached that place, which at the time comprised adjacent parts of the ancient states of [[Pudukkottai]], [[Ramnad]] and [[Sivagangai]], is uncertain, with various communal legends being recorded. There are various claims regarding how they arrived in that area.<ref name="Price1996-13">{{cite book|author=Pamela G. Price|title=Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqKSTs4ajsAC&pg=PA13|date=14 March 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-55247-9|page=13}}</ref> Among those are a fairly recently recorded claim that they were driven there because of persecution by a [[Chola]] king{{who|date=February 2020}}. No more details are forthcoming about this story and as to why the Nagarathar left the Chola kingdom and moved away from Kaveripoompattinam to the Pandiya kingdom.
The Nattukkottai Nagarathars were originally salt traders and historically an itinerant community of merchants and claim [[Chettinad]] as their traditional home.<ref name="Routledge">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-chmCgAAQBAJ&q=nattukottai+salt+traders&pg=PT143|title=A New Economic History of Colonial India|last1=Chaudhary|first1=Latika|last2=Gupta|first2=Bishnupriya|last3=Roy|first3=Tirthankar|last4=Swamy|first4=Anand V.|date=2015-08-20|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317674320|language=en}}</ref> How they reached that place, which at the time comprised adjacent parts of the ancient states of [[Pudukkottai]], [[Ramnad]] and [[Sivagangai]], is uncertain, with various legends being recorded. There are various claims regarding how they arrived in that area.<ref name="Price1996-13">{{cite book|author=Pamela G. Price|title=Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqKSTs4ajsAC&pg=PA13|date=14 March 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-55247-9|page=13}}</ref> Among those are a claim that they were driven there because of persecution by a [[Chola]] king named Poovandhi Cholan whilst another states that they left due to Poombuhar's proximity to the sea when the city was [[Poombuhar#City's_destruction|destroyed]].<ref name="Book">{{cite book |last=Sundaram |first=So. So. Me.|date= |title=Nine Nagarathar Temples - History & Heritage |url=https://victorianagarathar.org.au/nagarathar-history/ |location= |publisher= |page= |isbn= |access-date=25 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/article25547717.ece|title=Chettinad's legacy|work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=20 November 2018 |url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241129223649/https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/article25547717.ece|archive-date=29 November 2024|access-date=24 May 2025}}</ref> There are also several legends about the decline in female population prior to moving to the Pandya kindgdom leading to many unmarried men, who were eventually allowed to marry [[Vellalar]] women.<ref name="Book"/><ref name="Arizona">{{Cite web|url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/626608/azu_etd_hr_2017_0274_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|title=Arranged Marriage in Malaysia Among Millennial Nagarathar Nattukottai Chettiars|work=[[University of Arizona]]|date=August 2017|first=Ramanathan|last=Somasundaram|access-date=24 May 2025|pages=9}}</ref> No more details are clear about this story and as to why the Nagarathar left the Chola kingdom and moved away from Kaveripoompattinam to the Pandya kingdom.


Another older one, recounted to [[Edgar Thurston]], that they were encouraged to go there by a [[Pandyan]] king who wanted to take advantage of their trading skills. The legends converge in saying that they obtained the use of nine temples, with each representing one [[exogamy|exogamous]] part of the community.<ref name="Price1996-13" />
Another older one, recounted to [[Edgar Thurston]], that they were encouraged to go there by a [[Pandyan]] king who wanted to take advantage of their trading skills. The legends converge in saying that they obtained the use of nine temples, with each representing one [[exogamy|exogamous]] part of the community.<ref name="Price1996-13" />  


The traditional base of the Nattukottai Nagarathars is the [[Chettinad]] region of the present-day state of Tamil Nadu. It comprises a triangular area around north-east [[Sivagangai]], north-west [[Ramnad]] and south [[Pudukkottai]].
The traditional base of the Nattukottai Nagarathars is the [[Chettinad]] region of the present-day state of Tamil Nadu. It comprises a triangular area around northeast [[Sivagangai]], northwest [[Ramnad]] and south [[Pudukkottai]].
[[File:Chettinad palatial house.jpg|thumb|They have a reputation for living in characteristic mansions in [[Chettinad]]. These were constructed in the 19th and late 20th centuries.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Indian & Foreign Review|date=1986|publisher=Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|pages=48|language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Chettinad palatial house.jpg|thumb|They have a reputation for living in characteristic mansions in [[Chettinad]]. These were constructed between the late 18th and the early 20th centuries.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Indian & Foreign Review|date=1986|publisher=Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|pages=48|language=en}}</ref>]]
They may have become maritime traders as far back as the 8th century CE. They were trading in salt and by the 17th century, European expansionism in South East Asia during the next century fostered conditions that enabled the community to expand its trading enterprises, including as moneylenders, thereafter.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Price1996-13" /> By the late 18th century expanded them to inland and coastal trade in cotton and rice.<ref name="Routledge"/>
They may have become maritime traders as far back as the 8th century CE. They were trading in salt and by the 17th century, European expansionism in South East Asia during the next century fostered conditions that enabled the community to expand its trading enterprises, including as moneylenders, thereafter.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Price1996-13" /> By the late 18th century expanded them to inland and coastal trade in cotton and rice.<ref name="Routledge"/>


In the 19th century, following the [[Permanent Settlement]], some in the Nagarathar community wielded considerable influence in the affairs of the [[zamindar]] (landowners) elite. There had traditionally been a relationship between royalty and the community based on the premise that providing worthy service to royalty would result in the granting of high honours but this changed as the landowners increasingly needed to borrow money from the community in order to fight legal battles designed to retain their property and powers. Nagarathars provided that money as mortgaged loans but by the middle of the century they were becoming far less tolerant of any defaults and were insisting that failure to pay as arranged would result in the mortgaged properties being forfeited.<ref name="Price1996-103-104">{{cite book|author=Pamela G. Price|title=Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqKSTs4ajsAC&pg=PA13|date=14 March 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-55247-9|pages=103–104}}</ref> By the 19th century were their business activities developed into a sophisticated banking system, with their business expanding to parts of [[Southeast Asia]]n countries such as [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]] and [[China]].{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}
In the 19th century, following the [[Permanent Settlement]], some in the Nagarathar community wielded considerable influence in the affairs of the [[zamindar]] (landowners) elite. There had traditionally been a relationship between royalty and the community based on the premise that providing worthy service to royalty would result in the granting of high honours but this changed as the landowners increasingly needed to borrow money from the community in order to fight legal battles designed to retain their property and powers. Nagarathars provided that money as mortgaged loans but by the middle of the century they were becoming far less tolerant of any defaults and were insisting that failure to pay as arranged would result in the mortgaged properties being forfeited.<ref name="Price1996-103-104">{{cite book|author=Pamela G. Price|title=Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqKSTs4ajsAC&pg=PA13|date=14 March 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-55247-9|pages=103–104}}</ref> By the 19th century were their business activities developed into a sophisticated banking system, with their business expanding to parts of South and [[Southeast Asia]]n countries such as [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Vietnam]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/in-saigon-discover-a-bit-of-india-through-the-temples-of-meriamman-and-muruga/article7561394.ece|title=A slice of Indian tradition|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=20 August 2015|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725230245/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/in-saigon-discover-a-bit-of-india-through-the-temples-of-meriamman-and-muruga/article7561394.ece|archive-date=25 July 2023|access-date=24 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="Arizona"/>
 
===Varna classification===
In the absence of a proper ''chaturvarna'' (four-fold varna) system in South India, the Nattukottai Nagarathars (also known as Chettiars) have been classified as high-class [[Vaishya]]s (merchant caste) due to their extensive involvement in trade, finance, and banking activities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chandrasekhar |first=Sripati |year=1980 |title=The Nagarathars of South India: An Essay and a Bibliography on the Nagarathars in India and South-East Asia |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |page=22}}</ref> Their economic prominence and wealth elevated their social status, and they were often considered above [[Brahmins]] in certain contexts.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bayly |first=Susan |year=1989 |title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900 |journal=Cambridge University Press |volume=1 |pages=317–318 |isbn=978-0521372015}}</ref>


===Varna Classification===
In addition to their economic prominence, the Nattukottai Nagarathars have been renowned for their philanthropic contributions to religious and social causes. They donated generously to the construction, renovation, and maintenance of numerous [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]] temples across Tamil Nadu and other regions, leaving a lasting legacy in the religious and cultural heritage of South India.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2007 |isbn=9780810864450 |location=Lanham |page=146}}: "The Chettiars donated vast sums for the construction of temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu, with their wealth leaving a religious legacy."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Raman |first=K. R. |year=2010 |title=The Temple Town Economy in South India |publisher=Routledge |location=London |page=68 |isbn=9780415544597}}: "The Nagarathars funded several iconic temples, especially in Tamil Nadu, as a mark of their religious devotion and status."</ref> This charitable tradition further elevated their social standing and cemented their role as patrons of South Indian religious institutions.


In the absence of a proper chaturvarna system in South India, Naattukottai Nagarathars were classified as high ranking [[Shudra]]s<ref>{{cite book |last=Prakash |first=Gyan |date=1956 |title=The Hindu Marriage Act, Act No. XXV of 1955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6JCAAAAIAAJ&q=chettiar+shudra|location=Allahabad |publisher=Allahabad Law Agency |page=46}}: "In the case of a Nattukottai Chettiar", who is shudra, the Madras High Court held that he could legally marry ...”</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Belle|first=Carl Vadivella|year=2017 |title= Thaipusam in Malaysia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kB1qDwAAQBAJ&q=chettiar+sudra&pg=PT126 |location=Singapore|publisher=ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute|isbn=9789814695756}}:”The Nattukottai Chettiars, generally referred to as the Chettiars (but also known as the Vanikars, Nagarathars or Chettyars)...Although the Chettiars were originally a Sudra caste, in more recent times they have made claim to be considered as Vaisyas".</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Diehl|first=Anita|date=1977|title=E. V. Ramaswami Naicker-Periyar: A Study of the Influence of a Personality in Contemporary South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CduAAAAMAAJ&q=vellalar+sudra|location=Stockholm ; Göteborg ; Lund |publisher=Esselte studium|page=16|isbn=9789124276454}}:”In Tamil Nadu the traditional caste society is in practice reduced into Brahmins and Sudras, kith a large third group classified in administrative terms as Scheduled and Backward classes.) Prominent among the Sudras are Vellalar , Chettiar and Gounder"</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=1909|volume=12|title= The Dawn and Dawn Society's Magazine|publisher=Lall Mohan Mullick |location=Calcutta|page=124|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o7Q5AQAAIAAJ&q=chettiar+sudra}}:”A Chettiar or Chetty is a high – caste Sudra ; in most cases he will be well – to – do ; very often wealthy indeed".</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chitaley |first=D. V. |date=1922|title=All India Reporter, Volume 4; Volume 9, Part 8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jXwwAQAAMAAJ&q=nagarathar+sudra |page=231}}:”The Chetties are in generally deemed to be Sudras".</ref> and sometimes as [[Vaishya]]s (Vyshya).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Nagarathars of South India: an essay and a bibliography on the Nagarathars in India and South-East Asia, Volume 1|author=Sripati Chandrasekhar|publisher=Macmillan, 1980|page=22}}</ref>
Furthermore, some Nattukottai Nagarathars ascended to kingship through their wealth and influence. Although kings are traditionally associated with the [[Kshatriya]] varna in the ''chaturvarna'' system, the Nattukottai Nagarathars' rise to power was based on their economic achievements rather than hereditary lineage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2007 |isbn=9780810864450 |location=Lanham |page=145}}</ref>


==Religious influence==
=== Community divisions or clans ===
The nine temples connected with the Nagarathar community include: [[Ilaiyattangudi|Ilayathakudi]], Iluppaikkudi, Iraniyur, Mathur, Nemam, [[Karpaka Vinayakar Temple|Pillayarpatti]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Aline Dobbie|title=India: The Elephant's Blessing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckpEd4emnCkC&q=India:+The+Elephant%27s+Blessing&pg=PA101|date=2006|publisher=Melrose Books|isbn=1-905226-85-3|page=101}}</ref> Soorakudi, [[Vairavapatti|Vairavanpatti]], and Velangudi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/article25547717.ece|title=Chettinad's legacy|date=2018-11-20|work=Frontline|access-date=2018-12-27|language=en}}</ref>
The nine Hindu temples connected with the Nattukottai Nagarathar community that were built in the 8th century include: [[Ilayathangudi]], Iluppaikudi, Iraniyur, Mathur, Nemam, [[Karpaka Vinayakar Temple|Pillayarpatti]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Aline Dobbie|title=India: The Elephant's Blessing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckpEd4emnCkC&q=India:+The+Elephant%27s+Blessing&pg=PA101|date=2006|publisher=Melrose Books|isbn=1-905226-85-3|page=101}}</ref> Soorakudi, [[Vairavapatti|Vairavan]], and Velangudi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/article25547717.ece|title=Chettinad's legacy|date=2018-11-20|work=Frontline|access-date=2018-12-27|language=en}}</ref><ref name="R">{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342412045 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526062931/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Manikandan-Manickam/publication/342412045_Historical_Studies_of_Nine_Nagara_Temples_of_Nattukkottai/links/5ef3314ea6fdcc158d261a22/Historical-Studies-of-Nine-Nagara-Temples-of-Nattukkottai.pdf | archive-date=2022-05-26}}</ref> Each temple maintains a count of the number of families associated with it called ''pulli''. Marriage between members of the same temple (''pangali'') is not allowed.<ref>{{Cite web| title=The overview of traditional life of Nagarathars – the historical study | url=https://www.ijmra.us/project%20doc/2019/IJRSS_JANUARY2019/IJMRA-14969.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725215658/https://www.ijmra.us/project%20doc/2019/IJRSS_JANUARY2019/IJMRA-14969.pdf | archive-date=2020-07-25}}</ref><ref name="Arizona"/> Ilayathangudi and Mathur temples have divisions (''pirivu''), which allows people of different divisions of the same temple to get married.<ref name="P">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pillayarpattitemple.com/about/nagarathar.php|title=Pillaiyarpatti Karpaga Vinayagar Temple, Sivagangai, Tamil nadu|website=www.pillayarpattitemple.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyMaAQAAMAAJ&q=%22pirivu%22+nagarathar | title=Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar | date=1985 | publisher=Annamalai University }}</ref> Vairavan temple also has divisions but does not follow this rule.<ref name="P"/> Members of Iraniyur and Pillayarpatti cannot intermarry since they are considered family after a pair of brothers were split between the two temples during the 13th century.<ref name="R"/>


==Cuisine==
==Cuisine==
Line 69: Line 76:
== Famous personalities ==
== Famous personalities ==


*[[Pattinathar]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar|author=Krishnaswami Nagarajan|publisher=Annamalai University, 1985|page=7}}</ref> a philosopher and ascetic who belonged to the 10th or 14th century CE.
*[[Kannagi]], a symbol (goddess) of chastity
*[[Karaikkal Ammaiyar]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Census of India, 1961, Volume 25, Part 6|author=India. Office of the Registrar General|publisher=Manager of Publications, 1969|page=136}}</ref> a [[Saivite]] saint and one of the 63 [[Nayanmars]].
*[[Iyarpagai Nayanar]], a [[Nayanars|Nayanar]] saint (third in the list of 63)
*Raja 'Sir' Annamalai Chettiar, [[Raja of Chettinad]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Current Affairs December 2015 eBook: by Jagran Josh|author=Jagran Josh|page=301|publisher=Jagran Josh}}</ref>
*[[Murthi Nayanar]], a [[Nayanars|Nayanar]] saint (fifteenth in the list of 63)
*[[P Chidambaram]], Indian politician and Member of Parliament.
*[[Pattinathar]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar|author=Krishnaswami Nagarajan|publisher=Annamalai University, 1985|page=7}}</ref> a philosopher and ascetic who belonged to the 10th or 14th century CE
*[[Alagappa Chettiar]], businessman and philanthropist.
*[[Karaikkal Ammaiyar]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Census of India, 1961, Volume 25, Part 6|author=India. Office of the Registrar General|publisher=Manager of Publications, 1969|page=136}}</ref> a [[Saivite]] saint and one of the 63 [[Nayanmars]]
*[[A. C. Muthiah]], Indian industrialist.<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy, Jawaharlal Nehru University|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield, 2017|page=98}}</ref>
*[[S. Rm. M. Annamalai Chettiar]], [[Raja of Chettinad]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Current Affairs December 2015 eBook: by Jagran Josh|author=Jagran Josh|page=301|publisher=Jagran Josh}}</ref>
*Kavingar [[Kannadasan]], Famous poet and Cinema Lyricist
*[[Alagappa Chettiar]], businessman and philanthropist
*
*[[A. Nagappa Chettiar]], an  industrialist and one of the pioneers of the Indian leather industry
*[[A. C. Muthiah]], Indian industrialist<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy, Jawaharlal Nehru University|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield, 2017|page=98}}</ref>
*[[Kannadasan]], famous poet and cinema lyricist
*[[Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar]], businessman
*[[R. M. Pitchappan]], a biologist known for his studies on [[immunogenetics]] and [[infectious diseases]].
*A.M.Murugappa Chettiar, founder of [[Murugappa Group]]
*[[A. V. Meiyappan]], founder of [[AVM Productions]] and one of the pioneers of Tamil cinema
*[[A. K. Chettiar]], a pioneer in travelogue writing in Tamil
*[[Azha Valliappa]], a great contributor to children's literature in Tamil
*[https://ta.Bharatpedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE._%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D Rama.Periyakaruppan (Thamizhannal)], one of the notable Tamil personalities of the 20th century


== See also ==
==Notes==
*[[Sri Lankan Chetties]]
{{Noteslist}}


==References==
==References==
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[[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:South Indian communities]]
[[Category:Vaishya community]]

Latest revision as of 12:35, 25 December 2025


Nagarathar
நகரத்தார்
Total population
c. 75,000-1,00,000[1][lower-alpha 1]
Regions with significant populations
India: Chettinad region of Tamil Nadu, Chennai
Languages
Tamil
Religion
Saivam
Related ethnic groups
Tamil people

Nagarathar (நகரத்தார்) is a Tamil caste found native in Tamil Nadu, India. The Nagarathar community was not originally a single caste, but developed from an assortment of related sub-castes, which over time became known under the umbrella term Nagarathar.

Notable castes that use the name Nagarathar include: Nattukottai Nagarathar, Aruviyur Nagarathar,[2][3][4] Uruthikottai Nagarathar,[5] Elur Chetty Nagarathar, Vallanattu Nagarathar Chettiar, Sundarapattina Nagarathar,[6] Muraiyur Nagarathar,[7] Attangudi Nagarathar, Palaaiyapatti Nagarathar, Dhanavanikar Nagarathar, Nattarasankottai Nagarathar, 96 Oor Nagarathar and Naana Desikal.

A few subsects of the Nagarathar community, such as the Nattukottai Nagarathar, were traditionally wealthy landlords and money lenders.[8] Nagarathars are a mercantile community who are traditionally involved in commerce, banking and money lending.[9] They use the title Chettiar and are traditionally concentrated in modern region Chettinad.[10] They are prominent philanthropists who funded and built several Hindu temples, choultries, schools, colleges and universities.[11]

Etymology[edit | edit source]

The term Nagarathar literally means "town-dweller".[12]

Nattukottai Nagarathars are also known as Nattukottai Chettiar.[13] The term Nattukottai literally means "country-fort" in reference to their fort-like mansions.[12] Their title, Chettiar, is a generic term used by several mercantile groups which is derived from the ancient Tamil term etti (bestowed on merchants by the Tamil monarchs).[14]

History[edit | edit source]

Nattukottai Nagarathars were originally from the ancient land of Naganadu, which is believed to be destroyed (either in an earthquake or floods) and this place was either north or northwest of Kanchipuram.

Nagarathars migrated and lived in the following places:

· Kanchipuram (Thondai Nadu) – From 2897 BC for about 2100 years

· Kaveripoompatinam (Poompuhar), the capital of the early (Chola Kingdom) – From 789 BC for about 1400 years.

· Karaikudi (Pandiya Kingdom) – From 707 AD onwards.

When they were in Naganadu these Dhana Vaishyas had three different divisions:

1. Aaru (Six) Vazhiyar

2. Ezhu (Seven) Vazhiyar

3. Nangu (Four) Vazhiyar

All these three divisions were devoted to Maragatha Vinayagar. Only after they migrated to the Pandya Kingdom they were called as Ariyurar, Ilayatrangudiyar, and Sundrapattanathar. They celebrate Pillaiyar Nonbu in honor of Vinayagar based on the communal legend that their ancestors got lost at sea at Kaveripoompatinam and prayed for 21 days before reaching a shore.[15][16][17]

Nagarathars of Ilayatrangudiyar were later called as Nattukottai Nagarathar. Ariyurar (Aruviyur) Nagarathars further split into 3 divisions: Vadakku Valavu (North),[18] Therku Valavu (South) and Elur Chetty. Sundrapattanathar Nagarathars migrated to Kollam district in Kerala and their history is completely lost now since there was no record keeping.[6]

The Nattukkottai Nagarathars were originally salt traders and historically an itinerant community of merchants and claim Chettinad as their traditional home.[19] How they reached that place, which at the time comprised adjacent parts of the ancient states of Pudukkottai, Ramnad and Sivagangai, is uncertain, with various legends being recorded. There are various claims regarding how they arrived in that area.[20] Among those are a claim that they were driven there because of persecution by a Chola king named Poovandhi Cholan whilst another states that they left due to Poombuhar's proximity to the sea when the city was destroyed.[21][22] There are also several legends about the decline in female population prior to moving to the Pandya kindgdom leading to many unmarried men, who were eventually allowed to marry Vellalar women.[21][23] No more details are clear about this story and as to why the Nagarathar left the Chola kingdom and moved away from Kaveripoompattinam to the Pandya kingdom.

Another older one, recounted to Edgar Thurston, that they were encouraged to go there by a Pandyan king who wanted to take advantage of their trading skills. The legends converge in saying that they obtained the use of nine temples, with each representing one exogamous part of the community.[20]

The traditional base of the Nattukottai Nagarathars is the Chettinad region of the present-day state of Tamil Nadu. It comprises a triangular area around northeast Sivagangai, northwest Ramnad and south Pudukkottai.

They have a reputation for living in characteristic mansions in Chettinad. These were constructed between the late 18th and the early 20th centuries.[13]

They may have become maritime traders as far back as the 8th century CE. They were trading in salt and by the 17th century, European expansionism in South East Asia during the next century fostered conditions that enabled the community to expand its trading enterprises, including as moneylenders, thereafter.[9][20] By the late 18th century expanded them to inland and coastal trade in cotton and rice.[19]

In the 19th century, following the Permanent Settlement, some in the Nagarathar community wielded considerable influence in the affairs of the zamindar (landowners) elite. There had traditionally been a relationship between royalty and the community based on the premise that providing worthy service to royalty would result in the granting of high honours but this changed as the landowners increasingly needed to borrow money from the community in order to fight legal battles designed to retain their property and powers. Nagarathars provided that money as mortgaged loans but by the middle of the century they were becoming far less tolerant of any defaults and were insisting that failure to pay as arranged would result in the mortgaged properties being forfeited.[24] By the 19th century were their business activities developed into a sophisticated banking system, with their business expanding to parts of South and Southeast Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Vietnam.[25][23]

Varna classification[edit | edit source]

In the absence of a proper chaturvarna (four-fold varna) system in South India, the Nattukottai Nagarathars (also known as Chettiars) have been classified as high-class Vaishyas (merchant caste) due to their extensive involvement in trade, finance, and banking activities.[26] Their economic prominence and wealth elevated their social status, and they were often considered above Brahmins in certain contexts.[27]

In addition to their economic prominence, the Nattukottai Nagarathars have been renowned for their philanthropic contributions to religious and social causes. They donated generously to the construction, renovation, and maintenance of numerous Shiva and Vishnu temples across Tamil Nadu and other regions, leaving a lasting legacy in the religious and cultural heritage of South India.[28][29] This charitable tradition further elevated their social standing and cemented their role as patrons of South Indian religious institutions.

Furthermore, some Nattukottai Nagarathars ascended to kingship through their wealth and influence. Although kings are traditionally associated with the Kshatriya varna in the chaturvarna system, the Nattukottai Nagarathars' rise to power was based on their economic achievements rather than hereditary lineage.[30]

Community divisions or clans[edit | edit source]

The nine Hindu temples connected with the Nattukottai Nagarathar community that were built in the 8th century include: Ilayathangudi, Iluppaikudi, Iraniyur, Mathur, Nemam, Pillayarpatti,[31] Soorakudi, Vairavan, and Velangudi.[32][33] Each temple maintains a count of the number of families associated with it called pulli. Marriage between members of the same temple (pangali) is not allowed.[34][23] Ilayathangudi and Mathur temples have divisions (pirivu), which allows people of different divisions of the same temple to get married.[35][36] Vairavan temple also has divisions but does not follow this rule.[35] Members of Iraniyur and Pillayarpatti cannot intermarry since they are considered family after a pair of brothers were split between the two temples during the 13th century.[33]

Cuisine[edit | edit source]

See also: Chettinad cuisine

Famous personalities[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ This number is for the population of Nattukottai Nagarathars. The exact population of the other Nagarathar communities is unknown.

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Muthiah, S. (14 December 2013). "Nagarathars in North America". The Hindu.
  2. ↑ "தமிழ்நாடு அரசு இடவொதுக்கீட்டுப் பட்டியல்" (PDF). 12 May 2025.
  3. ↑ "Aruviyur Vadakku Valavu Nagarathar Kural Book May 2025 Kural Book".
  4. ↑ "[History of Aruviyur Nagarathar Part1 from 2897BC to till date]". Alangar Manickam – via Google Books.
  5. ↑ "தமிழ்: உறுதிக்கோட்டை நகரத்தார் ஓலை சுவடி". 6 November 2019 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Pattu Veshti Ramanathan, Chettiar (2015). Analytical History of Nagarathar (நகரத்தார்களின் பகுத்தாய்ந்த வரலாறு). Sivakasi: Surya Print Solutions.
  7. ↑ "செட்டி நாடும் செந்தமிழும்".
  8. ↑ Saju, M. T. "Nattukottai chettiars traced to more than 65,000 years ago". The Times of India.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Haellquist (21 August 2013). Asian Trade Routes. Routledge. p. 150. ISBN 9781136100741.
  10. ↑ Agesthialingom, Shanmugam; Karunakaran, K. (1980). Sociolinguistics and Dialectology: Seminar Papers. Annamalai Univ. p. 417.
  11. ↑ Ramaswami, N. S. (1988). Parrys 200: A Saga of Resilience. Affiliated East-West Press. p. 193. ISBN 9788185095745.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Contributions to Indian Sociology. Vol. 36. Contributions to Indian Sociology: Occasional Studies: Mouton. 2002. p. 344.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Indian & Foreign Review. Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 1986. p. 48.
  14. ↑ West Rudner, David (1987). "Religious Gifting and Inland Commerce in Seventeenth-Century South India". The Journal of Asian Studies. 46 (2). p. 376. doi:10.2307/2056019. JSTOR 2056019. S2CID 162764761.
  15. ↑ "தொன்மையும், பழமையும் நிறைந்த பிள்ளையார் நோன்பு". Maalaimalar (in தமிழ்). Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
  16. ↑ "களங்கம் போக்கும், கவலைகள் தீர்க்கும் பிள்ளையார் நோன்பு!". Ananda Vikatan (in தமிழ்). 13 December 2018. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
  17. ↑ "பொருள் வரவை பெருக்கும் பிள்ளையார் நோன்பு". Maalaimalar (in தமிழ்). Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
  18. ↑ "Aruviyur Vadakku Valavu Nagarathar Kural Book May 2025 Kural Book".
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Chaudhary, Latika; Gupta, Bishnupriya; Roy, Tirthankar; Swamy, Anand V. (20 August 2015). A New Economic History of Colonial India. Routledge. ISBN 9781317674320.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Pamela G. Price (14 March 1996). Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-55247-9.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Sundaram, So. So. Me. Nine Nagarathar Temples - History & Heritage. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  22. ↑ "Chettinad's legacy". Frontline. 20 November 2018. Archived from the original on 29 November 2024. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Somasundaram, Ramanathan (August 2017). "Arranged Marriage in Malaysia Among Millennial Nagarathar Nattukottai Chettiars" (PDF). University of Arizona. p. 9. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
  24. ↑ Pamela G. Price (14 March 1996). Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-0-521-55247-9.
  25. ↑ "A slice of Indian tradition". The Hindu. 20 August 2015. Archived from the original on 25 July 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
  26. ↑ Chandrasekhar, Sripati (1980). The Nagarathars of South India: An Essay and a Bibliography on the Nagarathars in India and South-East Asia. New York: Macmillan. p. 22.
  27. ↑ Bayly, Susan (1989). "Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900". Cambridge University Press. 1: 317–318. ISBN 978-0521372015.
  28. ↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2007). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. p. 146. ISBN 9780810864450.: "The Chettiars donated vast sums for the construction of temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu, with their wealth leaving a religious legacy."
  29. ↑ Raman, K. R. (2010). The Temple Town Economy in South India. London: Routledge. p. 68. ISBN 9780415544597.: "The Nagarathars funded several iconic temples, especially in Tamil Nadu, as a mark of their religious devotion and status."
  30. ↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2007). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. p. 145. ISBN 9780810864450.
  31. ↑ Aline Dobbie (2006). India: The Elephant's Blessing. Melrose Books. p. 101. ISBN 1-905226-85-3.
  32. ↑ "Chettinad's legacy". Frontline. 20 November 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2018.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original on 26 May 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  34. ↑ "The overview of traditional life of Nagarathars – the historical study" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2020.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Pillaiyarpatti Karpaga Vinayagar Temple, Sivagangai, Tamil nadu". www.pillayarpattitemple.com.
  36. ↑ Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar. Annamalai University. 1985.
  37. ↑ Krishnaswami Nagarajan. Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar. Annamalai University, 1985. p. 7.
  38. ↑ India. Office of the Registrar General. Census of India, 1961, Volume 25, Part 6. Manager of Publications, 1969. p. 136.
  39. ↑ Jagran Josh. Current Affairs December 2015 eBook: by Jagran Josh. Jagran Josh. p. 301.
  40. ↑ Vijaya Ramaswamy, Jawaharlal Nehru University. Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield, 2017. p. 98.

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